1. LITERATURE IN THE LATIN TONGUE.--The Norman Conquest introduced into
England a foreign race of kings and barons, with their military vassals,
and churchmen, who followed the conqueror and his successors. The
generation succeeding the Conquest gave birth to little that was
remarkable, but the twelfth century was particularly distinguished for its
classical scholarship, and Norman-French poetry began to find English
imitators.
The thirteenth century was a decisive epoch in the constitutional as well
as in the intellectual history of England. The Great Charter was extorted
from John; the representation of the commons from his successors; the
universities were founded or organized; the romantic poetry of France
began to be transfused into a language intelligible throughout England;
and above all, the Anglo-Saxon tongue was in this century finally
transformed into English. Three of the Crusades had already taken place;
the other four fell within the next century; and these wars diffused
knowledge, and kindled a flame of zeal and devotion to the church.
The only names which adorned the annals of erudition in England in the
latter half of the eleventh century were those of two Lombard priests--
Lanfranc (d. 1089) and Anselm (d. 1109). They prepared the means for
diffusing classical learning among the ecclesiastics, and both acquired
high celebrity as theological writers. Their influence was visible on the
two most learned men whom the country produced in the next century--John
of Salisbury (d. 1181). befriended by Thomas à Becket, and Peter of Blois,
the king's secretary, and an active statesman.
In the thirteenth century, when the teachings of Abelard and Rosellinus
had made philosophy the favorite pursuit of the scholars of Europe,
England possessed many names which, in this field, stood higher than any
others--among them Alexander de Hales, called "the Irrefragable Doctor,"
and Johannes Duns Scotus, one of the most acute of thinkers. In the same
age, while Scotland sent Michael Scott into Germany, where he prosecuted
his studies with a success that earned for him the fame of a sorcerer, a
similar character was acquired by Roger Bacon (d. 1292), a Franciscan
friar, who made many curious conjectures on the possibility of discoveries
which have since been made.
Very few of the historical works of this period possess any merit, except
as curious records of fact. Chronicles were kept in the various
monasteries, which furnish a series extending through the greater part of
the Middle Ages. Among these historians are William of Malmesbury, who
belonged properly to the twelfth century; Geoffrey of Monmouth, who
preserved for us the stories of Arthur, of Lear, and Cymbeline; Gerald de
Barri, or Giraldus Cambrensis; Matthew Paris, a Benedictine monk, of St.
Albans; Henry of Huntingdon; Gervase of Tilbury; and Roger de Hoveden.
The spirit of resistance to secular and ecclesiastical tyranny, which now
began to show itself among the English people, found also a medium of
expression in the Latin tongue. The most biting satires against the
church, and the most lively political pasquinades, were thus expressed,
and written almost always by churchmen. To give these satires a wider
circulation, the Norman-French came to be frequently used, but at the
close of the period the English dialect was almost the only organ of this
satirical minstrelsy.
The Latin tongue also became the means of preserving and transmitting an
immense stock of tales, by which the later poetry of Europe profited
largely. One of these legends, narrated by Gervase of Tilbury, suggested
to Scott the combat of Marmion with the spectre knight.
A series of fictions called the "Gesta Romanorum" attained great
celebrity. It is composed of fables, traditions, and familiar pictures of
society, varying with the different countries it passed through. The
romance of Apollonius, in the Gesta, furnished the plot of two or three of
Chaucer's tales, and of Gower's most celebrated poem, which again gave the
ground-work of Pericles, Prince of Tyre. The Merchant of Venice, the Three
Black Crows, and Parnell's Hermit, are indebted also to the Gesta
Romanorum.
