VERBS
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS
+209.+ +A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action)
concerning a person, place, or thing+ (§ 14).
Most verbs express +action+. Some, however, merely express +state+ or
+condition+. Thus,--
1. We _jumped_ for joy.
Rabbits _burrow_ into the sides of hills.
2. While memory _lasts_, I can never forget you.
This mountain _belongs_ to the Appalachian range.
+A verb-phrase is a group of words that is used as a verb (§ 15).+
The leaves _are turning_.
The money _has been found_.
+210.+ Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called
auxiliary (that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to
express action or state of some particular kind (§ 16).
The auxiliary verbs are _is_ (_are_, _was_, _were_, etc.), _may_,
_can_, _must_, _might_, _shall_, _will_, _could_, _would_, _should_,
_have_, _had_, _do_, _did_.
I am writing.
We must go.
You will fall.
He has forgotten me.
We had failed.
I do see him.
The auxiliary verb may be separated from the rest of the verb-phrase by
other words.
I _have_ always _liked_ him.
I _shall_ soon _send_ for you.
Robert _was_ completely _bewildered_.
He _has_ hardly ever _spoken_ to me.
+211.+ Verbs are either +transitive+ or +intransitive+ (§ 99).
+Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which
receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive
verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.+
+A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is
called its direct object.+
In the following sentences, the first four verbs are +transitive+ (with
objects), the last five are +intransitive+ (without objects):--
Lightning _shattered_ the oak.
Clouds _darkened_ the sky.
Chemists _extract_ radium from pitchblende.
The orator _quoted_ Tennyson incorrectly.
Look where he _stands_ and _glares_!
The bankrupt _absconded_.
The orange sky of evening _died_ away.
The words _differ_ in a single letter.
+212.+ +A verb which is transitive in one of its senses may be
intransitive in another.+
TRANSITIVE (WITH OBJECT) INTRANSITIVE (WITHOUT OBJECT)
Boys _fly_ kites. Birds _fly_.
The pirates _sank_ the ship. The stone _sank_.
I _closed_ my eyes. School _closed_ yesterday.
Tom _tore_ his coat. The cloth _tore_ easily.
+213.+ +Many transitive verbs may be used absolutely,--that is, merely
to express action without any indication of the direct object.+
TRANSITIVE VERB TRANSITIVE VERB USED ABSOLUTELY
WITH OBJECT EXPRESSED
The horses _drank_ water. The horses _drank_ from the brook.
The farmer _plows_ his fields. The farmer _plows_ in the spring.
Charles is _drawing_ a picture. Charles _is drawing_.
There is a sharp contrast between a transitive verb used absolutely and
a real intransitive verb. To the former we can always add an object;
with the latter no object is possible.
+214.+ _Is_ (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be
used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate
describe or define the subject (§ 17).
Such verbs are called +copulative+ (that is, “joining”) verbs.
_Is_ in this use is often called the +copula+ (or “link”).
Time _is_ money.
Grant _was_ a tireless worker.
Macbeth _became_ a tyrant.
His swans always _prove_ geese.
The current _is_ sluggish.
Lions _are_ carnivorous.
This village _looks_ prosperous.
The consul’s brow _grew_ stern.
The queen _turned_ pale.
In the first four examples, the copulative verb (the simple
predicate[26]) is followed by a predicate nominative (§ 88, 2); in the
last five by a predicate adjective (§ 172, 3).
The copulative verbs are intransitive, since they take no object.
Sometimes, however, they are regarded as a third class distinct both
from transitive and intransitive verbs.
+215.+ The verb _is_ is not always a copula. It is sometimes emphatic
and has the sense of _exist_.
I think. Therefore I _am_. [That is, I _exist_.]
Whatever _is_, is right. [The second _is_ is the copula.]
Most of the other copulative verbs may be used in some sense in which
they cease to be copulative.
The lawyer _proved_ his case.
Walnut trees _grow_ slowly.
Mr. Watson _grows_ peaches.
The wheel _turned_ slowly on the axle.
He _turned_ his head and _looked_ at me.
INFLECTION OF VERBS
+216.+ Verbs have inflections of +tense+, +person+ and +number+, and
+mood+. They also have the distinction of +voice+, which is expressed
by the help of verb-phrases.
+Tense+ indicates time; +person+ and +number+ correspond with person
and number in substantives; +mood+ shows the manner in which the action
is expressed; +voice+ indicates whether the subject acts or is acted
upon.
TENSE OF VERBS
+217.+ +The tense of a verb indicates its time.+[27]
+Verbs have forms of tense to indicate present, past, or future time.+
1. +A verb in the present tense refers to present time.+
2. +A verb in the past tense refers to past time.[28]+
3. +A verb in the future tense refers to future time.+
+The present, the past, and the future are called simple tenses.+
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE FUTURE TENSE
He _lives_ here. He _lived_ here. He _will live_ here.
The sun _shines_. The sun _shone_. The sun _will shine_.
I _know_ him. I _knew_ him. I _shall know_ him.
FORMS OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST
+218.+ The +present+ and the +past+ tense have special forms of
inflection.
For the moment we will consider the form which the verb has when its
subject is the first personal pronoun _I_.
+In the present tense the verb has its simplest form, without any
inflectional ending.+
I _like_ it.
I _hope_ for the best.
I _dwell_ in the wilderness.
I _find_ him amusing.
+219.+ The past tense is formed in two ways, and a verb is classed as
+weak+ or +strong+ in accordance with the way in which it forms this
tense.
1. +Weak verbs form the past tense by adding _ed_, _d_, or _t_ to the
present.+
EXAMPLES: mend, mended; select, selected; fill, filled; glow, glowed;
talk, talked; revere, revered; dwell, dwelt.
2. +Strong verbs form the past tense by changing the vowel of the
present, without the addition of an ending.+
EXAMPLES: drink, drank; begin, began; come, came; rise, rose; bind,
bound; cling, clung; stick, stuck; wear, wore.[29]
Weak verbs are sometimes called +regular+, and strong verbs +irregular
verbs+.
For a list of the strong verbs see pp. 291–297.
NOTE. The terms +strong+ and +weak+ were first applied to verbs for
a somewhat fanciful reason. The strong verbs were so called because
they seemed to form the past tense out of their own resources,
without calling to their assistance any ending. The weak verbs were
so called because they could not form the past tense without the aid
of the ending _ed_, _d_, or _t_.
+220.+ The ending that is written _ed_ is fully pronounced only
when _d_ or _t_ precedes (as,--_thread_, _threaded_; _attract_,
_attracted_). Otherwise, _e_ is silent, so that the ending becomes,
in pronunciation, _d_ or _t_ (as,--_entered_, pronounced _enter’d_;
_rocked_, pronounced _rockt_).
In poetry and the solemn style, however, the silent _e_ in the ending
_ed_ is sometimes restored to its ancient rights.
+221.+ Many +weak verbs+ show special irregularities in the +past
tense+.
1. _Make_ has _made_ in the past, and _have_ has _had_.
2. Some verbs in _-nd_ and _-ld_ form their past tense by changing this
_d_ to _t_.
EXAMPLES: bend, bent; send, sent; lend, lent; rend, rent; spend,
spent; build, built.
3. A few verbs add _d_ or _t_ in the past and also change the vowel of
the present. Thus,--
sell sold
tell told
shoe shod
say said (pronounced _sed_)
hear heard (pronounced _herd_)
bring brought
buy bought
catch caught
seek sought
beseech besought
teach taught
methinks methought
_Work_ has an old past tense _wrought_, common in poetry; its usual
past is _worked_. For _must_, _would_, etc., see p. 299.
4. Some verbs that have a long vowel sound in the present have in the
past a short vowel sound before the ending _t_.
EXAMPLES: creep, crept; keep, kept; sleep, slept; sweep, swept;
weep, wept; feel, felt; deal, dealt (pronounced _delt_); mean, meant
(pronounced _ment_); lose, lost; leave, left.[30]
5. Some verbs in _d_ or _t_ preceded by a long vowel sound have a short
vowel in the past but add no ending.
EXAMPLES: bleed, bled; breed, bred; feed, fed; speed, sped; lead,
led; read (pronounced _reed_), read (pronounced _red_); meet, met;
light, lit (_also_ lighted).
6. Some verbs in _d_ or _t_ have in the past the same form as in the
present.
EXAMPLES: shed, _past_ shed; spread, _past_ spread; bet, _past_ bet;
hit, _past_ hit; set, _past_ set; put, _past_ put; shut, _past_ shut;
cut, _past_ cut; hurt, _past_ hurt; cast, _past_ cast.
NOTE. The verbs in 5 and 6 might appear to be strong verbs, since
they have no ending in the past and some of them change the vowel.
They are, however, all weak verbs. Their lack of ending is due to
the fact that the _d_ or _t_ of the termination has been absorbed in
the final _d_ or _t_ of the verb itself. Thus, the past _set_ was
originally _settë_ (dissyllabic), and this form, after the loss of
_-ë_, became indistinguishable in sound from _set_, the present.
For lists of irregular weak verbs, see pp. 291–299.
PERSON AND NUMBER--THE PERSONAL ENDINGS
+222.+ +A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.+
+Verbs, like substantives, have two numbers (singular and plural) and
three persons (first, second, and third).+
+The singular number denotes a single person or thing. The plural
number denotes more than one person or thing.+
+The first person denotes the speaker; the second person denotes the
person spoken to; the third person denotes the person or thing spoken
of.+
+223.+ The inflections of +person and number+ in verbs may be seen by
framing sentences with the personal pronouns as subjects. Thus,--
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I walk. 1. We walk.
2. Thou walk-_est_. 2. You walk.
3. He walk-_s_ [old form, walk-_eth_]. 3. They walk.
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I walked. 1. We walked.
2. Thou walked-_st_. 2. You walked.
3. He walked. 3. They walked.
From the sentences it is evident (1) that the +person+ and +number+
of a verb are usually shown by its subject only, but (2) that some
verb-forms have special +endings+ which denote person and number.
+224.+ +The endings by means of which a verb indicates person and
number are called personal endings.+
1. In the present tense a verb has two personal endings, _est_ for the
second person singular and s for the third person singular (old form
_eth_).
The first person singular and all three persons of the plural are
alike. The simplest form of the verb is used and no personal ending is
added.
2. The past tense has but one personal ending,--_est_ or _st_ in the
second person singular.[31]
The forms in _est_ or _st_ are confined to poetry and the solemn style.
In ordinary language, the second person plural is used to address a
single person.
The following table shows the +personal endings+ of the present and the
past tense:--
PERSONAL ENDINGS
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. [_no ending_] 1. }
2. -est, -st 2. } [_no ending_]
3. -s [_old_, -eth] 3. }
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. [_no ending_] 1. }
2. -est, -st 2. } [_no ending_]
3. [_no ending_] 3. }
CONJUGATION OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST
+225.+ The inflection of a verb is called its +conjugation+ (§ 53).
When we inflect a verb we are said to +conjugate+ it.
CONJUGATION OF THE WEAK VERB _WALK_
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I walk. 1. We walk.
2. Thou walkest.[32] 2. You walk.
3. He walks. 3. They walk.
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I walked. 1. We walked.
