AN ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR
WITH EXERCISES
BY
GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE
GURNEY PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
AND
FRANK EDGAR FARLEY
PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN
WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY
GINN AND COMPANY
BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON
ATLANTA · DALLAS · COLUMBUS · SAN FRANCISCO
COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE
AND FRANK EDGAR FARLEY
ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
424.2
The Athenæum Press
GINN AND COMPANY · PROPRIETORS
· BOSTON · U.S.A.
PREFACE
This grammar is intended for students who have already received
instruction in the rudiments. Still, every such textbook must begin
at the beginning. Part One, therefore, which occupies pp. 1–24, gives
a succinct treatment of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence and of
their substitutes, the Phrase and the Clause, concluding with a Summary
of Definitions. Thus it clears the way for what follows, and may be
utilized as a review, if the student needs to refresh his memory.
Part Two deals specifically and fully with Inflections and Syntax (pp.
25–182). It includes also a chapter on the use of subordinate clauses
as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (pp. 157–162), as well as a chapter
in which such clauses are logically classified in accordance with their
particular offices in the expression of thought (pp. 163–182).
Part Three (pp. 183–226) develops the subject of Analysis in its
natural order, first explaining how sentences are put together, and
then illustrating the process by which they may be resolved into their
constituent parts. Modifiers and Complements are classified, and the
so-called Independent Elements are discussed. There is added a special
chapter on Combinations of Clauses, in which the grammatical and
logical relations of coördination and subordination are set forth, and
their functions in the effective use of language are considered. This
portion of the book, it is hoped, will be especially useful to students
of English composition.
The Appendix furnishes lists of verbs, tables of conjugation, rules
for capitals and marks of punctuation, a summary of important rules of
syntax, and a brief history of the English language.
The Exercises (pp. 227–290) are collected at the end of the text, so
as not to break continuity. References prefixed to each, as well as
page-numbers in the Table of Contents, enable the teacher to attach
them, at will, to the topics which they concern. The passages for
parsing, analysis, etc., have been carefully selected from a wide
range of eminent British and American writers. The name of the author
is often appended to the quotation, when the passage is particularly
noteworthy either for its contents or its form. In most cases, however,
this has not been done; but the student may always feel confident that
he is occupying himself with specimens of English as actually composed
by distinguished authors. The constructive exercises call particular
attention to those matters in which error is especially prevalent.
An advanced grammar must aim to be serviceable in two ways. It should
afford the means for continuous and systematic study of the subject
or of any part of it; and it should also be useful for reference in
connection with the study of composition and of literature. With this
latter end in view, many notes and observations have been included,
in smaller type, to show the nature and development of the various
forms and constructions, and to point out differences between the
usage of to-day and that which the student observes in Shakspere and
other English classics. The fulness of the index makes it easy to find
anything that the volume contains.
In accordance with the desire of many teachers, certain topics of
importance have been treated with unusual thoroughness. Among these may
be mentioned the uses of _shall_ and _will_, _should_ and _would_, the
infinitive and the infinitive clause, conditional sentences, indirect
discourse, and the combination of clauses in sentences of different
kinds.
The authors are indebted to several teachers for suggestions and
criticism. Particular acknowledgment is due to Mr. Theodore C.
Mitchill, of the Jamaica High School, New York, and Mr. C. L. Hooper,
of the Chicago Normal School.
CONTENTS
[_The numbers in the first column refer to the pages of the text; those
in the second column to the pages of the Exercises._]
INTRODUCTION
TEXT EXERCISES
Language and Grammar xi
Grammar and Usage xv
Summary of General Principles xvii
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
PART ONE--THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE
The Sentence--Subject and Predicate 1 227
Kinds of Sentences 2 227
The Eight Parts of Speech Defined 3 228
The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech 9 229
Infinitives and Participles 11 229
Comparative Importance of the Parts of Speech 13
Simple and Complete Subject and Predicate 14 230
Compound Subject and Predicate 15 230
Substitutes for the Parts of Speech 16 231
Phrases--Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverbial 16 231
Clauses--Independent and Subordinate 16 232
Compound and Complex Sentences 17 232
Compound Complex Sentences 18 232
Clauses as Parts of Speech 19 232
Summary of Definitions 21
PART TWO--INFLECTION AND SYNTAX
CHAPTER I--INFLECTION
Inflection in General 25
Summary of Inflections 26
CHAPTER II--NOUNS
Classification--Common Nouns and Proper Nouns 27 233
Special Classes--Abstract, Collective, Compound 29 234
Inflection of Nouns 30 235
Gender 31 235
Number 34 235
Person 39 236
Case 40 237
Nominative Case 41 237
Possessive Case 43 238
Objective Case 47 239
Parsing of Nouns 54 240
CHAPTER III--PRONOUNS
Personal Pronouns 55 241
Gender and Number of Personal Pronouns 56 241
Case of Personal Pronouns 57 241
The Self-Pronouns (Compound Personal Pronouns) 60 241
Adjective Pronouns--Demonstratives 62 243
Adjective Pronouns--Indefinites 64 243
Relative Pronouns 66 244
The Relative Pronoun _What_ 71 246
Compound Relative Pronouns 72 246
Interrogative Pronouns 73 246
Parsing of Pronouns 74 247
CHAPTER IV--ADJECTIVES
Classification of Adjectives 75 248
Adjectives--the Articles 77 248
Comparison of Adjectives 79 249
Irregular Comparison 81 249
CHAPTER V--ADVERBS
Classification of Adverbs 83 250
Relative and Interrogative Adverbs 86 251
Comparison of Adverbs 87 252
Use of the Comparative and Superlative 88 252
Numerals--Adjectives, Nouns, Adverbs 89 252
CHAPTER VI--VERBS
Classification of Verbs 91 253
Auxiliary Verbs--Verb-Phrases 91 253
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 92 253
Copulative Verbs 93 253
Inflection of Verbs 94 254
Tense of Verbs 94 254
Present and Past Tenses 94 254
Weak (Regular) and Strong (Irregular) Verbs 95 254
Person and Number 97 254
The Personal Endings 97 254
Conjugation of the Present and the Past 98 254
Special Rules of Number and Person 100 254
The Future Tense--_Shall_ and _Will_ 102 256
Complete or Compound Tenses 106 258
Voice--Active and Passive 107 258
Conjugation of the Six Tenses 108 258
Use of the Passive Voice 110 258
Progressive Verb-Phrases 113 260
Emphatic Verb-Phrases 114 260
Mood of Verbs 115 261
Indicative Mood 115 261
Imperative Mood 116 261
Subjunctive Mood--Forms 118 261
Uses of the Subjunctive 119 261
Potential Verb-Phrases (Modal Auxiliaries) 124 262
Special Rules for _Should_ and _Would_ 127 264
The Infinitive 132 266
The Infinitive as a Noun 134 266