4. LITERATURE IN NORMAN-FRENCH.--From the preference of the Norman kings
of England for the poets of their own country, the distinguished literary
names of the first two centuries after the Conquest are those of Norman
poets. One of the chief of these is Wace (fl. 1160), who composed in
French his "Brut d'Angleterre" (Brutus of England), the mythical son of
Aeneas and founder of Britain. The Britons settled in Cornwall, Wales, and
Bretagne had long been distinguished for their traditionary legends, which
were at length collected by Geoffrey of Monmouth (fl. 1138), and gravely
related by him in Latin as serious history. This production, composed of
incredible stories, furnished the ground-work for Wace's poem, and proved
an unfailing resource for writers of romantic narration for two centuries;
at a later period Shakspeare drew from it the story of Lear; Sackville
that of Ferrex and Porrex; Drayton reproduced it in his Poly-Olbion, and
Milton and other poets frequently draw allusions from it. The Romances of
chivalry, drawn from the same source, were composed for the English court
and nobles, and the translation of them was the most frequent use to which
the infant English was applied. They imprinted on English poetry
characteristics which it did not lose for centuries, if it can be said to
have lost them at all.
A poetess known as Marie of France made copious use of British materials,
and addressed herself to a king, supposed to have been Henry VI. Her
twelve lays, which celebrate the marvels of the Round Table, are among the
most beautiful relics of the Middle Ages, and were freely used by Chaucer
and other English poets.
The romances are, many of them, in parts at least, delightfully
imaginative, spirited, or pathetic, and their history is important as
illustrating mediaeval manners and customs, and for their connection with
early English literature. Among the oldest of these romances is "Havelok,"
relating to the early Norse settlement in England, the "Gest of King
Horn," and "Guy of Warwick."
But of all the French romances, the most interesting by far are those that
celebrate the glory and fall of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round
Table. The order in which they were composed seems to have been the same
with that of the events narrated.
First comes the romance of "The Saint Graal," relating the history of this
sacred relic which was carried by Joseph of Arimathea or his descendants
into Britain, where it vanished for ages from the eyes of sinful men.
Second, the romance of "Merlin," which derives its name from the fiend-
born prophet and magician, celebrates the birth and exploits of Arthur,
and the gathering round him of the Knights of the Round Table. The
historic origin of this story is from Geoffrey of Monmouth, though it is
disguised by its supernatural and chivalrous features.
In the third romance, that of Launcelot, the hero nurtured by the Lady of
the Lake in her fairy realm beneath the waters, grows up the bravest
champion of chivalry, admired for all its virtues, although guilty of
treachery to Arthur, and from his guilt is to ensue the destruction of the
land.
Fourth, the "Quest of the Saint Graal" relates the solitary wanderings of
the knights in this search, and how the adventure is at last achieved by
Sir Gallahad, who, while the vision passes before him, prays that he may
no longer live, and is immediately taken away from a world of calamity and
sin.
Fifth, "The Mort Artus," or Death of Arthur, winds up with supernatural
horrors the tale into which the fall of the ancient Britons had been thus
transformed. Arthur, wounded and dying, is carried by the fairy of the
lake to the enchanted island of Avalon, there to dream away the ages that
must elapse before his return to reign over the perfected world of
chivalry.
Sixth, "The Adventures of Tristram," or Tristan, is a repetition of those
which had been attributed to Launcelot of the Lake.
These six romances of the British cycle, the originals of all others, were
written in the latter half of the twelfth century for the English court
and nobles, some of them at the suggestion of king Henry II. Although,
composed in French, the authors were Englishmen, and from these prose
romances the poets of France constructed many metrical romances which in
the fifteenth century reappeared as English metrical romances.
5. SAXON ENGLISH.--The Saxon tongue of England decayed, but like the
healthy seed in the ground it germinated again. The Saxon Chronicle which
had been kept in the monasteries ceased abruptly on the accession of Henry
II., 1154, and at the same period the Saxon language began to take a form
in which the beginning of the present English is apparent.