2. Thou walkedst. 2. You walked.
3. He walked. 3. They walked.
CONJUGATION OF THE STRONG VERB _FIND_
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I find. 1. We find.
2. Thou findest. 2. You find.
3. He finds. 3. They find.
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I found. 1. We found.
2. Thou foundest. 2. You found.
3. He found. 3. They found.
CONJUGATION OF THE COPULA
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I am. 1. We are.
2. Thou art. 2. You are.
3. He is. 3. They are.
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I was. 1. We were.
2. Thou wast. 2. You were.
3. He was. 3. They were.
NOTE. The English verb formerly had more personal endings. In
Chaucer, for instance, the typical inflection of the present is:--
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I walkë. 1. We walken (_or_ walkë).
2. Thou walkest. 2. Ye walken (_or_ walkë).
3. He walketh. 3. They walken (_or_ walkë).
The disappearance of all weak final _e_’s in the fifteenth century (§
191) reduced the first person singular and the whole plural to the
single form _walk_. Later, _walks_ (a dialect form) was substituted
for _walketh_, and still later the second person singular was
replaced in ordinary use by the plural. The result has been that
in modern speech there are only two common forms in the present
tense,--_walk_ and _walks_. In poetry and the solemn style, however,
_walkest_ and _walketh_ are still in use. The plural in _en_ is
frequently adopted by Spenser as an ancient form (or +archaism+):
as,--“You _deemen_ the spring is come.”
SPECIAL RULES OF NUMBER AND PERSON
+226.+ When the subject is compound (§ 38), the number of the verb is
determined by the following rules:--
1. A compound subject with _and_ usually takes a verb in the plural
number.
My brother and sister _play_ tennis.
The governor and the mayor _are_ cousins.
2. A compound subject with _or_ or _nor_ takes a verb in the singular
number if the substantives are singular.
Either my brother or my sister _is_ sure to win.
Neither the governor nor the mayor _favors_ this appointment.
3. A compound subject with _and_ expressing but a single idea sometimes
takes a verb in the singular number.
The sum and substance [= gist] of the matter _is_ this.
NOTE. This construction is rare in modern English prose. It is for
the most part confined to such idiomatic phrases as _end and aim_ (=
_purpose_), _the long and short of it_, etc. The poets, however, use
the construction freely (as in Kipling’s “The tumult and the shouting
dies”).
4. If the substantives connected by _or_ or _nor_ differ in number or
person, the verb usually agrees with the nearer.
Either you or he _is_ to blame.
Neither you nor he _is_ an Austrian.
Neither John nor we _were_ at home.
Neither the mayor nor the aldermen _favor_ this law.
But colloquial usage varies, and such expressions are avoided by
careful writers. The following sentences show how this may be done:--
Either you are to blame, or he is.
One of you two is to blame.
Neither of you is an Austrian.
He is not afraid; neither am I.
Both John and we were away from home.
+227.+ In such expressions as the following, the subject is not
compound, and the verb agrees with its singular subject:--
The _governor_ with his staff _is_ present.
_John_, as well as Mary, _is_ in London.
_Tom_, along with his friends Dick and Bob, _is taking_ a sail.
+228.+ Nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense commonly
take a verb in the singular number (§ 84).
Economics _is_ an important study.
The gallows _has been_ abolished in Massachusetts.
In some words usage varies. Thus, _pains_, in the sense of _care_
or _effort_, is sometimes regarded as a singular and sometimes as a
plural.
Great _pains has_ (or _have_) been taken about the matter.
+229.+ +Collective nouns+ take sometimes a singular and sometimes a
plural verb.
When the persons or things denoted are thought of as +individuals+, the
plural should be used. When the collection is regarded as a +unit+, the
singular should be used.[33]
1. The Senior Class _requests_ the pleasure of your company. [Here
the class is thought of +collectively+, acting as a unit.]
2. The Senior Class _are_ unable to agree upon a president. [Here the
speaker has in mind the +individuals+ of whom the class is composed.]
3. The nation _welcomes_ Prince Joseph. [The whole nation unites as a
single individual to welcome a distinguished guest.]
4. The American nation _are_ descended from every other nation on
earth. [The separate qualities of the individuals who constitute the
nation are in the speaker’s mind.]
+230.+ A _number_ in the sense of “several” or “many” regularly takes
the plural; _the number_ takes the singular.
A number of sailors _were loitering_ on the pier.
The number of tickets _is limited_.
+231.+ _Half_, _part_, _portion_, and the like, take either the
singular or the plural according to sense.
_Half_ of a circle _is_ a semicircle.
_Half_ of the passengers _were_ lost.
+232.+ A verb which has for its subject a +relative pronoun+ is in the
same person and number as the antecedent. For examples, see § 149.
Errors are especially common in such sentences as,--
This is one of the strangest sights that ever _were_ seen. [The
antecedent of _that_ is _sights_ (not _one_); hence the relative
(_that_) is plural, and accordingly the verb is plural (_were_, not
_was_).]
Mr. Winn’s oration was among the most eloquent that _have_ [NOT
_has_] been delivered in this state for many years.
This is one of the finest paintings there _are_ in the hall. [For the
omission of the relative, see § 151.]
THE FUTURE TENSE
+233.+ The +future tense+ is a verb-phrase consisting of the auxiliary
verb _shall_ or _will_ followed by the infinitive without _to_ (§ 29).
The following table shows the form of the +future+ for each of the
three persons (1) in +assertions+ and (2) in +questions+:--
FUTURE TENSE
ASSERTIONS (DECLARATIVE)
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I shall fall. 1. We shall fall.
2. Thou wilt fall. 2. You will fall.
3. He will fall. 3. They will fall.
QUESTIONS (INTERROGATIVE)
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. Shall I fall? 1. Shall we fall?
2. Shalt thou fall? 2. Shall you fall?
3. Will he fall? 3. Will they fall?
+234.+ Common errors are the use of _will_ for _shall_ (1) in the
+first person+ in +assertions+ and +questions+, and (2) in the +second
person+ in +questions+.
In the following sentences the first person of the future tense is
correctly formed:--
I shall [NOT _will_] drown. Shall [NOT _will_] I drown?
I shall [NOT _will_] fail. Shall [NOT _will_] I fail?
We shall [NOT _will_] sink. Shall [NOT _will_] we sink?
The verb-phrases with _shall_ express merely the action of the verb in
+future+ time. They do not indicate any +willingness+ or +desire+ on
the part of the subject.
Contrast the following sentences, in which _I will_ or _we will_ is
used:--
I will go with you.
I will give you what you ask.
I will not endure it.
We will allow you to enter.
We will have the truth.
Here the verb-phrases with _will_ do not (as in the previous examples
of _I shall_) express the action of the verb in future time. They
express the +present willingness+ or +desire+ or +determination+ of the
speaker to do something in the future.
Hence such verb-phrases with _will_ in the first person are not
forms of the future tense. They are special verb-phrases expressing
willingness or desire.
+235.+ +In the first person _shall_, not _will_, is the auxiliary of
the future tense in both assertions and questions. It denotes simple
futurity, without expressing willingness, desire, or determination+.
+_Will_ in the first person is used in promising, threatening,
consenting, and expressing resolution. It never denotes simple
futurity.+
I. SIMPLE FUTURITY (FUTURE TENSE)
_I shall be_ eighteen years old in July. [NOT: _will be_.]
Hurry, or _we shall miss_ our train. [NOT: _will miss_.]
_We shall be_ glad to see him. [NOT: _will be_.]
II. PROMISES, THREATS, ETC.
I _will subscribe_ to your fund. [Promise.]
We _will do_ our best. [Promise.]
I _will discharge_ you if you are late again. [Threat.]
We _will permit_ you to go. [Consent.]
I _will have_ obedience. [Resolution.]
_I’ll_ and _we’ll_ are contractions of _I will_ and _we will_ and can
never stand for _I shall_ and _we shall_.
_I’ll_ meet you at noon. [Promise.]
_I’ll_ never consent. [Resolution.]
_We’ll_ be revenged on you. [Threat.]
+236.+ When willingness is expressed by an +adjective+, _I shall_ is
correct; when by an +adverb+, _I will_. Thus,--
I _shall be glad_ to help you.
I _will gladly_ help you.
NOTE. Such expressions as _I shall be glad_, _I shall be willing_,
_I shall be charmed to do this_, express willingness not by means of
_shall_ but in the adjectives _glad_, _willing_, _charmed_. To say,
“I will be glad to do this,” then, would be wrong, for it would be
to express volition twice. Such a sentence could only mean “_I am
determined_ to be glad to do this.”
On the other hand, in “I _will gladly help_ you,” volition is
expressed by the verb-phrase _will help_ and the adverb merely
modifies the phrase by emphasizing the speaker’s willingness. Hence
_I will_ is correct.
+237.+ _Will_, when +emphasized+, always expresses determination on the
part of the subject, even in the second and third persons.
I WILL go, no matter what you say.
{You WILL | He WILL} act foolishly, in spite of my advice.
+238.+ +In the second person _Shall you?_ not _Will you?_ is the proper
form of the future tense in questions.+
+_Will you?_ always denotes willingness, consent, or determination, and
never simple futurity.+
Note that in questions in the second person, the auxiliary used is the
same as that expected in the answer.
I. FUTURE TENSE (SIMPLE FUTURITY)
_Shall_ you _be_ disappointed if he does not come? [I shall.]
_Shall_ you _regret_ his absence? [I shall.]
_Shall_ you _go_ by boat or by train? [I shall go by boat.]
II. VERB-PHRASE DENOTING WILLINGNESS, ETC.
_Will_ you _write_ often? [I will.]
_Will_ you _allow_ me to help you? [I will.]
_Will_ you _be_ so kind as to open the window? [I will.]
+239.+ _Shall_ in the +second+ and +third persons+ is not the sign of
the +future+ tense in declarative sentences.
It is used in +commanding+, +promising+, +threatening+, and expressing
+resolution+, the volition being that of the speaker.
Thou _shalt_ not _kill_. [Command.]
You _shall have_ the hat before Monday. [Promise.]
You _shall pay_ for this insult! [Threat.]
She _shall_ not _regret_ her generosity. [Resolution.]
In prophetic language, _shall_ is common in the second and third
persons, even when there is no idea of commanding or the like.
The sun _shall be turned_ into darkness and the moon into
blood.--_Joel_ ii. 31.
+240.+ In military orders and official communications, custom permits
the more courteous _will_ in the place of _shall_ in the second and
third persons.
You _will_ immediately report for orders.
Heads of Departments _will submit_ their estimates before January
first.
For _shall_ and _will_ in subordinate clauses, see pp. 130–132.
+241.+ Future time may also be expressed by the present tense, or by
_about_ or _going_ with the infinitive (§ 319).
We _sail_ for Havana on Tuesday.
They are _about to begin_ the study of Greek.
COMPLETE OR COMPOUND TENSES
+242.+ +Completed action+ is denoted by special +verb-phrases+ made
by prefixing to the +past participle+ some form of the auxiliary verb
_have_.
These are called the +complete+ or +compound tenses+.
There are three +complete+ or +compound+ tenses,--the +perfect+ (or
+present perfect+), the +pluperfect+ (or +past perfect+), and the
+future perfect+.