The Infinitive as a Modifier 136 266
The Infinitive Clause 137 267
Participles--Forms and Constructions 140 268
Nominative Absolute 144 269
Verbal Nouns in _-ing_ (Participial Nouns) 145 269
CHAPTER VII--PREPOSITIONS
List of Prepositions 148 270
Special Uses of Prepositions 149 270
CHAPTER VIII--CONJUNCTIONS
Coördinate (or Coördinating) Conjunctions 151 270
Subordinate (or Subordinating) Conjunctions 153 270
Correlative Conjunctions 153 270
CHAPTER IX--INTERJECTIONS
Interjections 155 272
Exclamatory Expressions 155 272
CHAPTER X--CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH
Clauses as Parts of Speech 157 272
Adjective Clauses 157 272
Adverbial Clauses 158 272
Noun (or Substantive) Clauses 159 272
CHAPTER XI--THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Clauses of Place and Time 163 272
Causal Clauses 164 272
Concessive Clauses 164 272
Clauses of Purpose and Result 166 274
Conditional Sentences 167 274
Forms of Conditions 169 274
Present and Past Conditions 170 274
Future Conditions 171 274
Clauses of Comparison 173 275
Indirect Discourse 173 277
_Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_
in Indirect Discourse 177 278
Indirect Questions 179 280
_Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_
in Indirect Questions 182 281
PART THREE--ANALYSIS
CHAPTER I--THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES
Analysis--the Elements 183 282
Simple Sentences 184 282
Compound Sentences 185 282
Complex Sentences 186 282
Compound and Complex Clauses 186 287
Compound Complex Sentences 187 283
CHAPTER II--ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
Simple Sentences 188 283
Compound Sentences 188 283
Complex Sentences 189 283
Compound Complex Sentences 190 283
CHAPTER III--MODIFIERS
Modifiers in General 191 283
Modifiers of the Subject 192 283
Modifiers of the Predicate 196 284
CHAPTER IV--COMPLEMENTS
Use of Complements 200 285
The Direct Object 201 285
The Predicate Objective 202 285
The Predicate Nominative 202 285
The Predicate Adjective 203 285
CHAPTER V--MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF MODIFIERS
Modifiers of Complements 205 286
Modifiers of Other Modifiers 207 286
CHAPTER VI--INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS
Four Kinds of Independent Elements 209 286
Parenthetical Expressions 209 286
CHAPTER VII--COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
General Principles 210 287
Coördination and Subordination 210 287
Clauses--Simple, Compound, Complex 211 287
Complex Sentences 186 282
Simple Sentences with Compound Subject or Predicate 212 287
Compound and Complex Sentences 213 287
Compound Complex Sentences 215 287
Varieties of the Complex Sentence 216 287
Special Complications in Complex Sentences 220 288
Special Complications in Compound Complex Sentences 222 288
CHAPTER VIII--ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES
Ellipsis in Clauses and Sentences 224 288
Varieties of Ellipsis 225 288
Examples of Elliptical Constructions 226 288
EXERCISES
Exercises on Part One 227
Exercises on Part Two 233
Exercises on Part Three 282
APPENDIX
Lists of Verbs 291
Conjugation of the Verb _to be_ 300
Conjugation of the Verb _to strike_ 301
Use of Capital Letters 305
Rules of Punctuation 306
Rules of Syntax 311
The English Language 316
INDEX 321
INTRODUCTION
LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
I. THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE
Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written
words.
The English word _language_ comes (through the French _langue_) from
the Latin _lingua_, “the tongue.” But the tongue is not the only organ
used in speaking. The lips, the teeth, the roof of the mouth, the soft
palate (or uvula), the nose, and the vocal chords all help to produce
the sounds of which language consists. These various organs make up one
delicate and complicated piece of mechanism upon which the breath of
the speaker acts like that of a musician upon a clarinet or other wind
instrument.
Spoken language, then, is composed of a great variety of sounds made
with the vocal organs. A word may consist of one sound (as _Ah!_ or _O_
or _I_), but most words consist of two or more different sounds (as
_go_, _see_, _try_, _finish_). Long or short, however, a word is merely
a sign made to express thought.
Thought may be imperfectly expressed by signs made with the head, the
hands, etc. Thus, if I grasp a person’s arm and point to a dog, he may
understand me to ask, “Do you see that dog?” And his nod in reply may
stand for “Yes, I see him.” But any dialogue carried on in this way
must be both fragmentary and uncertain. To express our thoughts fully,
freely, and accurately, we must use words,--that is, signs made with
the voice. Such voice-signs have had meanings associated with them by
custom or tradition, so that their sense is at once understood by all.
Their advantage is twofold: they are far more numerous and varied than
other signs; and the meanings attached to them are much more definite
than those of nods and gestures.
Written words are signs made with the pen to represent and recall
to the mind the spoken words (or voice-signs). Written language
(that is, composition) must, of necessity, be somewhat fuller than
spoken language, as well as more formal and exact. For the reader’s
understanding is not assisted by the tones of the voice, the changing
expressions of the face, and the lively gestures, which help to make
spoken language intelligible.
Most words are the signs of definite ideas. Thus, _Charles_, _captain_,
_cat_, _mouse_, _bread_, _stone_, _cup_, _ink_, call up images or
pictures of persons or things; _strike_, _dive_, _climb_, _dismount_,
express particular kinds of action; _green_, _blue_, _careless_,
_rocky_, _triangular_, _muscular_, enable us to describe objects with
accuracy. Even general terms like _goodness_, _truth_, _courage_,
_cowardice_, _generosity_, have sufficiently precise meanings, for
they name qualities, or traits of character, with which everybody is
familiar.
By the use of such words, even when not combined in groups, we can
express our thoughts much more satisfactorily than by mere gestures.
The utterance of the single word “Charles!” may signify: “Hullo,
Charles! are you here? I am surprised to see you.” “Bread!” may suggest
to the hearer: “Give me bread! I am very hungry.” “Courage!” may be
almost equivalent to, “Don’t be down-hearted! Your troubles will soon
be over.”
Language, however, is not confined to the utterance of single words.
To express our thoughts we must put words together,--we must combine
them into groups; and such groups have settled meanings (just as words
have), established (like the meanings of single words) by the customs
or habits of the particular language that we are speaking or writing.
Further, these groups are not thrown together haphazard. We must
construct them in accordance with certain fixed rules. Otherwise we
shall fail to express ourselves clearly and acceptably, and we may even
succeed in saying the opposite of what we mean.
In constructing these groups (which we call +phrases+, +clauses+, and
+sentences+) we have the aid of a large number of short words like
_and_, _if_, _by_, _to_, _in_, _is_, _was_, which are very different
from the definite and picturesque words that we have just examined.
They do not call up distinct images in the mind, and we should find
it hard to define any of them. Yet their importance in the expression
of thought is clear; for they serve to join other words together, and
to show their relation to each other in those groups which make up
connected speech.
