1. The Language.--2. Dutch Literature to the Sixteenth Century: Maerlant;
Melis Stoke; De Weert; the Chambers of Rhetoric; the Flemish Chroniclers;
the Rise of the Dutch Republic.--3. The Latin Writers: Erasmus; Grotius;
Arminius; Lipsius; the Scaligers, and others; Salmasius; Spinoza;
Boerhaave; Johannes Secundus.--4. Dutch Writers of the Sixteenth Century:
Anna Byns; Coornhert; Marnix de St. Aldegonde, Bor, Visscher, and
Spieghel.--5. Writers of the Seventeenth Century: Hooft; Vondel; Cats;
Antonides; Brandt, and others; Decline in Dutch Literature.--6. The
Eighteenth Century: Poot; Langendijk; Hoogvliet; De Marre; Feitama;
Huydecoper; the Van Harens; Smits; Ten Kate; Van Winter; Van Merken; De
Lannoy; Van Alphen; Bellamy; Nieuwland, Styl, and others.--7. The
Nineteenth Century: Feith; Helmers; Bilderdyk; Van der Palm; Loosjes;
Loots, Tollens, Van Kampen, De s'Gravenweert, Hoevill, and others.
1. THE LANGUAGE.--The Dutch, Flemish, and Frisic languages, spoken in the
kingdoms of Holland and Belgium, are branches of the Gothic family. Toward
the close of the fifteenth century, the Dutch gained the ascendency over
the others, which it has never since lost. This language is energetic and
flexible, rich in synonyms and delicate shades, and from its fullness and
strength, better adapted to history, tragedy, and odes, than to comedy and
the lighter kinds of poetry. The Flemish, which still remains the literary
language of the southern provinces, is inferior to the Dutch, and has been
greatly corrupted by the admixture of foreign words. The Frisic, spoken in
Friesland, is an idiom less cultivated than the others, and is gradually
disappearing. In the seventeenth century it boasted of several writers, of
whom the poet Japix was the most eminent. The first grammar of the Frisic
language was published by Professor Rask, of Copenhagen, in 1825. In some
parts of Belgium the Walloon, an old dialect of the French, is still
spoken, but the Flemish continues to be the common language of the people,
although since the establishment of Belgium as an independent kingdom the
use of the French language has prevailed among the higher classes.
2. DUTCH LITERATURE TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.--When the obscurity of the
dark ages began to disappear with the revival of letters, the Netherlands
were not last among the countries of Europe in coming forth from the
darkness. The cities of Flanders were early distinguished for the
commercial activity and industrial skill of their inhabitants. Bruges
reached the height of its splendor in the beginning of the fifteenth
century, and was for some time one of the great commercial emporiums of
the world, to which Constantinople, Genoa, and Venice sent their precious
argosies laden with the products of the East. At the close of the
thirteenth century Ghent, in wealth and power, eclipsed the French
metropolis; and at the end of the fifteenth century there was, according
to Erasmus, no town in all Christendom to compare with it for magnitude,
power, political institutions, or the culture of its citizens. The lays of
the minstrels and the romances of chivalry were early translated, and a
Dutch version of "Reynard the Fox" was made in the middle of the
thirteenth century. Jakob Maerlant (1235-1300), the first author of note,
translated the Bible into Flemish rhyme, and made many versions of the
classics; and Melis Stoke, his contemporary, wrote a rhymed "Chronicle of
Holland."
The most important work of the fourteenth century is the "New Doctrine,"
by De Weert, which, for the freedom of its expression on religious
subjects, may be regarded as one of the precursors of the Reformation.
Towards the close of the fourteenth century there arose a class of
wandering poets called Sprekers, who, at the courts of princes and
elsewhere, rehearsed their maxims in prose or verse. In the fifteenth
century they formed themselves into literary societies, known as "Chambers
of Rhetoric" (poetry being at that time called the "Art of Rhetoric"),
which were similar to the Guilds of the Meistersingers. These institutions
were soon multiplied throughout the country, and the members exercised
themselves in rhyming, or composed and performed mysteries and plays,
which, at length, gave rise to the theatre. They engaged in poetical
contests, distributed prizes, and were prominent in all national fêtes.