1. +The perfect (or present perfect) tense denotes that the action of
the verb is complete at the time of speaking. It is formed by prefixing
_have_ (_hast_, _has_) to the past participle.+
I _have learned_ my lesson.
He _has convinced_ me.
NOTE. With several verbs of motion the auxiliary _be_ is sometimes
used instead of _have_: as,--“My friends _are gone_” (or “_have
gone_”); “Your time _is come_” (or “_has come_”).
2. +The pluperfect (or past perfect) tense denotes that the action was
completed at some point in past time. It is formed by prefixing _had_
(_hadst_) to the past participle.+
Before night fell, I _had finished_ the book.
When Blake _had spoken_, Allen rose to reply.
3. +The future perfect tense denotes that the action will be completed
at some point in future time. It is formed by prefixing the future
tense of _have_ (_shall have_, etc.) to the past participle.+
Before I hear from you again, I _shall have landed_ at Naples.
The future perfect tense is rare except in very formal writing.
+243.+ The forms of the past participle will be studied in § 334.
Meanwhile, the following practical rule will serve every purpose:--
+The past participle is that verb-form which is used after _I have_.+
EXAMPLES: [I have] mended, tried, swept, bought, broken, forgotten,
found, sunk, dug.
+244.+ A verb-phrase made by prefixing _having_ to the past participle
is called the +perfect participle+.
_Having reached_ my destination, I stopped.
A verb-phrase made by prefixing _to have_ to the past participle is
called the +perfect infinitive+.
I am sorry _to have missed_ you.
+245.+ Three forms of the verb are so important that they are called
the +principal parts+. These are:--
(1) the first person singular of the present;
(2) the first person singular of the past;
(3) the past participle.
PRESENT PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
(I) walk (I) walked walked
(I) think (I) thought thought
(I) see (I) saw seen
(I) come (I) came come
(I) make (I) made made
VOICE--ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
+246.+ +Voice is that property of verbs which indicates whether the
subject acts or is acted upon.+
There are two voices, active and passive.
1. +A verb is in the active voice when it represents the subject as the
doer of an act.+
Richard _shot_ the bear.
Mr. Hardy _builds_ carriages.
Dr. Wilson _has cured_ my father.
2. +A verb is in the passive voice when it represents the subject as
the receiver or the product of an action.+
The bear was _shot by_ Richard.
Carriages _are built_ by Mr. Hardy.
My father _has been cured_ by Dr. Wilson.
+247.+ +The passive voice of a verb is expressed by a verb-phrase
made by prefixing some form of the copula (is, was, etc.) to the past
participle.+
In the passive voice of the +complete tenses+, the past participle
_been_ follows the proper form of the auxiliary _have_ (as in the third
example in § 246, 2).
The passive of the +infinitive+ is made by prefixing _to be_ (perfect,
_to have been_) to the past participle. Thus,--
PRESENT INFINITIVE PASSIVE: to be struck.
PERFECT INFINITIVE PASSIVE: to have been struck.
+248.+ The following table gives the +conjugation+ of the verb _strike_
in the active and passive of the six tenses:--
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR
1. I strike. 1. I am struck.
2. Thou strikest. 2. Thou art struck.
3. He strikes. 3. He is struck.
PLURAL
1. We strike. 1. We are struck.
2. You strike. 2. You are struck.
3. They strike. 3. They are struck.
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR
1. I struck. 1. I was struck.
2. Thou struckest. 2. Thou wast (_or_ wert) struck.
3. He struck. 3. He was struck.
PLURAL
1. We struck. 1. We were struck.
2. You struck. 2. You were struck.
3. They struck. 3. They were struck.
FUTURE TENSE
SINGULAR
1. I shall strike. 1. I shall be struck.
2. Thou wilt strike. 2. Thou wilt be struck.
3. He will strike. 3. He will be struck.
PLURAL
1. We shall strike. 1. We shall be struck.
2. You will strike. 2. You will be struck.
3. They will strike. 3. They will be struck.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
SINGULAR
1. I have struck. 1. I have been struck.
2. Thou hast struck. 2. Thou hast been struck.
3. He has struck. 3. He has been struck.
PLURAL
1. We have struck. 1. We have been struck.
2. You have struck. 2. You have been struck.
3. They have struck. 3. They have been struck.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
SINGULAR
1. I had struck. 1. I had been struck.
2. Thou hadst struck. 2. Thou hadst been struck.
3. He had struck. 3. He had been struck.
PLURAL
1. We had struck. 1. We had been struck.
2. You had struck. 2. You had been struck.
3. They had struck. 3. They had been struck.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
SINGULAR
1. I shall have struck. 1. I shall have been struck.
2. Thou wilt have struck. 2. Thou wilt have been struck.
3. He will have struck. 3. He will have been struck.
PLURAL
1. We shall have struck. 1. We shall have been struck.
2. You will have struck. 2. You will have been struck.
3. They will have struck. 3. They will have been struck.
USE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE
+249.+ Any sentence of which the predicate is a transitive verb
followed by an object, may be changed from the active to the passive
form without affecting the sense.
ACTIVE. Richard _shot_ the bear.
PASSIVE. The bear _was shot_ by Richard.
In this change, (1) _bear_, the object of the active verb _shot_,
becomes the subject of the passive verb _was shot_; and (2) _Richard_,
the subject of the active verb _shot_, becomes _by Richard_, an
adverbial phrase, modifying the passive verb _was shot_. Thus we have
the rule:--
+The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and
the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial
phrase modifying the predicate verb.+
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
My cat caught a bird. A bird was caught by my cat.
Austin thanked Charles. Charles was thanked by Austin.
The bullet penetrated a tree. A tree was penetrated by the bullet.
Sargent painted that portrait. That portrait was painted by Sargent.
The fireman had saved the child. The child had been saved
by the fireman.
+250.+ +Intransitive verbs+ are ordinarily used in the active voice
only.
The bystanders _laughed_.
The watchdogs _bark_.
Snow is _falling_.
+251.+ An intransitive verb followed by a preposition is often used in
the passive, the object of the preposition becoming the subject of the
verb.
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
Everybody _laughed_ at him. He _was laughed at_ by everybody.
The attorney general _has_ This bill _has_ not yet
not yet _passed upon_ this bill. _been passed upon_.
He _has tampered with_ this lock. This lock _has been tampered with_.
The cart _ran over_ me. I _was run over_ by the cart.
Other examples are: talk about (= discuss), look or inquire into (=
investigate), look upon (= regard), jeer at (= deride), reason with,
object to, insist upon, act upon.
NOTE. In this idiom, the preposition is treated like an +ending+
attached to the verb to make it transitive. In other words, _laugh
at_, _pass upon_, etc., are treated as compound verbs, and the object
of the preposition is, in effect, the object of the compound. In
the passive, this object becomes the subject and the preposition
(now lacking an object) remains attached to the verb. The passive
construction is well established, but not always graceful.
+252.+ The passive of some verbs of _choosing_, _calling_, _naming_,
_making_, and _thinking_ may be followed by a +predicate nominative+ (§
88, 2).
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(PREDICATE OBJECTIVE) (PREDICATE NOMINATIVE)
We elected John _president_. John was elected _president_.
The Roman people called The chief was called
the chief _friend_. _friend_ by the Roman people.
The herald proclaimed him _emperor_. He was proclaimed _emperor_
by the herald.
NOTE. In the active voice, these verbs may take two objects referring
to the same person or thing,--a +direct object+ and a +predicate
objective+ (§ 104). In the passive, the direct object becomes the
subject, and the predicate objective becomes a predicate nominative,
agreeing with the subject (§ 88, 2).
OBJECT OF THE PASSIVE
+253.+ When a verb takes both a +direct+ and an +indirect object+, one
of the two is often retained after the passive, the other becoming the
subject. Thus,--
1. The +indirect object+ is retained.
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
My aunt gave _me_ this watch. This watch was given _me_
by my aunt.
We allowed _them_ free choice. Free choice was allowed _them_.
He allowed each _speaker_ an hour. An hour was allowed
each _speaker_.
Congress granted _me_ a pension. A pension was granted _me_.
NOTE. The preposition _to_ is often inserted in the passive
construction, especially with a noun; as,--“A small pension was
granted _to Dr. Johnson_.”
2. The +direct object+ is retained.
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
We allowed them their _choice_. They were allowed their _choice_.
He allowed each speaker an _hour_. Each speaker was allowed
an _hour_.
They showed me the _way_. I was shown the _way_.
Experience has taught me _wisdom_. I have been taught _wisdom_
by experience.
The direct object after a passive verb is often called the +retained
object+.
NOTE. This construction, though common, is avoided by many careful
writers, except in a few well-established idioms. Its habitual use
gives one’s style a heavy and awkward air. Instead of “He was given
permission,” one may say “He received permission”; instead of “I was
given this watch by my aunt,” either “It was my aunt who gave me this
watch” or “This watch was a present from my aunt.”
+254.+ The verb _ask_, which may take two direct objects,--one denoting
the person, the other the thing,--sometimes retains its second object
in the passive construction (§ 103).
ACTIVE. We asked _him_ his _opinion_.
PASSIVE. He was asked his _opinion_.
PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES
+255.+ In addition to the tense-forms already described, verbs have
so-called +progressive forms+.
+The progressive form of a tense represents the action of the verb as
going on or continuing at the time referred to.+
I _ate_ my dinner.
I _was eating_ my dinner.
While I _was_ quietly _reading_ by my fireside, strange things _were
taking_ place in the square.
Both _ate_ and _was eating_ are in the past tense. But _ate_ merely
expresses a past action, whereas _was eating_ describes this action as
+continuing+ or +in progress+ in past time.
+256.+ +The progressive form is a verb-phrase made by prefixing to the
present participle some form of the verb _to be_.+
PROGRESSIVE FORM
ACTIVE VOICE PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I am striking. 1. We are striking.
2. Thou art striking. 2. You are striking.
3. He is striking. 3. They are striking.
So in the other tenses:
PAST I was striking, etc.
FUTURE I shall be striking, etc.
PERFECT I have been striking, etc.
PLUPERFECT I had been striking, etc.
FUTURE PERFECT I shall have been striking, etc.
PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT I am being struck, etc.
PAST I was being struck, etc.
+257.+ In the passive, the progressive forms are confined to the
present and the past tense.
He _is being helped_ by his brother. [Present.]
I _am being trained_ by Arthur Ray. [Present.]
When I called, tea _was being served_. [Past.]
+258.+ In subordinate clauses, the verb _is_ (in its various forms)
with its subject is often omitted in progressive phrases.
While _waiting_ for the train, I bought a newspaper. [That is, While
I was waiting.]
Though [he was] _swimming_ vigorously, he could not stem the tide.
When [I am] _reading_, I like to have the light shine over my left
shoulder.
In parsing, the omitted words should be supplied.
+259.+ For such progressive forms as _is building_ for _is being
built_, see § 352.
EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES
+260.+ +The present or the past of a verb in the active voice may be
expressed with emphasis by means of a verb-phrase consisting of _do_ or
_did_ and the infinitive without _to_.+
+Such a phrase is called the emphatic form of the present or past
tense.+
“I do see you” and “I did go” differ from “I see you” and “I went”
merely in emphasis. Hence _do see_ is called the +emphatic form+ of
the present tense of _see_, and _did go_ the emphatic form of the
past tense of _go_.
+261.+ In questions and in negative statements the emphatic forms are
used without the effect of emphasis.
Did you go? I did not go.
NOTE. _Do_ often stands for some other verb which has just been used:
as, “Jack _swims_ better than I _do_,” “You _looked_ as tired as she
_did_.” This idiom comes from the omission of the infinitive in the
verb-phrase:--“Jack swims better than I _do_ [_swim_].”
In poetry and older English the verb-phrase with _do_ or _did_ in
declarative sentences often carries no emphasis, but merely takes the
place of the present or past: as,--“The serpent beguiled me, and I
_did eat_.”
MOOD OF VERBS
+262.+ +Mood is that property of verbs which shows the manner in which
the action or state is expressed.+
+Mood+ (or +mode+) is derived from the Latin word _modus_, “manner.”
Compare the following sentences, noting the form of the verb in each:
Richard _is_ quiet.
_Is_ Richard quiet?
If Richard _were_ quiet, I might study.
Richard, _be_ quiet.
In the first and second sentences, the form _is_ is used to assert
or question a +fact+; in the third, the form _were_ expresses a
+condition+ or +supposition+ that is contrary to fact; in the fourth,
the form _be_ expresses a +command+ or +request+.
The difference in form seen in the verb in these sentences is called a
difference of +mood+.
+263.+ +There are three moods,--the indicative, the imperative, and the
subjunctive.+
1. +The indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation,
but it is used in other constructions also.+
2. +The imperative is the mood of command or request.+
3. +The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of
wish, condition, and the like.+
Thus, in the examples in § 262, _is_ is in the +indicative+, _were_ in
the +subjunctive+, and _be_ in the +imperative+ mood.
I. INDICATIVE MOOD
+264.+ The ordinary +forms+ of the +indicative mood+ in the active
and the passive voice and in all six tenses,--present, past, future,
perfect (or present perfect), pluperfect (or past perfect), and future
perfect,--may be seen in the table on pp. 108–110.
For the +progressive form+ of the indicative, see § 256; for the
+emphatic form+, see § 260.
+265.+ The commonest +uses+ of the +indicative mood+ are in statements
or questions as to matters of fact; but it may express almost any other
form of thought. Thus,
Time and tide _wait_ for no man. [Assertion.]
How _goes_ the world with you? [Interrogation.]
How it _rains_! [Exclamation.]
If the river _rises_, the dam will be swept away. [Supposition.]
I suspect that he _has absconded_. [Doubt.]
I hope that John _will come_ soon. [Desire.]
Though Ellen _dislikes_ algebra, she never shirks. [Concession.]
You _will report_ for duty immediately. [Command.]
_Will_ you _allow_ me to use your knife? [Request.]
NOTE. The indicative and the subjunctive were originally quite
distinct in form, and each had its own set of constructions. But,
as our language has grown simpler in its structure, the forms of
these two moods have become almost identical, and the uses of the
indicative have been greatly multiplied at the expense of the
subjunctive. Indeed, there is scarcely any variety of thought
expressed by the subjunctive or the imperative for which the
indicative cannot also be employed. It is therefore impossible to
frame any satisfactory definition of the indicative. Its functions
are too varied to be included in one general statement. The
indicative is often described as the mood which asserts thought _as
a fact_, and the subjunctive as the mood which expresses thought as
supposition (or _as mere thought_). But the indicative, as well as
the subjunctive, may express supposition, condition, doubt, desire,
concession, etc. Hence the definitions in § 263 are as exact as the
facts of the language allow. All the efforts of grammarians to devise
more “accurate” definitions break down when tested by actual usage.
II. IMPERATIVE MOOD
+266.+ +The imperative is the mood of command or request.+
_Hurry!_
_Lie_ down.
_Shut_ the door.
_Have_ patience.
_Light_ the lamp.
_Show_ us the way.
_Wait_ a moment.
_Come_ to dinner.
The imperative has both voices, +active+ and +passive+, but only one
tense,--the +present+. It has both numbers, the +singular+ and the
+plural+, but only one person, the +second+. It has the same form for
both the +singular+ and the +plural+.
+267.+ 1. +The imperative active is the verb in its simplest form.+
For examples, see § 266.
The imperative of the verb _to be_ is _be_. Thus,--
_Be_ brave.
_Be_ careful.
_Be_ sure you are right.
_Be_ here at noon.
2. +The imperative passive is a verb-phrase consisting of be and a past
participle.+
_Be trusted_ rather than feared.
Study your failures and _be instructed_ by them.
+268.+ +The subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is
emphatic.+
The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative: as,--_You sit
here_.
NOTE. In older English, the subject often followed the imperative:
as,--_Go thou, Go you, Hear ye._ This use is now confined to the
solemn style and to poetry.
+269.+ The +emphatic form+ of the imperative consists of the imperative
_do_, followed by the infinitive without _to_.
_Do tell_ me what he said.
_Do stand_ still.
The form with _do_ is often used when the subject is expressed as,--_Do
you remain_.
+270.+ +Prohibition+ (or +negative command+) is commonly expressed by
means of the form with _do_.
_Do_ not _open_ a closed door without knocking.
_Do_ not _forget_ to say “thank you.”
In poetry and the solemn style prohibition is often expressed by the
simple imperative with _not_.
_Tell_ me _not_ what too well I know.
_Devise not_ evil against thy neighbor.
_Seek not_ to learn my name.
+271.+ Commands are sometimes expressed in the indicative by means of
_shall_ or _will_ (§§ 239–240).
Thou _shalt_ not _steal_.
You _will leave_ the room immediately.
For such expressions as “Forward!” “Off with you!” and the like, see
§ 530.
For the imperative in +conditions+, see § 418.
III: SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE
+272.+ +The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions
of wish, condition, and the like.+
In older English, the +subjunctive+ forms were common in a variety of
uses, as they still are in poetry and the solemn style. In ordinary
prose, however, subjunctive forms are rare, and in conversation they
are hardly ever heard, except in the case of the +copula+ _be_.
The subjunctive forms of _be_ are the following:--
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. If I be. 1. If we be.
2. If thou be. 2. If you be.
3. If he be. 3. If they be.
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. If I were. 1. If we were.
2. If thou wert. 2. If you were.
3. If he were. 3. If they were.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. If I have been. 1. If we have been.
2. If thou have been. 2. If you have been.
3. If he have been. 3. If they have been.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. If I had been. 1. If we had been.
2. If thou hadst been. 2. If you had been.
3. If he had been. 3. If they had been.
_If_ is used in the paradigm because it is in clauses beginning with
_if_ that the subjunctive is commonest in modern English; but _if_ is
of course no part of the subjunctive inflection.
+273.+ In other verbs, the +subjunctive active+ has the same forms as
the +indicative+, except in the +second+ and +third persons singular+
of the +present+ and the +perfect+, which are like the +first+ person:--
PRESENT PERFECT
1. If I strike. 1. If I have struck.
2. If thou strike. 2. If thou have struck.
3. If he strike. 3. If he have struck.
In the +passive subjunctive+, the subjunctive forms of the copula (§
272) are used as auxiliaries:--present, _If I be struck_; past, _If I
were struck_; perfect, _If I have been struck_; pluperfect, _If I had
been struck_. (See table, p. 304.)
+274.+ +Progressive verb-phrases+ in the subjunctive may be formed by
means of the copula:--present, _If I be striking_; past, _If I were
striking_. The present is rare; the past is common.
USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE
Subjunctive in Wishes and Exhortations
+275.+ +The subjunctive is often used in wishes or prayers.+
Angels and ministers of grace _defend_ us!
Heaven _help_ him!
The saints _preserve_ us!
God _bless_ you!
Long _live_ the king!
O that _I had listened_ to him!
O that we _were_ rid of him!
In the first five examples, the wish is expressed in an independent
sentence. In the last two, the construction is subordinate,--the
_that_-clause being the object of an unexpressed “I wish” (§ 407).
+276.+ The subjunctive _be_ is often omitted when it may easily be
supplied.
Peace [_be_] to his ashes!
Honor [_be_] to his memory!
Honor [_be_] to whom honor is due!
+277.+ Wishes are often introduced by _may_ or _would_.
_May_ you never want!
_Would_ that he _were_ safe!
_Would_ you _were_ with us! [For _Would that_.]
_May_ and _would_ in such expressions were originally subjunctives;
_would_ stands for _I would_, that is, _I should wish_. _Want_ in
the first example is an infinitive without _to_ (§ 311). For wishes
expressed by the infinitive, see § 320.
+278.+ +Exhortations+ in the first person plural sometimes take the
subjunctive in elevated or poetical style.
_Hear we_ the king!
_Join we_ in a hymn of praise!
Exhortation is ordinarily expressed by _let us_ followed by the
infinitive without _to_.
Let us join hands.
Let us have peace.
Let’s camp here.
_Let_ is a verb in the imperative mood, _us_ is its object, and the
infinitive (_join_, _have_, _camp_) depends on _let_.
Subjunctives in Concessions, Conditions, etc.
+279.+ +The subjunctive is used after _though_, _although_, to express
an admission or concession not as a fact but as a supposition.+
Though he _slay_ me, yet will I trust in him.
Though he _were_ to beg this on his knees, I should still refuse.
When the concession is stated as an admitted +fact+, the +indicative+
is regular.
Although he _is_ a foreigner, he speaks good English.
Though he sometimes _sings_, he is not now in good voice.
+280.+ After _if_ and _unless_, expressing +condition+, the
+subjunctive+ may be used in a variety of ways.
1. If this _be_ gold, our fortune is made. [It may or may not be
gold.]
2. If he _confess_, I shall overlook the offence. [He may or may not
confess.]
3. Unless he _confess_, he cannot be convicted. [He may or may not
confess.]
4. If this _were_ gold, our fortune would be made. [It is _not_ gold;
hence our fortune is not made.]
5. If he _stood_ before me at this moment, I should tell him my
opinion. [He does _not_ stand before me; hence I do not tell him.]
6. If he _had confessed_, I should have overlooked his fault. [He did
not confess; hence I did not overlook it.]
7. Unless he _had confessed_, he could not have been convicted. [He
did confess; hence he was convicted.]
In conditional clauses, the +present subjunctive+ denotes either
+present+ or +future+ time. It puts the supposed case doubtfully, but
not necessarily as improbable. (See examples 1–3.)
The +past subjunctive+ refers to +present+ time. It implies that the
supposed case +is not now a fact+. (See examples 4 and 5.)
The +pluperfect+ (or +past perfect+) +subjunctive+ refers to +past+
time. It implies that the supposed case +was not a fact+. (See 6 and 7.)
For details of conditional sentences, see pp. 167–172.
+281.+ +Concession+ or +condition+ may be expressed by the
+subjunctive+ without _though_ or _if_, the verb preceding the subject,
which is sometimes omitted.
I. CONCESSION
_Try_ as we may, we cannot swim to that rock.
_Say_ what he will, he can never convince me.