Thus, “box heavy” conveys some meaning; but “_The_ box _is_ heavy” is
a clear and definite statement. _The_ shows that some particular box
is meant, and _is_ enables us to make an assertion about it. _And_, in
“Charles and John are my brothers,” indicates that Charles and John are
closely connected in my thought, and that what I say of one applies
also to the other. _If_, in “If Charles comes, I shall be glad to see
him,” connects two statements, and shows that one of them is a mere
supposition (for Charles may or may not come).
In grouping words, our language has three different ways of indicating
their relations: (1) the forms of the words themselves; (2) their
order; (3) the use of little words like _and_, _if_, _is_, etc.
I. +Change of form.+ Words may change their form. Thus the word _boy_
becomes _boys_ when more than one is meant; _kill_ becomes _killed_
when past time is referred to; _was_ becomes _were_ when we are
speaking of two or more persons or things; _fast_ becomes _faster_ when
a higher degree of speed is indicated. Such change of form is called
+inflection+, and the word is said to be +inflected+.
Inflection is an important means of showing the relations of words
in connected speech. In “Henry’s racket weighs fourteen ounces,”
the form _Henry’s_ shows at once the relation between Henry and the
racket,--namely, that Henry owns or possesses it. The word _Henry_,
then, may change its form to _Henry’s_ to indicate ownership or
possession.
II. +Order of words.+ In “John struck Charles,” the way in which the
words are arranged shows who it was that struck, and who received the
blow. Change the order of words to “Charles struck John,” and the
meaning is reversed. It is, then, the +order+ that shows the relation
of _John_ to _struck_, and of _struck_ to _Charles_.
III. +Use of other words.+ Compare the two sentences:
The train _from_ Boston has just arrived.
The train _for_ Boston has just arrived.
Here _from_ and _for_ show the relation between the _train_ and
_Boston_. “The Boston train” might mean either the train _from_ Boston
or the train _for_ Boston. By using _from_ or _for_ we make the sense
unmistakable.
Two matters, then, are of vital importance in language,--the forms of
words, and the relations of words. The science which treats of these
two matters is called +grammar+.
+Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in
its meaning.+
+The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is
called its construction.+
+Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions
of words.+
+Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions
of words.+
Grammar, then, may be said to concern itself with two main
subjects,--inflection and syntax.
English belongs to a family of languages--the Indo-European
Family[1]--which is rich in forms of inflection. This richness may
be seen in other members of the family,--such as Greek or Latin. The
Latin word _homo_, “man,” for example, has eight different inflectional
forms,--_homo_, “a man”; _hominis_, “of a man”; _homini_, “to a
man,” and so on. Thus, in Latin, the grammatical construction of a
word is, in general, shown by that particular inflectional ending
(or termination) which it has in any particular sentence. In the
Anglo-Saxon period,[2] English was likewise well furnished with such
inflectional endings, though not so abundantly as Latin. Many of these,
however, had disappeared by Chaucer’s time (1340–1400), and still
others have since been lost, so that modern English is one of the
least inflected of languages. Such losses are not to be lamented. By
due attention to the order of words, and by using _of_, _to_, _for_,
_from_, _in_, and the like, we can express all the relations denoted by
the ancient inflections. The gain in simplicity is enormous.
II. GRAMMAR AND USAGE
Since language is the expression of thought, the rules of grammar
agree, in the main, with the laws of thought. In other words, grammar
is usually logical,--that is, its rules accord, in general, with the
principles of logic, which is the science of exact reasoning.
The rules of grammar, however, do not derive their authority from
logic, but from good usage,--that is, from the customs or habits
followed by educated speakers and writers. These customs, of course,
differ among different nations, and every language has therefore its
own stock of peculiar constructions or turns of expression. Such
peculiarities are called +idioms+.
Thus, in English we say, “It is I”; but in French the idiom is “C’est
moi,” which corresponds to “It is me.” Many careless speakers of
English follow the French idiom in this particular, but their practice
has not yet come to be the accepted usage. Hence, though “C’est moi” is
correct in French, we must still regard “It is me” as ungrammatical in
English. It would, however, become correct if it should ever be adopted
by the great majority of educated persons.
Grammar does not enact laws for the conduct of speech. Its business is
to ascertain and set forth those customs of language which have the
sanction of good usage. If good usage changes, the rules of grammar
must change. If two forms or constructions are in good use, the
grammarian must admit them both. Occasionally, also, there is room
for difference of opinion. These facts, however, do not lessen the
authority of grammar in the case of any cultivated language. For in
such a language usage is so well settled in almost every particular
as to enable the grammarian to say positively what is right and what
is wrong. Even in matters of divided usage, it is seldom difficult to
determine which of two forms or constructions is preferred by careful
writers.
Every language has two standards of usage,--the colloquial and
the literary. By “colloquial language,” we mean the language of
conversation; by “literary language,” that employed in literary
composition. Everyday colloquial English admits many words, forms,
phrases, and constructions that would be out of place in a dignified
essay. On the other hand, it is an error in taste to be always “talking
like a book.” Unpractised speakers and writers should, however, be
conservative. They should avoid, even in informal talk, any word or
expression that is of doubtful propriety. Only those who know what they
are about, can venture to take liberties. It is quite possible to be
correct without being stilted or affected.[3]
Every living language is constantly changing. Words, forms, and
constructions become +obsolete+ (that is, go out of use) and others
take their places. Consequently, one often notes in the older English
classics, methods of expression which, though formerly correct, are
ungrammatical now. Here a twofold caution is necessary. On the one
hand, we must not criticise Shakspere or Chaucer for using the English
of his own time; but, on the other hand, we must not try to defend our
own errors by appealing to ancient usage.
Examples of constructions once in good use, but no longer admissible,
are: “the best of the two” (for “the better of the two”); “the most
unkindest cut of all”; “There’s two or three of us” (for _there
are_); “I have forgot the map” (for _forgotten_); “Every one of these
letters are in my name” (for _is_); “I think it be” (for _is_).
The language of poetry admits many old words, forms, and constructions
that are no longer used in ordinary prose. These are called +archaisms+
(that is, ancient expressions). Among the commonest archaisms are
_thou_, _ye_, _hath_, _thinkest_, _doth_. Such forms are also common in
prose, in what is known as the +solemn style+, which is modelled, in
great part, on the language of the Bible.[4]
In general, it should be remembered that the style which one uses
should be appropriate,--that is, it should fit the occasion. A short
story and a scientific exposition will differ in style; a familiar
letter will naturally shun the formalities of business or legal
correspondence. Good style is not a necessary result of grammatical
correctness, but without such correctness it is, of course, impossible.
SUMMARY OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES
1. Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written
words.
2. Words are the signs of ideas.
Spoken words are signs made with the vocal organs; written words are
signs made with the pen to represent the spoken words.
The meanings of these signs are settled by custom or tradition in each
language.
3. Most words are the signs of definite ideas: as,--_Charles_,
_captain_, _cat_, _strike_, _dive_, _climb_, _triangular_, _careless_.
Other words, of less definite meaning, serve to connect the more
definite words and to show their relations to each other in connected
speech.