The number of the rhetoricians was so immense, that during the reign of
Philip II. of Spain more than thirty chambers, composed of fifteen hundred
members, often entered Antwerp in triumphal procession. But the effect of
these associations, composed for the most part of illiterate men, was to
destroy the purity of the language and to produce degeneracy in the
literature. The Chamber of Amsterdam, however, was an honorable exception,
and towards the close of the sixteenth century it counted among its
members distinguished scholars, such as Spieghel, Coornhert, Marnix, and
Visscher, and it may be considered as the school which formed Hooft and
Vondel.
During the reign of the House of Burgundy (1383-1477), which was
essentially French in tastes and manners, the native tongue became
corrupted by the admixture of foreign elements. The poets and chroniclers
of the time were chiefly of Flemish origin; the most widely known among
the latter are Henricourt (d. 1403), Monstrelet (d. 1453), and Chastelain
(d. 1475). A translation of the Bible and a few more works close the
literary record of the fifteenth century.
The invention of printing, the great event of the age, is claimed by the
cities of Mayence, Strasbourg, and Harlem; but if the art which preserves
literature originated in the Netherlands, it did not at once create a
native literature, the growth of which was greatly retarded by the use of
the Latin tongue, which long continued to be the organ of expression with
the principal writers of the country, nearly all of whom, even to the
present day, are distinguished for the purity and elegance with which they
compose in this language.
The Reformation and the great political agitations of the sixteenth
century ended in the independence of the northern provinces and the
establishment of the Dutch Republic (1581) under the name of the United
Provinces, commonly called Holland, from the province of that name, which
was superior to the others in extent, population, and influence. The new
republic rose rapidly in power; and while intolerance and religious
disputes distracted other European states, it offered a safe asylum to the
persecuted of all sects. The expanding energies of the people soon sought
a field beyond the narrow boundaries of the country; their ships visited
every sea, and they monopolized the richest commerce of the world. They
alone supplied Europe with the productions of the Spice Islands, and the
gold, pearls, and jewels of the East all passed through their hands; and
in the middle of the seventeenth century the United Provinces were the
first commercial and the first maritime power in the world. A rapid
development of the literature was the natural consequence of this
increasing national development, which was still more powerfully promoted
by the great and wise William I., Prince of Orange, who in 1575 founded
the university of Leyden as a reward to that city for its valiant defense
against the Spaniards. Similar institutions were soon established at
Groningen, Utrecht, and elsewhere; these various seats of learning
produced a rivalry highly advantageous to the diffusion of knowledge, and
great men arose in all branches of science and literature. Among the
distinguished names of the sixteenth century those of the Latin writers
occupy the first place.
3. LATIN WRITERS.--One of the great restorers of letters in Europe, and
one of the most elegant of modern Latin authors, was Gerard Didier, a
native of Rotterdam, who took the name of Erasmus (1467-1536). To profound
learning he joined a refined taste and a delicate wit, and few men have
been so greatly admired as he was during his lifetime. The principal
sovereigns of Europe endeavored to draw him into their kingdoms. He
several times visited England, where he was received with great deference
by Henry VIII., and where he gave lectures on Greek literature at
Cambridge. He made many translations from Greek authors, and a very
valuable translation of the New Testament into Latin. His writings
introduced the spirit of free inquiry on all subjects, and to his
influence may be attributed the first dawning of the Reformation. But his
caution offended some of the best men of the times. His treatise on "Free
Will" made an open breach between him and Luther, whose opinions favored
predestination; his "Colloquies" gave great offense to the Catholics; and
as he had not declared for the Protestants, he had but lukewarm friends in
either party. It has been said of Erasmus, that he would have purified and
repaired the venerable fabric of the church, with a light and cautious
touch, fearful lest learning, virtue, and religion should be buried in its
fall, while Luther struck at the tottering ruin with a bold and reckless
hand, confident that a new and more beautiful temple would rise from its
ruins.