During the thirteenth century appeared a series of rhyming chroniclers,
the chief of whom were Layamon and Robert of Gloucester. All the remains
of the English tongue, in its transition state, are chiefly in verse;
among them are the "Ormulum" (so called from the name of the author,
Ormin), which is a metrical harmony of passages from the gospels contained
in the service of the mass, and the long fable of "The Owl and the
Nightingale," one of the most pleasing of these early relics. "The Land of
Cockayne," a satirical poem, said to have been written by Michael of
Kildare, belongs also to the thirteenth century, as well as many anonymous
poems, both amatory and religious.
The old English drama was almost contemporaneous with the formation of the
Old English language; but all dramatic efforts previous to the sixteenth
century were so rude as to deserve little notice.
6. LITERATURE IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.--The fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, the afternoon and evening of the Middle Ages, are the
picturesque period in English history. In the contemporary chronicle of
Froissart, the reign of Edward III. shines with a long array of knightly
pageants, and a loftier cast of imaginative adornment is imparted by the
historical dramas of Shakspeare to the troubled rule of the house of
Lancaster and the crimes and fall of the brief dynasty of York.
The reign of Edward II. was as inglorious in literature as in the history
of the nation. That of his son was not more remarkable for the victories
of Poictiers and Cressy than for the triumphs in poetry and thought. The
Black Prince, the model of historic chivalry, and Occam, the last and
greatest of the English scholastic philosophers, lived in the same century
with Chaucer, the father of English poetry, and Wickliffe, the herald of
the Reformation.
The earlier half of the fourteenth century, in its literary aspects, may
be regarded as a separate period from the later. The genius of the nation
seemed to sleep. England, indeed, was the birth-place of Occam (1300-
1347), but he neither remained in his own country, nor imparted any strong
impulse to his countrymen. Educated abroad, he lived chiefly In France,
and died in Munich. While the writings of his master, Duns Scotus (d.
1308), were the chief authorities of the metaphysical sect called
_Realists_, Occam himself was the ablest and one of the earliest writers
among the _Nominalists_. While the former of these sects was held
especially favorable to the Romish Church, the latter was discouraged as
heretical, and Occam was persecuted for enunciating those opinions which
are now held in one form or another by almost all metaphysicians. No
eminent names appear in the ecclesiastical literature of this period, nor
in that of the spoken tongue; but the dawn of English literature was close
at hand.
The latter half of this century was a remarkable era in the ecclesiastical
and intellectual progress of England. Many colleges were founded, and
learning had munificent patrons. The increase of papal power led to claims
which were resisted by the clergy as well as by the parliament. Foremost
among those who called for reform was the celebrated John Wickliffe (1324-
1384). A priest of high fame for his knowledge and logical dexterity, he
was placed at the head of several of the colleges of Oxford, and there,
and from the country parsonages to which he was afterwards compelled to
retreat, he thundered forth his denunciations against the abuses of the
church, attacked the papal supremacy, and set forth doctrinal views of his
own nearly approaching to Calvinism. Although repeatedly called to account
for his opinions he was never even imprisoned, and he enjoyed his church-
livings to the last. But the church was weakened by the _Great Schism_,
and he was protected by powerful nobles. Soon after his death, however, a
storm of persecution burst on his disciples, which crushed dissent till
the sixteenth century. We owe to Wickliffe the earliest version of the
Scriptures into English, which is among the first prose writings in the
old tongue.
The very oldest book in English prose, however, is the account given by
Sir John Mandeville of his thirty-three years' travel in the East, from
which he returned about 1355. It is an odd and amusing compound of facts
and marvelous stories. But the best specimens of English prose of this
period are Chaucer's translation of Boethius, his "Testament of Love," and
two of his Canterbury Tales.
In poetical literature, "The Vision of Piers Plowman," written (1362) by a
priest named Robert Langland, is one of the highest works in point of
genius and one of the most curious as illustrating manners and opinions.
The poet supposes himself falling asleep on Malvern Hills, and in his
vision he describes the vices of the times in an allegorical form, which
has been compared to "The Pilgrim's Progress." The poetical vigor of many
passages is extraordinary.