4. In the expression of thought, words are combined into groups called
phrases, clauses, and sentences.
5. The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence
is called its construction.
The construction of English words is shown in three ways: (1) by their
form; (2) by their order; (3) by the use of other words like _to_,
_from_, _is_, etc.
6. Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change
in its meaning: as,--_boy_, _boy’s_; _man_, _men_; _drink_, _drank_.
7. Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the
constructions of words.
Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions
of words.
8. The rules of grammar derive their authority from good usage,--that
is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and
writers.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
PART ONE
THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE
+Summary.+ The Sentence: Subject and Predicate; Kinds of
Sentences.--Use of words in the Sentence: the Eight Parts of Speech;
Infinitives and Participles.--Comparative Importance of the Parts
of Speech in the Sentence: the Subject Noun (or Simple Subject);
the Predicate Verb (or Simple Predicate); Compound Subject and
Predicate.--Substitutes for the Parts of Speech: Phrases; Clauses;
Compound and Complex Sentences.
THE SENTENCE
+1.+ +A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete
thought.+
Fire burns.
Wolves howl.
Rain is falling.
Charles is courageous.
Patient effort removes mountains.
London is the largest city in the world.
A man who respects himself should never condescend to use slovenly
language.
Some of these sentences are short, expressing a very simple thought;
others are comparatively long, because the thought is more complicated
and therefore requires more words for its expression. But every one
of them, whether short or long, is complete in itself. It comes to a
definite end, and is followed by a full pause.
+2.+ Every sentence, whether short or long, consists of two parts,--a
+subject+ and a +predicate+.
+The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that
is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.+
Thus, in the first example in § 1, the subject is _fire_ and the
predicate is _burns_. In the third, the subject is _rain_; the
predicate, _is falling_. In the last, the subject is _a man who
respects himself_; the predicate, _should never condescend to use
slovenly language_.
Either the subject or the predicate may consist of a single word or of
a number of words. But neither the subject by itself nor the predicate
by itself, however extended, is a sentence. The mere mention of a thing
(_fire_) does not express a complete thought. Neither does a mere
assertion (_burns_), if we neglect to mention the person or thing about
which the assertion is made. Thus it appears that both a subject and a
predicate are necessary to make a sentence.
+3.+ +Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or
exclamatory.+
1. +A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.+
Dickens wrote “David Copperfield.”
The army approached the city.
2. +An interrogative sentence asks a question.+
Who is that officer?
Does Arthur Moore live here?
3. +An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.+
Open the window.
Pronounce the vowels more distinctly.
4. +An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other
emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.+
How calm the sea is!
What a noise the engine makes!
A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence is also
+exclamatory+, if it is uttered in an intense or excited tone of voice.
+4.+ In imperative sentences, the subject (_thou_ or _you_) is almost
always omitted, because it is +understood+ by both speaker and hearer
without being expressed.
Such omitted words, which are present (_in idea_) to the minds of
both speaker and hearer, are said to be “understood.” Thus, in “Open
the window,” the subject is “_you_ (understood).” If expressed, the
subject would be emphatic: as,--“_You_ open the window.”
+5.+ The subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predicate, but
sometimes the predicate precedes.
Here comes Tom.
Next came Edward.
Over went the carriage.
A sentence in which the predicate precedes the subject is said to be in
the +inverted order+. This order is especially common in interrogative
sentences.
Where is your boat?
When was your last birthday?
Whither wander you?--SHAKSPERE.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
+6.+ If we examine the words in any sentence, we observe that they have
different tasks or duties to perform in the expression of thought.
Savage beasts roamed through the forest.
In this sentence, _beasts_ and _forest_ are the +names+ of objects;
_roamed_ +asserts action+, telling us what the beasts _did_; _savage_
+describes+ the beasts; _through_ shows the +relation+ in thought
between _forest_ and _roamed_; _the_ +limits+ the meaning of _forest_,
showing that one particular forest is meant. Thus each of these words
has its +special office+ (or +function+) +in the sentence+.
+7.+ +In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are
divided into eight classes called parts of speech,--namely, nouns,
pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and
interjections.+
I. NOUNS
+8.+ +A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.+
EXAMPLES: Lincoln, William, Elizabeth, sister, engineer, Chicago,
island, shelf, star, window, happiness, anger, sidewalk, courage,
loss, song.
II. PRONOUNS
+9.+ +A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a
person, place, or thing without naming it.+
In “_I_ am ready,” the pronoun _I_ is a convenient substitute for
the speaker’s name. In “_You_ have forgotten _your_ umbrella,”
the pronouns _you_ and _your_ designate the person to whom one is
speaking.
Other pronouns are: _he_, _his_, _him_; _she_, _hers_, _her_; _it_,
_its_; _this_, _that_; _who_, _whose_, _whom_, _which_; _myself_,
_yourself_, _himself_, _themselves_.
Since pronouns stand for nouns, they enable us to talk about a person,
place, or thing without constantly repeating the name.
+10.+ +Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.+
Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The difference
between them is merely that the noun designates a person, place, or
thing by +naming+ it, and that the pronoun +designates+, but does not
+name+. Hence it is convenient to have a general term (+substantive+)
to include both these parts of speech.
+11.+ +The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its
antecedent.+
_Frank_ introduced the boys to _his_ father. [_Frank_ is the
antecedent of the pronoun _his_.]
_Eleanor_ is visiting _her_ aunt.
The _book_ has lost _its_ cover.
The _trappers_ sat round _their_ camp fire.
_Washington_ and _Franklin_ served _their_ country in different ways.
[_Their_ has two antecedents, connected by _and_.]
III. ADJECTIVES
+12.+ +An adjective is a word which describes or limits a
substantive.+[5]
This it usually does by indicating some quality.
+An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes
or limits.+
+13.+ An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the range of its
meaning.
The noun _box_, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If
we say _wooden_ box, we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If we
use a second adjective (_small_) and a third (_square_), we limit the
size and the shape of the box.
Most adjectives (like _wooden_, _square_, and _small_) +describe+ as
well as limit. Such words are called +descriptive adjectives+.
We may, however, limit the noun _box_ to a single specimen by means of
the adjective _this_ or _that_ or _the_, which does not +describe+, but
simply points out, or +designates+. Such words are called +definitive
adjectives+.[6]
IV. VERBS
+14.+ +A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action)
concerning a person, place, or thing.+[7]
The wind _blows_.
The horses _ran_.
The fire _blazed_.
Her jewels _sparkled_.
Tom _climbed_ a tree.
The dynamite _exploded_.
Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.
The treaty still _exists_.
The book _lies_ on the table.
Near the church _stood_ an elm.
My aunt _suffers_ much from headache.
+15.+ A group of words may be needed, instead of a single verb, to make
an assertion.
+A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.+
You _will see_.
The tree _has fallen_.
We _might have invited_ her.
Our driver _has been discharged_.
+16.+ Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called
+auxiliary+ (that is, “aiding”) +verbs+, because they help other verbs
to express action or state of some particular kind.