Hugo de Groot, who, according to the fashion of the time, took the Latin
name of Grotius (1583-1645), was a scholar and statesman of the most
diversified talents, and one of the master minds of the age. He was
involved in the religious controversy which at that time disturbed
Holland, and he advocated the doctrines of Arminius, in common with the
great statesman, Barneveldt, whom he supported and defended by his pen and
influence. On the execution of Barneveldt, Grotius was condemned to
imprisonment for life in the castle of Louvestein; but after nearly two
years spent in the prison, his faithful wife planned and effected his
escape. She had procured the privilege of sending him a chest of books,
which occasionally passed and repassed, closely scrutinized. On one
occasion the statesman took the place of the books, and was borne forth
from the prison in the chest, which is still in the possession of the
descendants of Grotius, in his native city of Delft. The States-General
perpetuated the memory of the devoted wife by continuing to give her name
to a frigate in the Dutch navy. After his escape from prison, Grotius
found an asylum in Sweden, from whence he was sent ambassador to France.
His countrymen at length repented of having banished the man who was the
honor of his native land, and he was recalled; but on his way to Holland
he was taken ill and died before he could profit by this tardy act of
justice. The writings of Grotius greatly tended to diffuse an enlightened
and liberal manner of thinking in all matters of science. He was a
profound theologian, a distinguished scholar, an acute philosopher and
jurist, and among the modern Latin poets he holds a high place. The
philosophy of jurisprudence has been especially promoted by his great work
on natural and national law, which laid the foundation of a new science.
Arminius (1560-1609), the founder of the sect of Arminians or
Remonstrants, was distinguished as a preacher and for his zeal in the
Reformed Religion. He attempted to soften the Calvinistic doctrines of
predestination, in which he was violently opposed by Gomarus. He counted
among his adherents Grotius, Barneveldt, and many of the eminent men of
Holland. Other eminent theologians of this period were Drusius and
Coeceius.
Lipsius (1547-1606) is known as a philologist and for his treatises on the
military art of the Romans, on the Latin classics, and on the philosophy
of the Stoics. Another scholar of extensive learning, whose editions of
the principal Greek and Latin classics have rendered him famous all over
Europe, was Daniel Heinsius (1580-1655). Gronovius and several of the
members of the Spanheim family became also eminent for their scholarship
in various branches of ancient learning.
The two Scaligers, father and son (1483-1554) (1540-1609), Italians,
resident in Holland, are eminent for their researches in chronology and
archaeology, and for their valuable works on the classics. Prominent among
those who followed in the new path of philological study opened by the
elder Scaliger was Vossius, or Voss (1577-1649), who excelled in many
branches of learning, and particularly in Latin philology, which owes much
to him. He left five sons, all scholars of note, especially the youngest,
Isaac Vossius (1618-1689).
Peter Burmann (1668-1741) was a scholar of great erudition and industry.
Christian Huyghens (1629-1695) was a celebrated astronomer and
mathematician, and many great men in those branches of science flourished
in Holland in the seventeenth century. Among the great philologists and
scholars must also be mentioned Hemsterhuis, Ruhnkenius, and Valckenaer.
Menno van Coehorn (1641-1704) was a general and engineer distinguished for
his genius in military science; his great work on fortifications has been
translated into many foreign languages. Helmont and Boerhaave have
acquired world-wide fame by their labors in chemistry; Linnaeus collected
the materials for his principal botanical work from the remarkable
botanical treasures of Holland; and zoology and the natural sciences
generally counted many devoted and eminent champions in that country.
Salmasius (1588-1653), though born in France, is ranked among the writers
of Holland. He was professor in the University of Leyden, and was
celebrated for the extent and depth of his erudition. He wrote a defense
of Charles I. of England, which was answered by Milton, in a work entitled
"A Defense of the English People against Salmasius' Defense of the King."
Salmasius died soon after, and some did not scruple to say that Milton
killed him by the acuteness of his reply.
Boerhaave (1668-1738) was one of the most eminent writers on medical
science in the eighteenth century, and from the time of Hippocrates no
physician had excited so much admiration. Spinoza (1632-1677) holds a
commanding position as a philosophical writer. His metaphysical system, as
expounded in his principal work, "Ethica," merges everything individual
and particular in the Divine substance, and is thus essentially
pantheistic. The philosophy of Spinoza exercised a powerful influence upon
the mind of Kant, and the master-minds and great poets of modern times,
particularly of Germany, have drawn copiously from the deep wells of his
suggestive thought.