_Come_ what will, I’ll stand my ground.
_Be_ that as it may, my mind is made up.
II. CONDITION
_Were_ I asked, I could tell all the facts. [If I were asked, etc.]
_Had_ I known, I would have written to you. [If I had known, etc.]
I shall be twenty years old, _come_ Tuesday. [If Tuesday come, etc.]
I will go, _rain_ or _shine_. [If it rain, or if it shine, etc.]
_Be_ he prince or _be_ he pauper, every guest is welcome here.
NOTE. The subjunctive in these concessive and conditional uses is
really the same as that in exhortations (§ 278). “_Try_ [_we_] as
we may” means literally, “_Let us try_ as hard as we can,” and this
has the force of “However hard we try” or “_Although we try_ ever so
hard.”
+282.+ After _as if_ (_as though_), the +past subjunctive+ is used.
He looks as if he _were_ about to speak. [NOT: as if he _was_ about
to speak.]
I act as if I _were_ crazy. [NOT: as if I _was_ crazy.]
+283.+ The +subjunctive+ may express not what +is+ or +was+, but what
+would be+ or +would have been+, the case.
It _were_ safer to travel by day. [It would be safer, etc.]
I _had been_ wiser had I forded the river. [I should have been wiser
if I had.]
This construction is old-fashioned. Modern English commonly uses
_should_ (or _would_) _be_, _should_ (or _would_) _have been_,
instead.
+284.+ The +subjunctive+ is occasionally used after _that_, _lest_,
_before_, _until_, etc., in subordinate clauses referring to the future
and commonly expressing +purpose+ or +expectation+.
Take heed that he _escape_ not. [Purpose.]
Give him food lest he _perish_. [Purpose.]
Let us tarry until he _come_. [Expectation.]
This construction is confined to poetry and the solemn or formal style.
In ordinary language the indicative or a verb-phrase with _may_ is used.
Take heed that he _does_ not _escape_.
Give him food in order that he _may_ not _perish_.
Let us wait till he _comes_.
+285.+ The +past subjunctive+ _had_ is common in _had rather_ and
similar phrases.
I _had rather_ wait a day.
You _had better_ leave the room.
He _had as lief_ go as stay.
NOTE. _Had_ in this construction is sometimes condemned as erroneous
or inelegant; but the idiom is well-established.
_Might better_, _would better_, and _would rather_ may be used
instead of _had better_, etc.; but _would better_ is improper in the
first person.
+286.+ The subjunctive forms are often replaced by verb-phrases
containing the auxiliaries _may_, _might_, _could_, _would_, _should_.
1. In wishes (§ 277).
_May_ you _live_ long and _prosper_!
_May_ he never _repent_ this act!
Ah, _could_ I but _live_ a hundred years!
2. In concessions and conditions (§§ 279–280).
Though {I | you | he} _should fail_, there would still be hope.
If {I | you | he} _should fail_, all would be lost.
3. In sentences expressing not what +is+ or +was+, but what +would be+
or +would have been+, the case (§ 283).
{I _should_ | You _would_ | He _would_} _write_ to Charles if I knew
his address.
It _would have been_ better to telegraph.
4. In subordinate clauses introduced by _that_, _lest_, _before_,
_until_, etc. (§ 284).
I will take care that nothing _may prevent_.
I took care that nothing {_might_ | _should_} _prevent_.
The general determined to wait until fresh troops _should arrive_.
POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES
USE OF MODAL AUXILIARIES
+287.+ +Several auxiliary verbs are used to form verb-phrases
indicating ability, possibility, obligation, or necessity.+
Such verb-phrases are called +potential phrases+, that is, “phrases of
possibility.”
The auxiliary verbs used in +potential phrases+ are:--_may_, _can_,
_must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and _should_. They are called +modal
auxiliaries+ and are followed by the infinitive without _to_.
We _may ask_ him a few questions.
I _can manage_ a motor car.
You _must inquire_ the way.
He _might give_ you a chance.
I _could show_ you his house if you _would permit_ me.
I _should enjoy_ a sea-voyage.
NOTE. The fact that _give_, etc., in such phrases as _can give_, are
infinitives may be seen by comparing “I can _strike_” with “I am able
_to strike_,” “I may _strike_” with “I am permitted _to strike_,” “I
must _strike_” with “I am obliged _to strike_,” and so on. In earlier
periods of the language, when the infinitive had a special ending
(_-an_ or _-en_), the nature of the construction was unmistakable.
+288.+ +Potential phrases+ may be arranged in tables of conjugation,
like that on pp. 108–110. They are often called, collectively, the
+potential mood+.
ACTIVE VOICE
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I may strike.[34] 1. We may strike.
2. Thou mayst strike. 2. You may strike.
3. He may strike. 3. They may strike.
PAST TENSE
1. I might strike.[35] 1. We might strike.
2. Thou mightst strike. 2. You might strike.
3. He might strike. 3. They might strike.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. I may have struck.[36] 1. We may have struck.
2. Thou mayst have struck. 2. You may have struck.
3. He may have struck. 3. They may have struck.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. I might have struck.[37] 1. We might have struck.
2. Thou mightst have struck. 2. You might have struck.
3. He might have struck. 3. They might have struck.
PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT TENSE
I may be struck, etc. We may be struck, etc.
PAST TENSE
I might be struck, etc. We might be struck, etc.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
I may have been struck, etc. We may have been struck, etc.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
I might have been struck, etc. We might have been struck, etc.
+289.+ _Can_ (past tense, _could_) regularly indicates that the subject
+is able+ to do something.
John _can_ ride a bicycle.
Harry _could_ swim.
+290.+ _May_ (past tense, _might_) indicates (1) +permission+, (2)
+possibility+ or +doubtful intention+, (3) a +wish+.
(1) You _may_ borrow my pencil. I told him that he _might_ join our
party.
(2) He _may_ accept my offer. You _might_ not like it.
(3) _May_ good fortune attend you!
+291.+ In asking permission, the proper form is “_May_ I?” not “_Can_
I?” With negatives, however, _can_ is more common than _may_, except in
questions. Thus,--
QUESTION. _May_ I (or _mayn’t_ I) play ball this morning?
ANSWER. No, you _cannot_; but you _may_ play this afternoon.
+292.+ _Must_ expresses +necessity+ or +obligation+.
We _must_ all die sometime.
You _must_ wait for the train.
You _must_ not be discouraged by failure.
NOTE. _Must_, though originally a past tense, is in modern English
almost always used as a present. Past necessity may be expressed by
_had to_ with the infinitive: as,--“I _had to wait_ for the train.”
+293.+ _Ought_ with the +present infinitive+, expresses a present duty
or moral obligation; with the +perfect infinitive+, a past duty or
obligation. _Should_ is often used in the same sense.
I _ought to write_ that letter. [Present.]
You _ought_ not _to object_. [Present.]
This roof _ought to be mended_. [Present.]
I _ought to have known_ better. [Past.]
Your dog _ought_ not _to have been unleashed_. [Past.]
You _should be_ careful. [Present.]
The garden _should have been weeded_ yesterday. [Past.]
NOTE. _Ought_ is really an old past tense of the verb _owe_, but
is now +always+ a present. Its former meaning may be seen in Dame
Quickly’s “You _ought_ him a thousand pound” (SHAKSPERE, _1 Henry
IV_, iii. 3. 152).
_Had_ should never be prefixed to _ought_.
CORRECT INCORRECT
You _ought_ to stay at home. You had ought to stay at home.
We _ought_n’t to make so much noise. We hadn’t ought to make
so much noise.
John ought to begin, _ought_n’t he? John ought to begin, hadn’t he?
+294.+ _Should_ and _ought_ sometimes express what would certainly be
expected in the case supposed.
Three weeks {_should_ | _ought to_} suffice.
If the train is on time, he {_should_ | _ought to_} arrive at six.
+295.+ _Would_ in all three persons sometimes indicates +habitual
action+ in the past.
_I would_ gaze at the sea for hours at a time.
Whenever we asked Edward about his adventures, _he would begin_ to
talk of something else.
SPECIAL RULES FOR _SHOULD_ AND _WOULD_
+296.+ _Should_ is the past tense of _shall_, and _would_ is the past
tense of _will_. Hence the rules for _should_ and _would_ are similar
to those for _shall_ and _will_ (§§ 233–239). But there is much
variation, especially in subordinate clauses.
I. IN SIMPLE SENTENCES AND INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
+297.+ Except in certain kinds of subordinate clauses, the distinction
between _should_ and _would_ is practically the same as that between
_shall_ and _will_.
When the auxiliary verb expresses +futurity+ without any idea of
+wishing+, +consenting+, or the like, the forms are as follows:--
ASSERTIONS (DECLARATIVE)
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I should fall. 1. We should fall.
2. Thou wouldst fall. 2. You would fall.
3. He would fall. 3. They would fall.
QUESTIONS (INTERROGATIVE)
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. Should I fall? 1. Should we fall?
2. Shouldst thou fall? 2. Should you fall?
3. Would he fall? 3. Would they fall?
+298.+ Common errors are the use of _I would_ for _I should_ in
assertions, and that of _Would I?_ and _Would you?_ for _Should I?_ and
_Should you?_ in questions.
The correct forms are shown in the following sentences.
I. _I should_ (_we should_) and _I would_ (_we would_) in
+assertions+:--
1. _I should_ break my neck if I fell.
2. _I should_ hesitate to try this experiment.
3. _I should_n’t wonder if he escaped.
4. _We should_ regret any misunderstanding.
5. _I should_ wish to examine the plans again before deciding.
6. _I should_ be glad to accept any fair offer.
7. _I would_ give five dollars for a ticket.
8. _I would_ help you if I could.
9. _I would_ never agree to such a proposition.
10. _We would_ rather die than surrender.
11. _We would_ pay our bill to-day if we had the money.
12. _I would_ gladly accept any fair offer.
In the first six examples, _I_ (or _we_) _should_ is correct, because
the auxiliary gives no suggestion of the speaker’s will (or volition).
In the last six, on the contrary, the speaker’s willingness or desire
is plainly expressed by the auxiliary, and _I_ (or _we_) _would_ is
therefore used.
NOTE. In such sentences as the fifth,--“I should wish to examine the
plans again before deciding,”--_wish_ expresses volition. Hence “I
_would_ wish” is incorrect, for it expresses volition twice and can
mean only “I desire to wish.” On the same principle we say “I should
prefer,” “I should be glad,” etc. (see § 236).
Sometimes either _I would_ or _I should_ may be used, but with a
difference in meaning. Thus, in the eighth example, “I should help
you” might be substituted for “I would help you.” This change,
however, makes the remark sound less cordial and sympathetic; for _I
should_ (unlike _I would_) gives no hint of the speaker’s desire to
be of service.
II. _Should I_ (or _we_)? in +questions+:--
1. _Should I_ break my neck if I fell?
2. _Should I_ be poisoned if I ate those berries?
3. _Should I_ take cold without my overcoat?
4. _Should I_ disturb you if I were to practise my music lesson?
5. _Should we_ run aground if we missed the channel?