Thus, in “You _will see_,” the auxiliary verb _will_ helps _see_
to express +future+ action; in “We _might have invited_ her,” the
auxiliaries _might_ and _have_ help _invited_ to express action that
was +possible+ in past time.
The auxiliary verbs are _is_ (_are_, _was_, _were_, etc.), _may_,
_can_, _must_, _might_, _shall_, _will_, _could_, _would_, _should_,
_have_, _had_, _do_, _did_. Their forms and uses will be studied in
connection with the inflection of verbs.
The auxiliary verb regularly comes first in a verb-phrase, and may be
separated from the rest of it by some other word or words.
Where _was_ Washington _born_?
The boat _was_ slowly but steadily _approaching_.
+17.+ _Is_ (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be
used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate
describe or define the subject.
1. Gold _is_ a metal.
2. Charles _is_ my friend’s name.
3. The colors of this butterfly _are_ brilliant.
4. Iron _becomes_ red in the fire.
5. Our condition _seemed_ desperate.
6. Bertram _proved_ a good friend in this emergency.
7. My soul _grows_ sad with troubles.--SHAKSPERE.
In the first sentence, the verb _is_ not only +makes an assertion+,
but it also +connects+ the rest of the predicate (_a metal_) with the
subject (_gold_) in such a way that _a metal_ serves as a description
or definition of _gold_.
In sentences 4–7, _becomes_, _seemed_, _proved_, and _grows_ are
similarly used.
In such sentences _is_ and other verbs that are used for the same
purpose are called +copulative+ (that is, “joining”) +verbs+.
_Is_ in this use is often called the +copula+, that is, the “joiner”
or “link.”
The forms of the verb _is_ are very irregular. Among the commonest are:
_am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_, and the verb-phrases _has been_,
_have been_, _had been_, _shall be_, _will be_.[8]
V. ADVERBS
+18.+ +An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.+
To +modify+ a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way.
Thus in “The river fell _rapidly_,” the adverb _rapidly_ modifies
the verb _fell_ by showing _how_ the falling took place. In “I am
_never_ late,” “This is _absolutely_ true,” “That is _too_ bad,”
the italicized words are adverbs modifying adjectives; in “He came
_very_ often,” “He spoke _almost_ hopefully,” “The river fell _too_
rapidly,” they are adverbs modifying other adverbs.
Most adverbs answer the question “How?” “When?” “Where?” or “To what
degree or extent?”
+19.+ Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same way in which
adjectives modify nouns.
ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
A _bright_ fire burned. The fire burned _brightly_.
A _fierce_ wind blew. The wind blew _fiercely_.
+A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of
another word is called a modifier.+
Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both +modifiers+. Adjectives modify
substantives; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
VI. PREPOSITIONS
+20.+ +A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its
relation to some other word in the sentence.+
+The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.+
A preposition is said to +govern+ its object.
In “The surface _of_ the water glistened,” _of_ makes it clear that
_surface_ belongs with _water_. In “Philip is _on_ the river,” _on_
shows Philip’s position with respect to the river. _In_, or _near_,
or _beyond_ would have indicated a different relation. _Water_ is
the object of the preposition _of_, and _river_ is the object of the
preposition _on_.
+21.+ A preposition often has more than one object.
Over _hill_ and _dale_ he ran.
He was filled with _shame_ and _despair_.
VII. CONJUNCTIONS
+22.+ +A conjunction connects words or groups of words.+
A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object, and in
indicating a less definite relation between the words which it connects.
In “Time _and_ tide wait for no man,” “The parcel was small _but_
heavy,” “He wore a kind of doublet _or_ jacket,” the conjunctions
_and_, _but_, _or_, connect single words,--_time_ with _tide_,
_small_ with _heavy_, _doublet_ with _jacket_. In “Do not go _if_ you
are afraid,” “I came _because_ you sent for me,” “Take my key, _but_
do not lose it,” “Sweep the floor _and_ dust the furniture,” each
conjunction connects the entire group of words preceding it with the
entire group following it.
VIII. INTERJECTIONS
+23.+ +An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing
surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.+
Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the groups of
words in which they stand; hence their name, which means “thrown in.”
EXAMPLES: _Oh!_ I forgot. _Ah_, how I miss you! _Bravo!_ _Alas!_
THE SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH
+24.+ +The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of
speech it belongs.+
+The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.+
Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use sometimes look and
sound alike: as in “The minstrel sang a plaintive _lay_,” and “He _lay_
on the ground.” But the following examples (§ 25) show that the same
word may have more than one kind of grammatical office (or function).
It is the +meaning+ which we give to a word +in the sentence+ that
determines its classification as a part of speech.
+25.+ The chief classes of words thus variously used are (1) nouns
and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives and adverbs, (4)
adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and prepositions.
I. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
NOUNS ADJECTIVES
_Rubber_ comes from South This wheel has a _rubber_ tire.
America.
That _brick_ is yellow. Here is a _brick_ house.
The _rich_ have a grave A _rich_ merchant lives here.
responsibility.
The first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns may
be used as adjectives; the third shows how words that are commonly
adjectives may be used as nouns.
II. NOUNS AND VERBS
NOUNS VERBS
Hear the _wash_ of the tide. _Wash_ those windows.
Give me a _stamp_. _Stamp_ this envelope.
It is the _call_ of the sea. Ye _call_ me chief.
Other examples are: act, address, ally, answer, boast, care, cause,
close, defeat, doubt, drop, heap, hope, mark, offer, pile, place,
rest, rule, sail, shape, sleep, spur, test, watch, wound.
III. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
That is a _fast_ boat. The snow is melting _fast_.
Draw a _straight_ line. The arrow flew _straight_.
_Early_ comers get good seats. Tom awoke _early_.
For an explanation of the form of these adverbs, see § 191.
IV. ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS
ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS
_This_ man looks unhappy. _This_ is the sergeant.
_That_ book is a dictionary. _That_ is a kangaroo.
_Each_ day brings its opportunity. I received a dollar from _each_.
For further study of this class of words, see pp. 62–65.
V. ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS
ADVERBS PREPOSITIONS
Jill came tumbling _after_. He returned _after_ the accident.
We went _below_. _Below_ us lay the valley.
The weeds sprang _up_. We walked _up_ the hill.
Other examples are: aboard, before, beyond, down, inside, underneath.
Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following:--
NOUN. The _calm_ lasted for three days.
ADJECTIVE. _Calm_ words show quiet minds.
VERB. _Calm_ your angry friend.
Other examples are: iron, stone, paper, sugar, salt, bark, quiet,
black, light, head, wet, round, square, winter, spring.
NOUN. _Wrong_ seldom prospers.
ADJECTIVE. You have taken the _wrong_ road.
ADVERB. Edward often spells words _wrong_.
VERB. You _wrong_ me by your suspicions.
NOUN. The _outside_ of the castle is gloomy.
ADJECTIVE. We have an _outside_ stateroom.
ADVERB. The messenger is waiting _outside_.