Among the many Latin poets of Holland, John Everard (1511-1536) (called
Jan Second or Johannes Secundus, because he had an uncle of the same name)
is most celebrated. His poem entitled "The Basia or Kisses" has been
translated into the principal European languages. Nicholas Heinsius (1620-
1681), son of the great philologist and poet Heinsius, wrote various Latin
poems, the melody of which is so sweet that he was called by his
contemporaries the "Swan of Holland."
4. DUTCH WRITERS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.--The first writer of this
century in the native language was Anna Byns, who has been called the
Flemish Sappho. She was bitterly opposed to the Reformation, and such of
her writings as were free from religious intolerance evince more poetic
fire than is found in those of her contemporaries. Coornhert (1522-1605)
was a poet and philosopher, distinguished not less by his literary works
than by his participation in the revolution of the Provinces. In purity of
style and vigor of thought he far surpassed his predecessors. Marnix de
St. Aldegonde (d. 1598) was a soldier, a statesman, a theologian, and a
poet. He was the author of the celebrated "Compromise of the Nobles," and
his satire on the Roman Catholic Church was one of the most effective
productions of the time. He translated the Psalms from the original
Hebrew, and was the author of a lyric which, after two centuries and a
half, is still the rallying song of the nation on all occasions of peril
or triumph.
Bor (1559-1635) was commissioned by the States to write a history of their
struggles with Spain, and his work is still read and valued for its
truthfulness and impartiality. Meteren, the contemporary of Bor, wrote the
history of the country from the accession of the House of Burgundy to the
year 1612--a work which, with some faults, has a high place in the
literature.
Visscher (d. 1612) and Spieghel (d. 1613) form the connecting link between
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Visscher, the Maecenas of the
day, was distinguished for his epigrammatic and fugitive poems, and
rendered immense service to letters by his influence on the literary men
of his time. His charming daughters were both distinguished in literature.
Spieghel is best remembered by his poem, the "Mirror of the Heart," which
abounds in lofty ideas, and in sentiments of enlightened patriotism.
5. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.--At the close of the sixteenth century,
although the language was established, it still remained hard and
inflexible, and the literature was still destitute of dramatic, erotic,
and the lighter kinds of poetry; but an earnest, patriotic, religious, and
national character was impressed upon it, and its golden age was near at
hand.
The commencement of the seventeenth century saw the people of the United
Provinces animated by the same spirit and energy, preferring death to the
abandonment of their principles, struggling with a handful of men against
the most powerful monarchy of the time; conquering their political and
religious independence, after more than half a century of conflict, and
giving to the world a great example of freedom and toleration; covering
the ocean with their fleets, and securing possessions beyond the sea a
hundred times more vast than the mother country; becoming the centre of
universal commerce, and cultivating letters, the sciences, and the arts,
with equal success. Poetry was national, for patriotism predominated over
all other sentiments; and it was original, because it recognized no models
of imitation but the classics.
The spirit of the age naturally communicated itself to the men of letters,
who soon raised the literature of the country to a classic height; first
among these were Hooft, Vondel, and Jacob Cats.
Hooft (1581-1647), a tragic and lyric poet as well as a historian, greatly
developed and perfected the language, and by a careful study of the
Italian poets imparted to his native tongue that sonorous sweetness which
has since characterized the poetry of Holland. He was the creator of
native tragedy, as well as of erotic verse, in which his style is marked
by great sweetness, tenderness, and grace. He rendered still greater
service to the native prose. His histories of "Henry IV.," of the "House
of Medici," and above all the history of the "War of Independence in the
Low Countries," without sacrificing truth, often border on poetry, in
their brilliant descriptions and paintings of character, and in their
nervous and energetic style. Hooft was a man of noble heart; he dared to
protect Grotius in the days of his persecution; he defended Descartes and
offered an asylum to Galileo.
Vondel (1587-1660), as a lyric, epic, and tragic poet, far surpassed all
his contemporaries, and his name is honored in Holland as that of
Shakspeare is in England. His tragedies, which are numerous, are his most
celebrated productions, and among them "Palamedes Unjustly Sacrificed" is
particularly interesting as representing the heroic firmness of
Barneveldt, who repeated one of the odes of Horace when undergoing the
torture. Vondel excelled as a lyric and epigrammatic poet, and the faults
of his style belonged rather to his age than to himself.