NOTE. _Would I?_ is confined, for the most part, to questions in
which one repeats the words or thought of another. Thus,--“_You
would_ give five dollars for a ticket.” “_Would I?_ No, I wouldn’t!”
In this use it is chiefly colloquial.
III. _Should you?_ and _Would you?_ in questions:--
1. _Should you_ drown if the boat were to capsize? [Yes, _I should_
drown, for I do not know how to swim.]
2. _Should you_ despair if this plan were a failure? [No, _I should_
not, for I have other resources.]
3. _Should you_ think that ten yards of velvet would be enough? [Yes,
_I should_ think so.]
4. _Should you_ be offended if I were to speak frankly? [No, _I
should_ not be offended.]
5. _Should you_ wish to examine the plans again before deciding?
[Yes, _I should_ (see note under I, above).]
6. _Would you_ wear a hat or a cap? [_I would_ wear a cap if I were
you.]
7. _Would you_ study Greek if you were in my place? [Yes, _I would_.]
8. _Would you_ accept my apology if it were offered? [Certainly, _I
would_ accept it gladly.]
9. _Would you_ be so kind as to lend me your compasses? [Certainly _I
would_ lend them, if I had not lost them.]
10. _Would you_ allow me to use your name as a reference? [_I would._]
The choice between _should_ and _would_ in these sentences corresponds
to the form expected in the answer (§ 238).
+299.+ The chief occasions on which _Would you?_ is correct are:--(1)
in +asking advice+ in a matter of doubt, and (2) in +asking consent+ or
+permission+.
In examples 6 and 7 in § 298, III, the speaker asks advice; in 8, 9,
and 10, he asks consent or permission.
+300.+ Note that the proper forms are _I should like_, _Should I like?_
and _Should you like?_
_I should_ like to read that book.
_Should I_ like to go to Rome? Indeed, _I should_.
_Should you_ like to receive a copy of our catalogue? [_I should_
like to receive one.]
NOTE. _Would_ is very common in these phrases, even among writers of
repute, but it is still contrary to the best usage. The reason for
_should_ is the same as in _I should wish_ (§ 298, I, note).
+301.+ _I’d_ and _we’d_ are contractions of _I would_ and _we would_.
Hence they can never stand for _I should_ and _we should_ (§ 235).
+302.+ _Should_ in the +second+ and +third persons+ may be used in
simple declarative sentences and independent clauses to express the
will of the speaker (§ 239).
If I had my way, _you should_ be prosecuted. [That is: I would take
care that you were prosecuted.]
If I had the money, _you should_ be paid immediately. [Compare: _You
shall_ be paid.]
If I were you, _she should_ not regret her generosity. [Compare: _She
shall_ not regret it.]
II. _SHOULD_ AND _WOULD_ IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
+303.+ In some kinds of +subordinate clauses+, the use of _should_
and _would_ differs considerably from that in simple sentences and
principal clauses.
The following classes require attention:--(1) clauses of purpose or
expectation (§ 304), (2) conditional and concessive clauses (§ 305),
(3) clauses expressing volition not that of the subject (§ 306), (4)
clauses stating something as an idea (§ 307), (5) indirect discourse (§
308).
+304.+ In subordinate clauses expressing the +purpose+ or +expectation+
with which anything is done, _shall_ and _should_ are used in all three
persons.
Charleton took great pains that {_I_ | _you_ | _they_} _should_
understand the details of the treaty.
Scott {_is_ | _was_} very careful that _nothing_ {_shall_ | _should_}
interfere with his plans.
They took every precaution lest {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _should_ suspect
the plot.
Anderson waited patiently until {_I_ | _you_ | _they_} _should_
arrive with the horses.
We strained every nerve to reach the cave before the _storm should_
break.
+305.+ In +conditional+ or +concessive+ clauses expressing a +future
supposed case+ doubtfully, _shall_ and _should_ are used in +all three
persons+; but _will_ and _would_ are proper when the subject is thought
of as +wishing+ or +consenting+.
1. What would happen if {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _should_ not carry out
the commander’s instructions?
2. If {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _should_ miss the steamer, our friends
would be alarmed.
3. _Whoever_ {_shall_ | _should_} violate this law {shall | should}
pay the penalty. [That is: If anybody shall violate, etc.]
4. Whenever {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _shall_ find an opportunity, let us
try the experiment. [That is: If ever I shall find, etc.]
5. He promised to assist you whenever _you should_ need help.
[Whenever = if ever.]
6. Though {_we_ | _you_ | _they_} _should_ fail, others would make
the attempt. [Concession.]
7. Though _Evans should_ disappoint me, I should not lose confidence
in him.
8. Vernon will do his part if {_I_ | _you_ | _they_} _will_ coöperate
with him.
9. If {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _will_ only make the effort, success is
certain.
10. Edmund would reveal the secret if {_I_ | _you_ | _they_} _would_
assist him in his search for the treasure.
11. If _we would_ take pains, our parents would be satisfied.
12. _Whoever will_ join us may be sure of a pleasant and profitable
journey. [That is: If any one will join us, he may be sure, etc.]
When a +future supposed case+ is admitted or conceded as +certain+,
_will_ may be used in the second and third persons to denote mere
futurity.
Though {_you_ | _he_} _will_ certainly fail, {you | he} may make the
attempt.
Though the _ship will_ not sink for some hours, let us take to the
boats.
+306.+ _Shall_ and _should_ are often used in the second and third
persons in subordinate clauses to express volition which is not that of
the subject.
Templeton insists that _you shall_ accompany him.
This letter directs where _you shall_ station yourself.
We gave orders that the _gates should_ be closed.
My wish is that {_you_ | _he_} _should_ remain at home.
The law prescribed when and to whom the _tax should_ be paid.
+307.+ When a clause with _that_ states something, not as a +fact+ but
as an +idea+ to be considered, _should_ is the proper auxiliary in all
three persons.
I am not surprised that you _should_ find your lesson rather
difficult. [That is: “When I consider the matter, I do not find the
idea surprising.” In “I am not surprised _that you find_,” etc., the
subordinate clause makes the statement +as a fact+.]
It is strange that Tom _should_ neglect his swimming lessons.
[Contrast: It is strange that Tom _neglects_.]
That Napoleon _should_ have chafed at captivity is only natural.
[Contrast: That Napoleon _chafed_.]
+308.+ For _shall_ and _will_, _should_ and _would_, in +indirect
discourse+, see §§ 438–439.
THE INFINITIVE
+309.+ The +infinitive+ is a +verb-form+ that has some of the
properties of a +noun+ (§ 28). Its two-sided character comes out
clearly when it is used as the subject of a sentence.
1. _To hope_ is our only resource.
2. _To flatter_ is not my custom.
3. _To sleep_ was an impossibility.
4. _To surrender_ seemed disgraceful.
5. _To choose_ wisely was my greatest difficulty.
6. _To scale_ the wall was the work of a moment.
Each of these infinitives (_to hope_, _to flatter_, etc.) is a +noun+,
for each is the simple subject of a sentence. Besides, an ordinary
noun may be substituted for each infinitive with no change in meaning;
as,--“_Hope_ is our only resource”; “_Flattery_ is not my custom”;
“_Sleep_ was an impossibility.”
But each of these infinitives is also a +verb+,--for (1) it expresses
action; (2) it may be modified by an adverb, as in No. 5; (3) it takes
an object if it is transitive, as in No. 6.
An infinitive (as the examples show) has regularly no subject and
therefore lacks both number and person. Hence it is not bound by the
general rule for the agreement of a verb with its subject (§ 222). From
this fact it derives its name, +infinitive+, which means “unrestricted”
or “free from limitations.”[38]
+310.+ +The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of
a noun. It expresses action or state in the simplest possible way,
without person or number.+
+It is commonly preceded by the preposition _to_, which is called the
sign of the infinitive.+
_To_ is not, in strictness, a part of the infinitive, but it may be so
regarded for convenience, since the infinitive, in most of its uses, is
preceded by _to_.
NOTE. _To_ sometimes stands for an infinitive in careless speech:
as,--“You may go if you wish _to_” (that is, “if you wish _to go_”).
Such expressions are to be avoided. It is better to say, “You may go
if you wish.”
+311.+ The infinitive often lacks _to_, especially in verb-phrases
with the auxiliaries _will_, _shall_, _may_, _can_, _must_, _might_,
_could_, _would_, _should_, _do_, _did_. For examples, see pp. 102,
114, 124.
+312.+ The infinitive has two tenses,--the +present+ and the +perfect+.
1. The +present infinitive+ is the verb in its simplest form, usually
preceded by _to_: as,--_to live_, _to teach_, _to bind_, _to strike_.
2. The +perfect infinitive+ is made by prefixing the infinitive of the
auxiliary verb _have_ to the past participle (§ 243): as,--_to have
lived_, _to have taught_, _to have bound_, _to have struck_.
+313.+ An infinitive may be modified by an +adverb+, an +adverbial
phrase+, or an +adverbial clause+.
To write _legibly_ is a valuable accomplishment.
It would be useless to search _longer_.
They allowed him to go _in peace_. [Adverbial phrase.]
To dive _among those weeds_ would be folly.
Theodore promises to come _when I send for him_. [Adverbial clause.]
+No modifier should be inserted between _to_ and the infinitive.+
I beg you to inquire carefully into this matter. [NOT: to carefully
inquire.]
Mr. Harris moved to postpone the question indefinitely. [NOT: to
indefinitely postpone.]
I expect always to be poor. [NOT: to always be poor.]
NOTE. Careless writers pay slight attention to this rule, and some
good writers and speakers defy it, hoping to break it down. But it is
unquestionably still in accord with the best usage.
+314.+ +The infinitive may take an object if its meaning allows.+
I long to visit _Italy_.
My mother feared to enter the _house_.
To launch a _boat_ was impossible.
To grant your _request_ is a pleasure.
To give _him money_ is useless. [_Money_ is the direct object of _to
give_, and _him_ the indirect object.]
+315.+ The infinitive is used in a variety of constructions,--(1) as a
+noun+, (2) as an +adjective modifier+ or +adverbial modifier+, (3) in
the so-called +infinitive clause+.
I. THE INFINITIVE AS NOUN
+316.+ The infinitive is used in various +noun constructions+,--as
subject, as predicate nominative, as nominative of exclamation, as
appositive, as object of certain prepositions, as modifier.
+317.+ +An infinitive with or without a complement or modifiers, may be
used as the subject of a sentence, as a predicate nominative, or as an
appositive.+
_To descend_ was extremely difficult. [Subject.]
_To secure_ a seat was impossible.
_To sing_ well requires practice.
His delight was _to travel_. [Predicate nominative.]
The governor’s policy is _to wait_.
My wish is _to see_ you immediately.
_To decide_ was _to act_. [The first infinitive is the subject, and
the second is a predicate nominative.]
Both alternatives, _to advance_ and _to retreat_, seemed equally
hazardous. [Apposition with the subject.]
My first plan, _to tunnel_ under the wall, proved a failure.
He has but one aim in life, _to succeed_. [Apposition with the
object.]
I have written with a definite purpose, _to dissuade_ you.
I give you three choices,--_to buy_, _to lease_, or _to build_.
+318.+ An infinitive in the predicate is often in apposition with the
expletive subject _it_.