PREPOSITION. I shall ride _outside_ the coach.
ADJECTIVE. _That_ boat is a sloop.
PRONOUN. _That_ is my uncle.
CONJUNCTION. You said _that_ you would help me.
ADJECTIVE. _Neither_ road leads to Utica.
PRONOUN. _Neither_ of us arrived in time.
CONJUNCTION. _Neither_ Tom nor I was late.
PREPOSITION. I am waiting _for_ the train.
CONJUNCTION. You have plenty of time, _for_ the train is late.
INTERJECTION. _Hurrah!_ the battle is won.
NOUN. I heard a loud _hurrah_.
VERB. The enemy flees. Our men _hurrah_.
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES
+26.+ Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way the fact
that the same word may belong to different parts of speech; for they
really belong to two different parts of speech at one and the same
time. These are the +infinitive+ (which is both +verb+ and +noun+) and
the +participle+ (which is both +verb+ and +adjective+).
+27.+ Examples of the +infinitive+ may be seen in the following
sentences:
_To struggle_ was useless.
_To escape_ is impossible.
_To exercise_ regularly preserves the health.
_To struggle_ is clearly a +noun+, for (1) it is the subject of the
sentence, and (2) the noun _effort_ or _exertion_ might be put in
the place of _to struggle_. Similarly, the noun _escape_ might be
substituted for _to escape_; and, in the third sentence, _regular
exercise_ (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted for
_to exercise regularly_.
But these three forms (_to struggle_, _to escape_, and _to exercise_)
are also +verbs+, for they express action, and one of them (_to
exercise_) is modified by an adverb (_regularly_). Such forms,
therefore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and
are called +infinitives+.
+28.+ +The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a
noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition _to_, which is called
the sign of the infinitive.+
+29.+ The infinitive without _to_ is used in a great variety of
verb-phrases.
I _shall go_.
John _will win_.
Mary _may recite_.
Jack _can swim_.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
NOTE. That _go_, _win_, _recite_, and _swim_ are infinitives may be
seen by comparing the following sentences:--“I intend _to go_,” “John
is sure _to win_,” “Mary is permitted _to recite_,” “Jack is able _to
swim_.”
+30.+ The following sentence contains two +participles+:--
_Shattered_ and slowly _sinking_, the frigate drifted out to sea.
In this sentence, we recognize _shattered_ as a form of the +verb+
_shatter_, and _sinking_ as a form of the +verb+ _sink_. They both
express action, and _sinking_ is modified by the adverb _slowly_. But
_shattered_ and _sinking_ have also the nature of +adjectives+, for
they are used to describe the noun _frigate_. Such words, then, are
adjective forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and are called
+participles+, because they share (or participate in) the nature of
adjectives.
+31.+ +The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in
such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.+
A participle is said to +belong to+ the substantive which it describes
or limits.
+32.+ The chief classes of participles are +present participles+ and
+past participles+, so called from the time which they denote.
All present participles end in _ing_. Past participles have several
different endings, which will be studied in connection with the
inflection of verbs (§ 334).
+33.+ Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases.
Tom _is coming_.
Our boat _was wrecked_.
I _have sent_ the money.
He _has brought_ me a letter.
Your book _is found_.
They _have sold_ their horses.
You _have broken_ your watch.
The ship _had struck_ on the reef.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
NOTE. The double nature of the infinitive (as both verb and noun)
and the participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies
one in classifying each as a distinct part of speech (so as to make
ten parts of speech instead of eight). But it is more convenient to
include them under the head of verbs, in accordance with the usual
practice.
SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
+34.+ Our survey of the eight parts of speech has shown, (1) that these
have very different offices or functions in the sentence, and (2) that
their functions are not of equal importance.
Clearly, the most important parts of speech are +substantives+ (nouns
and pronouns) and +verbs+.
Substantives enable us to +name or designate+ persons, places, or
things, and verbs enable us to +make statements+ about them. Both
substantives and verbs, then, are absolutely necessary in framing
sentences. Without a substantive, there can be no +subject+; without a
verb, there can be no +predicate+: and both a subject and a predicate,
as we have seen, are needed to make a sentence.
+Adjectives+ and +adverbs+ are less important than substantives and
verbs. Their function is to +modify+ other parts of speech, that is, to
change their meaning in some way. Thus adjectives modify substantives
(by describing or limiting), and adverbs usually modify verbs (by
indicating _how_, _when_, or _where_ the action took place). Without
substantives, there would be no use for adjectives; without verbs,
there would be little use for adverbs.
+Prepositions+ and +conjunctions+ are also less important than
substantives and verbs. Their office is to connect and to show
relation. Of course, there would be no place for connectives if there
were nothing to connect.
+Interjections+ are the least important of all. They add liveliness to
language, but they are not actual necessities. We could express all the
thoughts that enter our minds without ever using an interjection.
+35.+ A sentence may consist of but two words,--a noun or pronoun (the
subject) and a verb (the predicate). Thus,--
Charles | swims.
Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or both, will
contain more than one word. Thus,--
Young Charles | swims slowly.
Here the +complete subject+ (_young Charles_) consists of a noun
(_Charles_) and an adjective (_young_), which describes _Charles_.
The +complete predicate+ consists of a verb (_swims_) and an adverb
(_slowly_), which modifies _swim_ by indicating _how_ the action
is performed. The subject noun (_Charles_) and the predicate verb
(_swims_) are the chief words in the sentence, for neither could be
omitted without destroying it. They form, so to speak, the frame or
skeleton of the whole. Either of the two modifiers, the adjective or
the adverb, or both, might be omitted, without destroying the sentence;
for this would still exist as the expression of a thought (_Charles
swims_), though the thought would be less definite and exact than it is
when the modifiers are included.
+36.+ +The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.+
+The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.+
+The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its
meaning, forms the complete subject.+
+The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its
meaning, forms the complete predicate.+
In each of the following sentences the +complete subject+ and the
+complete predicate+ are separated by a vertical line, and the +simple
subject+ and the +simple predicate+ are printed in italics:--
The _spider_ | _spreads_ her web.
The fiery _smoke_ | _rose_ upward in billowing volumes.
A nameless _unrest_ | _urged_ me forward.
Our frantic _horses_ | _swept_ round an angle of the road.
The _infirmities_ of age | _came_ early upon him.
The general _feeling_ among the English in Bengal | _was_ strongly in
favor of the Governor General.
_Salutes_ | _were fired_ from the batteries.
The _Clives_ | _had been settled_ ever since the twelfth century on
an estate of no great value near Market Drayton in Shropshire.
_I_ | _have written_ repeatedly to Mr. Hobhouse.
+37.+ Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make one +compound
subject+, and two or more simple predicates to make one +compound
predicate+.
1. _Charles_ and _Henry_ | play tennis well.
2. _Moore_ and _I_ | passed some merry days together.
3. _Frances_ and _she_ | are friends.
4. _Hats_, _caps_, _boots_, and _gloves_ | were piled together in
confusion.