No writer of the time acquired a greater or more lasting reputation than
Jacob Cats (1577-1660), no less celebrated for the purity of his life than
for the sound sense and morality of his writings, and the statesmanlike
abilities which he displayed as ambassador in England, and as grand
pensioner of Holland. His style is simple and touching, his versification
easy and harmonious, and his descriptive talent extraordinary. His works
consist chiefly of apologues and didactic and descriptive poems. No writer
of Holland has been more read than Father Cats, as the people
affectionately call him; and up to the present hour, in all families his
works have their place beside the Bible, and his verses are known by heart
all over the country. An illustrated edition of his poems in English has
been recently published in London.
Hooft and Vondel left many disciples and imitators, among whom are
Antonides (1647-1684), surnamed Van der Goes, whose charming poem on the
River Y, the model of several similar compositions, is still read and
admired. Among numerous other writers were Huygens (b. 1596), a poet who
wrote in many languages besides his own; Heinsius (b. 1580), a pupil of
Scaliger, the author of many valuable works in prose and poetry;
Vallenhoven, contemporary with Antonides, a religious poet; Rotgans, the
author of an epic poem on William of England; Elizabeth Hoofman (b. 1664),
a poetess of rare elegance and taste, and Wellekens (b. 1658), whose
eclogues and idyls occupy the first place among that class of poems. As a
historian Hooft found a worthy successor in Brandt (1626-1683), also a
poet, but best known by his "History of the Reformation in the
Netherlands," which has been translated into French and English, and which
is a model in point of style. At this period the Bible was translated and
commented upon, and biographies, criticisms, and many other prose works
appeared. The voyages and discoveries of the Dutch merchants and
navigators were illustrated by numerous narratives, which, for their
interest both in style and detail, deserve honorable mention.
From the commencement of the last quarter of the seventeenth century,
however, many causes combined to produce a decline in the literature of
the Netherlands. The honors which were accorded not only by the Dutch
universities, but by all Europe to their Latin writers and learned
professors, were rarely bestowed on writers in the native tongue, and thus
the minds of men of genius were turned to the study of the classics and
the sciences. The Dutch merchants, while they cultivated all other
languages for the facilities they thus gained in their commercial
transactions, restricted by so much the diffusion of their own. Other
causes of this decline are to be found in the indifference of the
republican government to the interests of literature, and in the
increasing number of alliances with foreigners, who were attracted to
Holland by the mildness of its laws, in the growing commercial spirit and
taste for luxury, and especially in the influence of French literature,
which, towards the close of the seventeenth century, became predominant in
Holland as elsewhere.
6. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.--For the first three quarters of the eighteenth
century the literature of Holland, like that of other countries of Europe,
with the exception of France, remained stationary, or slowly declined. But
in the midst of universal mediocrity, a few names shine with distinguished
lustre. Among them that of Poot (1689-1732) is commonly cited with those
of Hooft and Vondel. He was a young peasant, whose rare genius found
expression in a sweet and unaffected style. He excelled in idyllic and
erotic poetry, and while he has no rival in Holland, he may perhaps be
compared to Burns in Scotland, and Béranger in France. The theatre of
Amsterdam, the only one of the country, continued to confine itself to
translations or imitations from the French. There appeared, however, at
the commencement of this period, an original comic author, Langendijk
(1662-1735), whose works still hold their place upon the stage, partly for
their merit, and partly to do honor to the only comic poet Holland has
produced.
Hoogvliet (1689-1763) was distinguished as the author of a poem entitled
"Abraham," which had great and merited success, and which still ranks
among the classics; for some years after it appeared, it produced a flood
of imitations.
De Marre (b. 1696), among numerous writers of tragedy, occupies the first
place. From his twelfth year he was engaged in the merchant marine
service, and besides his tragedies his voyages inspired many other works,
the chief of which, a poem entitled "Batavia," celebrates the Dutch
domination in the Asiatic archipelago. Feitama (1694-1758), with less
poetic merit than De Marre, had great excellence. He was the first
translator of the classics who succeeded in imparting to his verse the
true spirit of his originals.