It was a pleasure _to see_ him. [Instead of: To see him was a
pleasure.]
It is easy _to understand_ you.
It will be impossible _to forget_.
It proved very difficult _to find_ evidence against him.
In this use the infinitive, though grammatically in apposition with
_it_, is really the subject of the thought (see § 120, 2).
+319.+ The infinitive may be used as the +object+ of the prepositions
_but_, _except_, _about_.
There was nothing to do but _walk_ (or _to walk_).
He will do anything except _resign_ (or except _to resign_).
We are about _to object_. [An idiom expressing futurity.]
The train is about _to start_.
NOTE. _Can but_ and _cannot but_ are distinct idioms. (1) In “I _can
but_ thank you,” _but_ is an adverb (= _only_). The sentence means:
“I can _only_ thank you--simply that and nothing more!” (2) In “I
_cannot but_ thank you,” _but_ is a preposition (= _except_). The
idiom is shortened from “I cannot _choose but_ thank you,”--that is,
“I have _no choice except_ to do so,” or, in other words, “I cannot
help it.”
The infinitive after _for_ (now a gross error) was once in good use:
as,--
What sweeter music can we bring
Than a carol _for to sing_.--HERRICK.
+320.+ The infinitive may be used as a +nominative of exclamation+ (§
88, 4).
_To sleep!_ perchance _to dream_!
_To suffer_ and _be_ silent!
O _to be_ a boy again! [A wish.]
O _to have lived_ in the brave days of old!
II. THE INFINITIVE AS A MODIFIER
+321.+ +An infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or
as an adverbial modifier of an adjective.+
+In this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it
modifies.+
WITH NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVES
(ADJECTIVE MODIFIER) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIER)
An opportunity _to advance_ The men are _ready to advance_.
came.
Determination _to win_ John is eager _to win_.
brings success.
Willingness _to oblige_ I shall be glad _to oblige_ you.
makes friends.
I wish I had the ability We are all able _to swim_.
_to swim_.
His anxiety _to please_ us He is anxious _to please_ everybody.
was laughable.
NOTE. This use is due to the fact that the infinitive with _to_ is
really a prepositional phrase (§ 42). Thus, “determination _to win_”
is equivalent to “determination for victory,” and “eager _to win_” to
“eager _for victory_.” The adjective force of the infinitive comes
out clearly in “nothing _to eat_,” where _to eat_ is practically
synonymous with _eatable_.
In its adjective use, the present infinitive sometimes shows no
distinction in voice, so that the active and the passive are
interchangeable: as,--“a house _to let_” or “_to be let_”; “an axe
_to grind_” or “_to be ground_.” In such expressions the active form
is usually preferable.
+322.+ The infinitive without _to_ may be used as an adjective modifier
after the direct object of _see_, _hear_, _feel_, and some other verbs
of like meaning.
I saw the policeman _arrest_ him.
Hear the sea _roar_!
Can you feel the ground _tremble_?
Ruth watched the tide _come_ in.
In this use the infinitive is practically equivalent to a participle.
Compare “I heard him _shout_” with “I heard him _shouting_.” Hence
the substantive may be regarded as an object, and the infinitive as
its modifier. But the construction closely approaches that of an
infinitive clause (§§ 324–325).
+323.+ +An infinitive may modify a verb (1) by completing its meaning,
or (2) by expressing the purpose of the action.+
I. COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE
The ship began _to roll_.
The rain continued _to fall_ heavily.
Every boy desires _to succeed_.
The officer neglected _to watch_ his men.
The prisoners attempted _to escape_.
You promised _to come_ to-night.
After _dare_, the complementary infinitive may or may not have _to_.
Thus,--“I dare not _do_ it”; “Who will dare _to speak_?”
II. INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE
He went to New York _to study_ medicine.
He opened his lips _to speak_.
She closed her eyes _to shut_ out the sight.
Elsa lifted the cover _to see_ what was inside.
The conductor signalled _to stop_ the train.
Harold waited _to assist_ his teacher.
Both the +complementary infinitive+ and the +infinitive of purpose+ may
be regarded as +adverbial phrases+ modifying the verb.
NOTE. After some verbs the infinitive approaches the construction
of a pure noun and is often regarded as an object. Thus,--“I desire
_to see_ you” (compare “I desire a _sight_ of you”). It is simpler,
however, to regard all such infinitives as complementary and to treat
them as adverbial modifiers. For it is impossible to distinguish the
construction of the infinitive after certain adjectives (as in “I am
eager _to see_ you”) from its construction after such verbs as _wish_
and _desire_.
III. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE
+324.+ A peculiar infinitive construction often replaces a
_that_-clause as the object of a verb. Thus,--
I wished {_that he should go_. | _him to go_.}
In the first sentence, the noun clause _that he should go_ is the
object of _wished_; in the second, this clause is replaced by _him to
go_, but without any change in meaning. This expression consists of
two parts:--(1) _him_, a pronoun in the objective case, which replaces
the subject _he_; and (2) an infinitive _to go_, which replaces the
predicate _should go_. Thus it is plain that _him to go_ is also a noun
clause, of which _him_ is the subject, and _to go_ the predicate. Such
an expression is called an +infinitive clause+.
+325.+ +A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective
case followed by an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain
verbs.+
+Such clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is
said to be the subject of the infinitive.+
+The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.+
+Infinitive clauses+ are used (1) after verbs of _wishing_,
_commanding_, _advising_, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of
_believing_, _declaring_, and _perceiving_.[39] Thus,--
The colonel commanded _them to charge_ [= that they should charge].
I believe _him to be trustworthy_ [= that he is trustworthy].
The judge declared _him to be a dangerous man_ [= that he was, etc.].
After a few verbs the infinitive without _to_ is used in infinitive
clauses.
Mr. Esmond bade his servant _pack_ a portmanteau and _get_ horses.
[Compare: ordered his servant _to pack_, etc.]
What makes him _cry_? [Compare: What causes him _to cry_?]
I let him _sleep_. [Compare: I allowed him _to sleep_.]
NOTE. Ordinarily the infinitive cannot assert and hence has no
subject (§ 309). The infinitive clause is, therefore, a peculiar
exception, for _him to go_ makes an assertion as clearly as _that
he should go_ does. That _him_ is really the subject of _to go_ and
not the object of _wished_ is manifest, for _I wished him_ makes no
sense. The object of _wished_ is the whole clause (_him to go_).
Originally, to be sure, the noun or pronoun in the objective was
felt to be the object of the main verb, and this relation may still
be felt in “I ordered him to go”; but even here the real object of
_ordered_ is the clause (as may be seen in “I ordered the castle to
be blown up”). The substantive has come to be the real subject of the
infinitive, and should be so treated in parsing.
+326.+ A +predicate pronoun+ after _to be_ in an infinitive clause is
in the +objective case+, agreeing with the subject of the infinitive.
Care should be taken not to confuse this construction with the
+predicate nominative+ (§ 88, 2).
PREDICATE PRONOUN AFTER _TO BE_ PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
I believed it to be _her_. I believed that it was _she_.
We know the author to be _him_. We know that the author is _he_.
The author is known to be _he_.
He thought Richard to be _me_. He thought that Richard was _I_.
Richard was thought to be _I_.
We suspected the intruders We suspected that the intruders
to be _them_. were _they_.
Note the case of the +relatives+ and of the +predicate pronouns+ in the
following sentences:--
A boy _whom_ I thought to be honest deceived me. [_Whom_ is the
subject of the infinitive _to be_ and is therefore in the objective
case.]
A boy _who_, I thought, was honest deceived me. [_Who_ is the subject
of _was_ and is therefore nominative. _I thought_ is parenthetical (§
502).]
A boy _whom_ I believe to be _him_ just passed me.
A boy _who_, I believe, was _he_, just passed me.
+327.+ An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition _for_.
Thus,--
I wrote for _him to come_. [The clause _him to come_ is the object of
_for_; _him_ is the subject of _to come_.]
They are waiting on the shore
For _the bark to take them home_.--NOEL.
I long for _him to come back_.
+328.+ An infinitive clause with _for_ may be used as a subject, as a
predicate nominative, or as the object of a preposition.
_For us to delay_ would be fatal to your enterprise. [Compare: _Our
delay_ would be fatal.]
Our best plan is _for the boat to shoot the rapids_. [Predicate
nominative agreeing with the subject _plan_.]
I see no way out of the difficulty except _for them to offer an
apology_. [Compare: except the _offer_ of an apology on their part.]
PARTICIPLES
+329.+ Certain words unite in themselves some of the properties of
+adjectives+ with some of the properties of +verbs+. Such words are
called +participles+ (§ 31). Thus,--
_Shattered_ and _sinking_, but gallantly _returning_ the enemy’s
fire, the frigate drifted out to sea.
_Shattered_, _sinking_, and _returning_ are verb-forms which are in
some respects similar to infinitives: for (1) they express action; (2)
they have no subject to agree with, and hence have neither person nor
number; and (3) one of them takes a direct object. They differ from
infinitives, however, in that they resemble, not nouns, but adjectives,
for they describe the substantive _frigate_ to which they belong.
Such verb-forms are called +participles+, because they share (or
participate in) the nature of adjectives.
+330.+ +The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in
such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.+
Who _thundering_ comes on blackest steed?--BYRON.
_Clinging_ to the horns of the altar, voiceless she stood.--DE
QUINCEY.
_Deserted_, _surrounded_, _outnumbered_, and with everything at
stake, he did not even deign to stand on the defensive.--MACAULAY.
_Shrouded_ in such baleful vapors, the genius of Burns was never seen
in clear azure splendor, _enlightening_ the world.--CARLYLE.
FORMS OF PARTICIPLES
+331.+ Verbs have three participles,--the +present+, the +past+, and
the +perfect+.
+332.+ The +present participle+ ends in _-ing_. It usually describes an
action as taking place at the same time with some other action.
Tom came _sauntering_ up the path.
The beggar shambled down the steps, _grumbling_.
_Reaching_ for the flower, I lost my balance.
+333.+ The present participle often refers to time preceding that
denoted by the predicate verb.
_Rising_ from his chair, he bowed. [That is, when he had risen.]
_Learning_ that your brother was in trouble, I hastened to his aid.
+334.+ +The past participle is always associated with the idea of past
time or completed action.+
1. +The past participle of a weak verb has the same form as the past
tense.+[40]
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
I _mend_ chairs. I _mended_ the chairs. The chairs are _mended_.
I _sweep_ the rooms. I _swept_ the rooms. The rooms are _swept_.
I _seek_ treasure. I _sought_ treasure. Treasure is _sought_.
I _lose_ money. I _lost_ money. The money is _lost_.
2. +The past participle of strong verbs shows a change from the vowel
of the present tense.+
+All strong verbs had originally the ending _en_ (_n_) in the past
participle, but this ending has been lost in many verbs.+
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
He _speaks_. He _spoke_. (He has) _spoken_.
He _draws_. He _drew_. (He has) _drawn_.
He _sings_. He _sang_. (He has) _sung_.
He _wins_. He _won_. (He has) _won_.
The forms show great variety and must be learned by practice. (See pp.
291–297 for a list.)