5. The watch | _sank_ and _was lost_.
6. The balloon | _rose_ higher and higher and finally _disappeared_.
7. He | neither _smiled_ nor _frowned_.
8. _Snow_ and _ice_ | _covered_ the ground and _made_ our progress
difficult.
+38.+ +A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple
subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.+
+Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.+
In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects (_Charles_ and
_Henry_) are joined by the conjunction _and_ to make a compound
subject. In the fourth, four substantives (_hats_, _caps_, _boots_,
_gloves_) form a series in which the last two are joined by _and_. In
the fifth, sixth, and seventh, the predicates are compound; in the
eighth, both the subject and the predicate.
+39.+ The following conjunctions may be used to join the members of a
compound subject or predicate: _and_ (_both_ ... _and_), _or_ (_either_
... _or_; _whether_ ... _or_), _nor_ (_neither_ ... _nor_).
SUBSTITUTES FOR PARTS OF SPEECH
PHRASES
+40.+ A group of words may take the place of a part of speech
_The Father of Waters_ is the Mississippi.
A girl _with blue eyes_ stood _at the window_.
You _are looking_ well.
_The Father of Waters_ is used as a noun, since it names something.
_With blue eyes_ takes the place of an adjective (_blue-eyed_), and
modifies _girl_.
_At the window_ indicates, as an adverb might, where the girl stood,
and modifies _stood_.
_Are looking_ could be replaced by the verb _look_.
+41.+ +A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a
predicate, is called a phrase.+
+A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.+
1. A phrase used as a noun is called a +noun-phrase+.
2. A phrase used as a verb is called a +verb-phrase+.
3. A phrase used as an adjective is called an +adjective phrase+.
4. A phrase used as an adverb is called an +adverbial phrase+.
In the examples in § 40, _The Father of Waters_ is a noun-phrase;
_with blue eyes_, an adjective phrase; _at the window_, an adverbial
phrase; _are looking_, a verb-phrase.
+42.+ Many adjective and adverbial phrases consist of a +preposition
and its object+, with or without other words.
Your umbrella is _in the corner_.
He has a heart _of oak_.
A cup _with a broken handle_ stood _on the shelf_.
My house _of cards_ fell _to the floor in a heap_.
+Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its
object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional
phrases.+
CLAUSES--COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
+43.+ Phrases must be carefully distinguished from +clauses+. The
difference is that a clause contains a subject and a predicate and a
phrase does not.
+44.+ +A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and
that contains a subject and a predicate.+
The lightning flashed | and | the thunder roared.
The train started | when the bell rang.
Each of these sentences contains two clauses; but the relation between
the clauses in the first sentence is very different from that between
the clauses in the second.
In the first example, each of the two clauses makes a separate
and distinct statement, and might stand by itself as a simple
sentence,--that is, as a sentence having but one subject and one
predicate. These clauses are joined by the conjunction _and_, which is
not a part of either. No doubt the speaker feels that there is some
relation in thought between the two statements, or he would not have
put them together as clauses in the same sentence. But there is nothing
in the form of expression to show what that relation is. In other
words, the two clauses are grammatically +independent+, for neither of
them modifies (or affects the meaning of) the other. The clauses are
therefore said to be +coördinate+,--that is, of the same “order” or
rank, and the sentence is called +compound+.
In the second example, on the contrary, the relation between the two
clauses is indicated with precision. One clause (_the train started_)
makes the main statement,--it expresses the chief fact. Hence it is
called the +main+ (or +principal+) +clause+. The other clause (_when
the bell rang_) is added because the speaker wishes to +modify+ the
main verb (_started_) by defining the time of the action. This clause,
then, is used as a +part of speech+. Its function is the same as that
of an adverb (_promptly_) or an adverbial phrase (_on the stroke of the
bell_). For this purpose alone it exists, and not as an independent
statement. Hence it is called a +dependent+ (or +subordinate+)
+clause+, because it +depends+ (that is, “hangs”) upon the main clause,
and so occupies a lower or “subordinate” rank in the sentence. When
thus constructed, a sentence is said to be +complex+.
+45.+ An ordinary +compound sentence+ (as we have seen in § 44) is made
by joining two or more simple sentences, each of which thus becomes an
+independent coördinate clause+.
In the same way we may join two or more +complex sentences+, using them
as clauses to make one compound sentence:--
The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom watched until the
last car disappeared.
This sentence is manifestly +compound+, for it consists of two
+coördinate clauses+ (_the train started when the bell rang_; _Tom
watched until the last car disappeared_) joined by _and_. Each of these
two clauses is itself +complex+, for each could stand by itself as a
complex sentence.
Similarly, a +complex+ and a +simple+ sentence may be joined as
coördinate clauses to make a compound sentence.
The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom gazed after it in
despair.
Such a sentence, which is +compound in its structure+, but in which one
or more of the coördinate clauses are +complex+, is called a +compound
complex sentence+.[9]
+46.+ +A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and
that contains a subject and a predicate.+
+A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All
other clauses are said to be independent.+
+Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate.+
+Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.+
1. +A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or
both of which may be compound.+
2. +A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate
clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.+
3. +A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is
independent and the rest subordinate.+
+A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are
complex is called a compound complex sentence.+
I. SIMPLE SENTENCES
Iron rusts.
George V is king.
Dogs, foxes, and hares are quadrupeds. [Compound subject.]
The defendant rose and addressed the court. [Compound predicate.]
Merton and his men crossed the bridge and scaled the wall. [Both
subject and predicate are compound.]
II. COMPOUND SENTENCES
Shakspere was born in 1564; he died in 1616. [Two coördinate clauses;
no conjunction.]
A rifle cracked, and the wolf fell dead. [Two clauses joined by the
conjunction _and_.]
You must hurry, or we shall lose the train. [Two clauses joined by
_or_.]
James Watt did not invent the steam engine, but he greatly improved
it. [Two clauses joined by _but_.]
Either you have neglected to write or your letter has failed to reach
me. [Two clauses joined by _either_ ... _or_.]
The following conjunctions may be used to join coördinate clauses:
_and_ (_both_ ... _and_), _or_ (_either_ ... _or_), _nor_ (_neither_
... _nor_), _but_, _for_.
III. COMPLEX SENTENCES
Examples will be found in §§ 48–50.
CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH
+47.+ +Subordinate clauses+, like phrases, are used as +parts of
speech+. They serve as substitutes for +nouns+, for +adjectives+, or
for +adverbs+.
1. +A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or
substantive) clause.+
2. +A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an
adjective clause.+
3. +A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called
an adverbial clause.+
+48.+ I. NOUN (OR SUBSTANTIVE) CLAUSES.
{_Success_ | _That we should succeed in this plan_} is improbable.
The thought in these two sentences is the same, but in the second it
is more fully expressed. In the first sentence, the subject is the
noun _success_; in the second, the subject is the noun clause, _that
we should succeed in this plan_. This clause is introduced by the
conjunction _that_; the simple subject of the clause is the pronoun
_we_, and the simple predicate is the verb-phrase _should succeed_. The
first sentence is +simple+; the second is +complex+.