John Gower (d. 1408), a contemporary and friend of Chaucer, is chiefly
remembered for his "Confessio Amantis," or Lover's Confession, a long
English poem, containing physical, metaphysical, and ethical reflections
and stories taken from the common repertories of the Middle Ages. It is
tedious, and often feeble, but it has many excellences of language and
description.
Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400) was born in London. He was early thrown into
public life and intimacy with men of high rank. John of Gaunt was his
chief patron, and he was several times employed in embassies to France and
Italy. A very large proportion of Chaucer's writings consists of free
versions from the Latin and French, and perhaps also from the Italian; but
in some of these he has incorporated so much that is his own as to make
them the most celebrated and valuable of his works. His originals were not
the chivalrous romances, but the comic Fabliaux, and the allegorical
poetry cultivated by the Trouvères and Troubadours. Three of his largest
minor works are thus borrowed; the "Romance of the Rose," from one of the
most popular French poems of the preceding century; "Troilus and
Cressida," a free translation, probably, from Boccaccio; and the "Legend
of Good Women," founded on Ovid's Epistles. The poetical immortality of
Chaucer rests on his "Canterbury Tales," a series of stories linked
together by an ingenious device. A party of about thirty persons, the poet
being one, are bound on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Thomas à Becket, at
Canterbury; each person is to tell two tales, one in going, and the other
in returning. Twenty-four only of the stories are related, but they extend
to more than 17,000 lines. In the prologue, itself a poem of great merit,
the poet draws up the curtain from a scene of life and manners which has
not been surpassed in subsequent literature, a picture whose figures have
been studied with the truest observation, and are outlined with the
firmest, yet most delicate pencil. The vein of sentiment in these tales is
always unaffected, cheerful, and manly, the most touching seriousness
varying with the keenest humor. In some the tone rises to the highest
flight of heroic, reflective, and even religious poetry; while in others
it sinks below coarseness into positive licentiousness of thought and
sentiment.
LITERATURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.--The fifteenth century, usually
marked in continental history as the epoch of the Revival of Classical
Learning, was not in England a period of erudition or of original
invention. The unwise and unjust wars with France, the revolts of the
populace, and the furious struggles between the partisans of the rival
houses desolated the country, and blighted and dwarfed all intellectual
growth. For more than a hundred years after the death of Chaucer, scarcely
any names of mark distinguish the literary annals of England, and the
poetical compositions of this period are principally valuable as specimens
of the rapid transition of the language into modern English. Almost all
the literary productions previous to the time of Chaucer were designed
only for a limited audience. Neither comprehensive observation of society
nor a wish to instruct or please a wide circle of readers was observable
before this period. Chaucer was indeed a national poet, an active and
enlightened teacher of all classes of men who were susceptible of literary
instruction.
John Lydgate (d. 1430), a Benedictine monk, the best and most popular poet
of the fifteenth century, began to write before the death of Chaucer, but
in passing from the works of the latter to those of Lydgate, we seem to be
turning from the open highway into the dark, echoing cloisters. If he was
the pupil of Chaucer in manner and style, his masters in opinion and
sentiment were the compilers of the "Gesta Romanorum."
Stephen Hawes, who wrote in the reign of Henry VII., is the author of "The
Pastime of Pleasure," an allegorical poem in the same taste as the
"Romance of the Rose." This allegorical school of poetry, so widely spread
through the Middle Ages, reappears in the Elizabethan age, where the same
turn of thought is seen in the immortal "Faerie Queene."
In leaving this period we bid adieu to metrical romances, which,
introduced into English in the latter half of the thirteenth century,
continued to be composed until the middle of the fifteenth century, and
were to the last almost always translations or imitations. Chivalrous
stories next began to be related in prose. The most famous of these, one
of the best specimens of Old English, and the most delightful of all
repositories of romantic fiction is the "Mort Arthur," in which Sir Thomas
Mallory, a priest in the reign of Edward IV., combined into one narrative
the leading adventures of the Round Table.