+335.+ The +perfect participle+ is made by prefixing _having_ to the
past participle.
_Having mended_ the watch, I sent it to the owner.
_Having lost_ his money, James was forced to walk home.
+336.+ The present participle is used in forming the progressive
verb-phrases (§§ 255–259).
The past participle is used in forming the complete tenses (§§ 242–244)
and the passive voice (§ 247).
CONSTRUCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES
+337.+ Since the participle has adjective properties, its constructions
are in the main like those of adjectives.
+338.+ +A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it
describes or limits.+
Rupert, _missing_ his companion, stepped to the door. [The present
participle _missing_ belongs to the subject _Rupert_.]
_Rising_, she opened the window. [_Rising_ belongs to _she_.]
I heard the rain _falling_. [_Falling_ belongs to the object _rain_.]
Tom’s arm, _broken_ by the blow, hung useless. [The past participle
_broken_ belongs to the subject _arm_.]
_Having climbed_ the hill with great difficulty, I stopped to rest.
[The perfect participle _having climbed_ belongs to the subject _I_.]
+339.+ +A participle should not be used without some substantive to
which it may belong.+
RIGHT: _Entering_ the room, we saw a strange sight. [The participle
_entering_ belongs to the pronoun _we_.]
WRONG: _Entering_ the room, a strange sight was seen. [Since
there is no substantive to which _entering_ can belong, it has no
construction.]
Apparent exceptions are _concerning_, _considering_, _pending_,
_generally speaking_, etc. The first three may be classed as
prepositions (§ 355), the last as an independent participle.
We fought every day, and, _generally speaking_, twice every day.--DE
QUINCEY.
NOTE. The rule in § 339 does not apply to such phrases as _on
entering_, _after investigating_, etc., in which the words in _-ing_
are not participles, but verbal nouns (§ 348). Thus the following
sentences are grammatical:--“_On entering_ the room, a strange sight
appeared”; “_After investigating_ the subject, the plan was adopted.”
Such expressions, however, should be used with caution, since they
are sometimes awkward or ambiguous.
+340.+ +A participle may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase,
or an adverbial clause.+
Smiling _brightly_, she extended her hand. [Adverb.]
He leaped forward, shrieking _with all his might_. [Adverbial phrase.]
Laughing _until he cried_, he sank into a chair. [Adverbial clause.]
+341.+ +A participle may take an object if its meaning allows.+
I found the old man mending his _net_.
Lifting the _box_, he moved toward the door.
Giving _me_ a friendly _nod_, he passed on. [Here _nod_ is the direct
object of _giving_, and _me_ is the indirect object.]
The participle, with its modifiers and such other words as are
attached to it, is sometimes called a +participial phrase+.
+342.+ A participle may be used as a pure adjective.
A _grinning_ boy confronted me.
A _battered_ hat hung on the peg.
Kate was playing with a _broken_ doll.
We could hear a _rushing_ stream.
_Willing_ hands make light work.
He was struck by a _spent_ ball.
+343.+ The past participle is often used as a +predicate adjective+
expressing state or condition.
This construction is easily confused with the passive of verbs. The
distinction may be seen in the following examples:--
The rain began to fall heavily, and every time a gust of wind struck
us we _were drenched_ by it.
When the rain at last ceased, we were _drenched_ [that is, _very
wet_].
In the first sentence, _were drenched_ is the past passive of the
verb _drench_ (compare the active “every time a gust of wind struck
us, it _drenched_ us”). In the second, the participle _drenched_
expresses mere condition, and is therefore a predicate adjective. The
distinction, however, is not always sharp, and in cases of doubt the
phrase may be taken together as a passive verb.
NOTE. The real test is the following. Whenever a person or thing is
distinctly present to the mind as the doer of the action, we have
a passive verb-phrase. Whenever, on the other hand, the participle
merely describes condition with no thought of its being the result of
an antecedent act, the construction is that of a predicate adjective
(§ 172, 3).
NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE
+344.+ A substantive, with the participle belonging to it, is often
used to make a peculiar form of adverbial modifying phrase: as,--
_The wind failing_, we lowered the sail.
Here _the wind failing_ is equivalent to an adverbial phrase (_on the
failure of the wind_) or an adverbial clause (_when the wind failed_).
It defines the time of the action.
{_The wind failing_, | _On the failure of the wind_, | _When the wind
failed_,} we lowered the sail.
+345.+ +A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time,
or circumstances of an action.+
+This is called the absolute construction.+
+The substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative
absolute.+
_My knife slipping_, I cut myself severely. [The phrase _my knife
slipping_ is equivalent to _because my knife slipped_: it expresses
+cause+.]
_Two days having elapsed_, we again set forward. [The phrase in
italics is equivalent to _when two days had elapsed_: it expresses
+time+.]
Evenings he read aloud, _his wife sewing by his side_. [The phrase
expresses one of the +circumstances+ that attended the reading.]
_This done_, proceed to business. [The phrase _this done_ is
equivalent to the clause _since_ (or _when_) _this is done_, and
indicates +cause+ or +time+.]
NOTE. This construction is called +absolute+ (that is, “free”
or “loosened”) because the substantive is not in any one of the
constructions (subject, object, apposition, etc.) which ordinarily
attach nouns grammatically to other words in the sentence.
Nevertheless, the whole phrase, though standing apart from the rest
of the sentence, is in meaning an adverbial modifier of some verb.
+346.+ The participle _being_ is sometimes omitted in the absolute
construction.
Allen once mayor, my chance of advancement would be ruined. [That is:
_Allen_ once _being mayor_.]
Peter stood before me, his hands in his pockets.
His clothing in shreds, he presented a sorry sight.
VERBAL NOUNS IN _-ING_ (PARTICIPIAL NOUNS)
+347.+ English has a large and important class of +verbal nouns+ that
end in _-ing_, and that serve as the +names of actions+.
These are identical in form with +present participles+, for which they
are frequently mistaken. The distinction, however, is clear, for the
present participle is never used as the name of an action. Hence no
such word in _-ing_ that is a subject or an object, or stands in any
other noun construction, can be a participle.
While I was _travelling_ in Mexico, I met with an accident.
[Participle.]
_Travelling_ broadens the mind. [Verbal noun, used as subject.]
He enjoys _travelling_. [Verbal noun, used as object of a verb.]
He spends his time in _travelling_. [Verbal noun, object of a
preposition.]
Tom’s favorite exercise is _swimming_. [Verbal noun, predicate
nominative.]
This sport, _fishing_, has been called the contemplative man’s
recreation. [Verbal noun, in apposition with _sport_.]
That nouns in _-ing_ are real nouns may be proved by putting ordinary
nouns in their place.
_Travelling_ broadens the mind. _Travel_ broadens the mind.
_Talking_ is useless. _Talk_ is useless.
He is afraid of _falling_. He is afraid of a _fall_.
+348.+ +From nearly every English verb there may be formed a verbal
noun in _-ing_.+
+Verbal nouns in _-ing_ have the form of present participles, but the
construction of nouns.+
They are often called +participial nouns+.
Such nouns are freely used, either by themselves or in a series along
with ordinary nouns.
_Mining_ is a dangerous occupation.
_Painting_ and _sculpture_ are sister arts.
The Indians of Massachusetts spent their time in _hunting_,
_fishing_, _agriculture_, and _warfare_.
_Reading_, _writing_, and _arithmetic_ are jocosely called “the three
r’s.”
+349.+ Verbal nouns in _-ing_ have certain properties of the +verb+.
1. +Verbal nouns in _-ing_ may take a direct or an indirect object if
their meaning allows.+
Digging _gold_ seems to the uninitiated like finding buried
_treasure_.
Lending _him money_ is useless; it merely fosters his unthrifty
habits. [Here the noun _lending_, which is the simple subject of the
sentence, takes both a direct object (_money_) and an indirect object
(_him_), precisely as the verb _lend_ might do.]
2. +A verbal noun in _-ing_ may take an adverbial modifier.+
Speaking _extemporaneously_ is good practice. [Here the verbal noun
_speaking_ is the simple subject; but it is modified by the adverb
_extemporaneously_, precisely as if it were a verb.]
But verbal nouns in _-ing_, like other nouns, may be modified by
+adjectives+.
_Extemporaneous_ speaking is good practice.
3. +To the verbal nouns _being_ and _having_, past participles may be
attached, so as to give the effect of voice and tense.+
After _being instructed_ in my duties, I was ordered to wait on the
king.
There were grave doubts expressed as to his _having seen_ the
mastodon.
After _having been treated_ in so harsh a fashion, I had no wish to
repeat the interview.
Such expressions are +verbal noun-phrases+.
+350.+ Verbal nouns in _-ing_ are similar in some of their
constructions to infinitives used as nouns (p. 135).
INFINITIVE AS NOUN VERBAL NOUN IN _-ing_
_To swim_ was difficult. _Swimming_ was difficult.
My business is _to make_ shoes. My business is _making_ shoes.
_To see_ is _to believe_. _Seeing_ is _believing_.
Nouns in _-ing_ are sometimes called +infinitives+ or +gerunds+.
+351.+ A noun in _-ing_ may be used as an +adjective+, or as the
adjective element in a +compound noun+ (§ 64).
The _sleeping_ car was completely wrecked.
William has plenty of _spending_ money.
NOTE. Other examples are:--_a working day_, _an ironing board_,
_drinking water_, _smelling salts_, _marching orders_, _a walking
tour_, _a swimming race_, _a vaulting pole_. In such cases it
makes little difference whether the two nouns are taken together
as a compound, or whether the first is regarded as an adjective
modifying the second. The difference between this use and that of
the participle is perfectly clear. A “_sleeping_ dog” is a dog _that
sleeps_; a “_sleeping_ car” is a car for _sleeping_. Sometimes,
indeed, either explanation is possible. Thus, a “_hoisting_ engine”
may be understood either as an “engine _that hoists_,” or as an
“engine _for hoisting_.” But it is better to class these exceptions
with the nouns in _-ing_.
+352.+ +When a verbal noun in _-ing_ is preceded by an article or any
other adjective, it cannot take an object.+
{Shooting song-birds | The shooting _of_ song-birds} is forbidden.
{Launching a ship | The launching _of_ a ship} requires care and
skill.
{Drawing maps | The drawing _of_ maps} is a useful exercise.
{Eating confectionery constantly | Constant eating _of_
confectionery} is bad for the teeth.
My business is {driving wells. | the driving _of_ wells.}
Observe that, in each instance, the +object+ (_song-birds_, _ship_,
_maps_, _confectionery_, _wells_) is replaced by a +prepositional
phrase+ when an article or other adjective precedes the verbal noun.
NOTE. In such expressions as “I went a-fishing,” _a_ is a shortened
form of the preposition _on_, and _fishing_ is a verbal noun used as
its object. When _a_ is omitted we have “I went fishing,” “The house
is building,” and the like, in which the word in _-ing_ seems to be a
participle, but is really the object of the omitted _a_ (= _on_).
+353.+ The possessive case of a noun or pronoun may be used to limit a
verbal noun in _-ing_.
I was sure of its _being_ he. [NOT: _it_.]
I heard of Allen’s _being_ elected. [NOT: _Allen_.]