Substantive clauses are often introduced by the conjunction _that_.
+49.+ II. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. The following sentences illustrate the use
of (1) an +adjective+, (2) an +adjective phrase+, (3) an +adjective
clause+, as a modifier of the subject noun.
{An _honorable_ man | A man _of honor_ | A man _who values his
honor_} will not lie.
{A _seasonable_ word | A word _in season_ | A word _that is spoken at
the right moment_} may save a soul.
{My _native_ land | The land _of my birth_ | The land _where I was
born_} lies far across the sea.
The first two sentences in each group are +simple+, the third is
+complex+.
+50.+ III. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. The following sentences illustrate the
use of (1) an +adverb+, (2) an +adverbial phrase+, (3) an +adverbial
clause+, as a modifier of the predicate verb (or verb-phrase).
The lightning struck {_here_. | _on this spot_. | _where we stand_.}
Mr. Andrews lives {_near_. | _in this neighborhood_. | _where you see
that elm_.}
The game began {_punctually_. | _on the stroke of one_. | _when the
clock struck_.}
The banker will make the loan {_conditionally_. | _on one condition_.
| _if you endorse my note_.}
The first two sentences in each group are +simple+, the third is
+complex+.
+51.+ Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by the pronouns _who_,
_which_, and _that_, or (2) by adverbs like _where_, _whence_,
_whither_, _when_.
Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by the adverbs _where_,
_whither_, _whence_, _when_, _while_, _before_, _after_, _until_,
_how_, _as_, or (2) by the conjunctions _because_, _though_,
_although_, _if_, _that_ (_in order that_, _so that_), _lest_, etc.
NOTE. The use of +phrases+ and +clauses+ as +parts of speech+
increases enormously the richness and power of language. Though
English has a huge stock of words, it cannot provide a separate noun
or adjective or adverb for every idea. By grouping words, however, in
phrases and clauses we, in effect, make a great variety of new nouns,
adjectives, and adverbs, each precisely fitted to the needs of the
moment in the expression of thought.
SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS
THE SENTENCE
1. Language is thought expressed in words.
2. To express thought words are combined into sentences.
3. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.
4. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or
exclamatory.
(1) A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.
(2) An interrogative sentence asks a question.
(3) An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.
(4) An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other
emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.
A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may also be
exclamatory.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
5. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.
The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that
is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.
6. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.
The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.
7. The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its
meaning, forms the complete subject.
The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its
meaning, forms the complete predicate.
8. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple
subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.
Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
9. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided
into eight classes called parts of speech,--namely, nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and
interjections.
(1) A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.
(2) A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person,
place, or thing without naming it.
Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.
The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.
(3) An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.
This it usually does by indicating some quality.
An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or
limits.
An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective; one
which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective.
(4) A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action)
concerning a person, place, or thing.
Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.
A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary
(that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express
action or state of some particular kind.
_Is_ (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to
frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe
or define the subject. In such sentences, _is_ and other verbs that are
used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is, “joining”)
verbs.
(5) An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another
adverb.
A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of
another word is called a modifier.
Adjectives and adverbs are both modifiers.
(6) A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its
relation to some other word in the sentence.
The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.
(7) A conjunction connects words or groups of words.
(8) An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing
surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.
10. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of
speech it belongs.
The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.
11. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a
noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition _to_, which is called
the sign of the infinitive.
12. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which
partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in
such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.
A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or
limits.
The chief classes of participles are present participles and past
participles, so called from the time which they denote.
SUBSTITUTES FOR THE PARTS OF SPEECH
PHRASES
13. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a
predicate, is called a phrase.
A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.
(1) A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase.
(2) A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
(3) A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase.
(4) A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase.
14. Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and
its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional
phrases.
CLAUSES
15. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that
contains a subject and a predicate.
16. A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause.
All other clauses are said to be independent.
17. Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate.
18. Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.
(1) A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or
both of which may be compound.
(2) A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate
clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.
(3) A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is
independent and the rest subordinate.
A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are
complex is called a compound complex sentence.
19. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech.
They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs.
(1) A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or
substantive) clause.
(2) A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an
adjective clause.
(3) A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called
an adverbial clause.
PART TWO
INFLECTION AND SYNTAX
CHAPTER I
INFLECTION
+52.+ +Inflection is a change of form in a word indicating some change
in its meaning. A word thus changed in form is said to be inflected.+
Thus the nouns _man_, _wife_, _dog_, may change their form to
_man’s_, _wife’s_, _dog’s_, to express possession; or to _men_,
_wives_, _dogs_, to show that two or more are meant.
The pronouns _I_, _she_, may change their form to _our_, _her_.
The adjectives _large_, _happy_, _good_, may change their form to
_larger_, _happier_, _better_, to denote a higher degree of the
quality; or to _largest_, _happiest_, _best_, to denote the highest
degree.
The verbs _look_, _see_, _sing_, may change their form to _looked_,
_saw_, _sang_, to denote past time.
The examples show that a word may be inflected (1) by the addition of
a final letter or syllable (_dog_, _dogs_; _look_, _looked_), (2) by
the substitution of one letter for another (_man_, _men_), or (3) by a
complete change of form (_good_, _better_, _best_).
+53.+ The inflection of a substantive is called its +declension+; that
of an adjective or an adverb, its +comparison+; that of a verb, its
+conjugation+.
NOTE. Some forms which we regard as due to inflection are really
distinct words. Thus _we_ is regarded as a form of the pronoun _I_,
but it is in fact an altogether different word. Such irregularities,
however, are not numerous, and are properly enough included under the
head of inflection.
The table below gives a summary view of inflection, and may be used for
reference with the following chapters.
SUBSTANTIVES (NOUNS AND PRONOUNS)
Gender { Masculine (_male_)
{ Feminine (_female_)
{ Neuter (_no sex_)
Number { Singular (_one_)
{ Plural (_more than one_)
Person { First (_speaker_)
{ Second (_spoken to_)
{ Third (_spoken of_)
Case { Nominative (_subject case_)
{ Possessive (_ownership_)
{ Objective (_object case_)
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Comparison { Positive Degree
{ Comparative Degree
{ Superlative Degree
VERBS
Number { Singular }
{ Plural }
} _Verb agrees with Subject_
Person { First }
{ Second }
{ Third }
Tense { Simple Tenses { Present
{ { Past
{ { Future
{
{ Compound Tenses { Perfect (or Present Perfect)
{ { Pluperfect (or Past Perfect)
{ { Future Perfect
Mood { Indicative (_all six tenses_)
{ Imperative (_Present Tense only_)
{ Subjunctive (_Present_, _Past_, _Perfect_, _Pluperfect_)
Voice { Active (_Subject acts_)
{ Passive (_Subject receives the action_)
Infinitives (Present and Perfect)
Participles (Present, Past, and Perfect)