As the romances ceased to be produced, the ballads gradually took their
place, many of which indeed are either fragments or abridgments of them.
The ballad-poetry was to the popular audience what the recital of the
romances had been among the nobles. The latter half of the fifteenth
century appears to have been fertile in minstrels and minstrelsy. "Chevy
Chase," of which Sir Philip Sidney said it would move him like the blast
of a trumpet, is one of the most ancient; but, according to Hallam, it
relates to a totally fictitious event. The ballad of "Robin Hood" had
probably as little origin in fact.
Towards the close of the fifteenth century, a mighty revolution took
place. William Caxton, a merchant of London residing abroad, became
acquainted with the recently invented art of printing, and embraced it as
a profession. He introduced it into England about 1474, and practiced it
for nearly twenty years. He printed sixty-four works in all, and the low
state of taste and information in the public for which they were
designated is indicated by the selection. But the enterprise and patience
of Caxton hastened the time when this mighty discovery became available in
England, and his name deserves to stand with honor at the close of the
survey of English literature in the Middle Ages. Thenceforth literary
works were to undergo a total change of character, brought about by many
causes, but none more active than the substitution of the printed book for
the manuscript.
6. THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES IN SCOTLAND.--From the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries there might be collected the names of a few
scholastic theologians of Scottish birth, whose works have survived; but
they spent their lives mostly on the continent, as was the case with
Michael Scott, who gained his fame as a wizard at the court of the Emperor
Frederic II. His extant writings are wholly inferior to those of Friar
Bacon, his contemporary.
Two metrical romances of note belong to the fourteenth century, the
"Original Cronykil" of Andrew Wyntoun (d. 1420), a long history of
Scotland, and of the world at large; and "The Bruce" of John Barbour (d.
1396), a narrative of the adventures of King Robert in more than thirteen
thousand rhymed lines. Dramatic vigor and occasional breadth of sentiment
entitle this poem to a high rank. Sir Walter Scott, in his "Lord of the
Isles," owes much to "The Bruce."
The earliest Scottish poem of the fifteenth century, "The King's Quair,"
or Book, in which James I. (d. 1437) celebrates the lady whom he
afterwards married, presents no traces of a distinct Scottish dialect. But
James was educated in England, and probably wrote there, and his pleasing
poem exhibits the influence of those English writers whom he acknowledges
as his masters. From this time, however, the development of the language
of Scotland into a dialect went rapidly on. The "Wallace" of Henry the
Minstrel, or Blind Harry, rivaled the "Bruce" in popularity, on account of
the more picturesque character of the incidents, its passionate fervor,
and the wildness of fancy by which it is distinguished.
Towards the close of this century, and in the beginning of the next,
Scottish poetry, now couched in a dialect decidedly peculiar, was
cultivated by men of high genius. Robert Henryson (d. 1400) wrote "The
Testament of the Faire Cresside," a continuation of Chaucer's poem, and
"Robin and Makyne," a beautiful pastoral, preserved in Percy's "Reliques."
More vigorous in thought and fancy, though inferior in skill and
expression, was Gavin Douglas, Bishop of Dunkeld (d. 1522). His "King
Hart" and "Palace of Honor" are complex allegories; and his translation of
the Aeneid is the earliest attempt to render classical poetry into the
living language of the country.
William Dunbar (d. 1520), the best British poet of his age, exhibits a
versatility of talent which has rarely been equaled; but in his comic and
familiar pieces, the grossness of language and sentiment destroys the
effect of their force and humor. Allegory is his favorite field. In his
"Golden Terge," the target is Reason, a protection against the assaults of
love. "The Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins" is wonderfully striking; but
the design even of this remarkable poem could not be decorously described.
While Scotland thus redeemed the poetical character of the fifteenth
century, her living tongue was used only in versified compositions.
Scottish prose does not appear in any literary shape until the first
decade of the sixteenth century.