Huydecoper (d. 1778) was the first grammarian of merit, and he united
great erudition with true poetic power. His tragedies are still
represented.
Onno Zwier Van Haren (1713-1789) was also a writer of tragedy, and the
author of a long poem in the epic style, called the Gueux (beggars), a
name given in derision to the allied noblemen of the Netherlands in the
time of Philip, and adopted by them. This poem represents the great
struggle of the country with Spain, which ended in the establishment of
the Dutch republic, and is distinguished for its fine episodes, its
brilliant pictures, and its powerful development of character.
The only strictly epic poem that Holland has produced is the "Friso" of
William Van Haren (1710-1758), the brother of the one already named.
Friso, the mythical founder of the Frisons, is driven from his home on the
shores of the Ganges, and, after many adventures, finds an asylum and
establishes his government in the country to which he gives his name. This
work with many faults is full of beauties. The brothers Van Haren were
free from all foreign influence, and may justly be regarded as the two
great poets of their time. The poems of Smits (1702-1750) are full of
grace and sentiment, but, like those of almost all the Dutch poets, they
are characterized by a seriousness of tone nearly allied to melancholy.
Ten Kate (1676-1723) stands first among the grammarians and etymologists,
and his works are classical authorities on the subject of the language.
Preëminent among the crowd of historians is Wagenaar (1709-1773), the
worthy successor of Hooft and Brandt, whose "History of the United
Provinces" is particularly valuable for its simplicity of style and
truthfulness of detail.
Of the lighter literature, Van Effen, who had visited England, produced in
French the "Spectator," in imitation of the English periodical, and, like
that, it is still read and considered classical.
Towards the conclusion of the century, other periodicals were established,
which, in connection with literary societies and academies, exercised
great influence on literature. The contemporary writers of Germany were
also read and translated, and henceforth in some degree they
counterbalanced French influence.
First among the writers who mark the close of the eighteenth century are
Van Winter (d. 1795), and his distinguished wife, Madame Van Merken (d.
1789). They published conjointly a volume of tragedies in which the chief
merit of those of Van Winter consists in their originality and in the
expression of those sentiments of justice, humanity, and equality before
the law, which were just then beginning to find a voice in Europe.
Madame Van Merken, who, late in life, married Van Winter, has been called
the Racine of Holland. To masculine energy and power she united all the
virtues and sweetness of her own sex. Besides many long poems, she was the
author of several tragedies, many of which have remarkable merit. Madame
Van Merken gave a new impulse to the literature of her country, of which
she is one of the classic ornaments, and prepared the way for Feith and
Bilderdyk.
The Baroness De Lannoy, the contemporary of Madame Van Merken, was, like
her, eminent in tragedy and other forms of poetry, though less a favorite,
for in that free country an illustrious birth has been ever a serious
obstacle to distinction in the republic of letters.
Nomz (d. 1803) furnished the theatre of Amsterdam with many pieces,
original and translated, and merited a better fate from his native city
than to die in the public hospital.
The poets who mark the age from Madame Van Merken to Bilderdyk, are Van
Alphen, Bellamy, and Nieuwland. Van Alphen (d. 1803) is distinguished for
his patriotism, originality, and deeply religious spirit. His poems for
children are known by heart by all the children of Holland, and he is
their national poet, as Cats is the poet of mature life and old age.
Bellamy, who died at the early age of twenty-eight years (1786), left many
poems characterized by originality, force, and patriotic fervor, no less
than by beauty and harmony of style. Nieuwland (d. 1794), like Bellamy,
rose from the lower order of society by the force of his genius; at the
age of twenty-three he was called to the chair of philosophy, mathematics,
and astronomy at Utrecht, and later to the university of Leyden. He was
equally great as a mathematician and as a poet in the Latin language as
well as his own. All his productions are marked by elegance and power.
Styl (d. 1804) was a poet as well as a historian; one of the most valuable
works on the history of the country is his "Growth and Prospects of the
United Provinces." Te Water, Bondam, and Van de Spiegel contributed to the
same department.
Romance writing has, with few exceptions, been surrendered to women. Among
the romances of character and manners, those of Elizabeth Bekker Wolff (d.
1804) are distinguished for their brilliant and caustic style, and those
of Agatha Deken for their earnest and enlightened piety. The works of both
present lively pictures of national character and manners.
7. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.--The political convulsions of the last years of
the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth, which
overthrew the Dutch Republic, revolutionized the literature not less than
the state,--and the new era was illustrated by its poets, historians, and
orators. But in the elevation of inferior men by the popular party, the
more eminent men of letters for a time withdrew from the field, and the
noblest productions of native genius were forgotten in the flood of poor
translations which inundated the country and corrupted the taste and the
language by their Germanisms and Gallicisms.
Among the crowd of poets, a few only rose superior to the influences of
the time. Feith (d. 1824) united a lofty patriotism to a brilliant
poetical genius; his odes and other poems possess rare merit, and his
prose is original, forcible, and elegant.
Helmers (d. 1813) is most honored for his poem, "The Dutch Nation," which,
with some faults, abounds in beautiful episodes and magnificent passages.
Bilderdyk (1756-1831) is not only the greatest poet Holland has produced,
but he is equally eminent as a universal scholar. He was a lawyer, a
physician, a theologian, a historian, astronomer, draftsman, engineer, and
antiquarian, and he was acquainted with nearly all the ancient and modern
languages. In 1820 he published five cantos of a poem on "The Destruction
of the Primitive World," which, though it remains unfinished, is a superb
monument of genius and one of the literary glories of Holland. Bilderdyk
excelled in every species of poetry, tragedy only excepted, and his
published works fill more than one hundred octavo volumes.
Van der Palm (b. 1763) occupies the same place among the prose writers of
the nineteenth century that Bilderdyk does among the poets. He held the
highest position as a pulpit orator and member of the Council of State,
and his discourses, orations, and other prose works are models of style,
and are counted among the classics of the country. His great work,
however, was the translation of the Bible.
Since the time of Bilderdyk and Van der Palm no remarkable genius has
appeared in Holland.
Loosjes (d. 1806) added to his reputation as a poet by his historical
romances, and Fokke (d. 1812) was a satirist of the follies and errors of
his age. Among the historians who have devoted themselves to the history
of foreign countries are Stuart, Van Hamelsveld, and Muntinghe, who, in a
short space of time, enriched their native literature with more than sixty
volumes of history, of a profoundly religious and philosophical character,
which bear the stamp of originality and nationality.
The department of oratory in Dutch literature, with the exception of that
of the pulpit, is poor, and this is to be explained in part by the fact
that the deliberations of the States-General were always held with closed
doors. Holland was an aristocratic republic, and the few families who
monopolized the power had no disposition to share it with the people, who,
on the other hand, were too much occupied with their own affairs and too
confident of the wisdom and moderation of their rulers, to wish to mingle
in the business of state. The National Assembly, however, from 1775 to
1800, had its orators, chiefly men carried into public life by the events
of the age, but they were far inferior to those of other countries.
The impulse given to literature by Bilderdyk and Van der Palm is not
arrested. Among the numerous authors who have since distinguished
themselves, are Loots, a patriotic poet of the school of Vondel; Tollens,
who ranks with the best native authors in descriptive poetry and romance;
Wiselius, the author of several tragedies, a scholar and political writer;
Klyn (d. 1856); Van Walré and Van Halmaal, dramatic poets of great merit;
Da Costa and Madame Bilderdyk, who, as a poetess, shared the laurels of
her husband. In romance, there are Anna Toussaint, Bogaers, and Jan Van
Lennep, son of the celebrated professor of that name, who introduced into
Holland historical romances modeled after those of Scott, and who
contributed much to discard French and to popularize the national
literature. In prose, De Vries must be named for his eloquent history of
the poetry of the Netherlands; Van Kampen (1776-1839) for his historical
works; Geysbeck for his biographical dictionary and anthology of the
poets, and De s'Gravenweert, a poet and the translator of the Iliad and
Odyssey. Von Hoevell is the author of a work on slavery, which appeared
not many years since, the effect of which can be compared only to that of
"Uncle Tom's Cabin."
In Belgium, Conscience is a successful author of fiction and history, and
his works have been frequently translated into other languages. De Laet,
one of the ablest writers of the country in connection with Conscience,
has done much for the revival of Flemish literature, which now boasts of
many original writers in various departments.
The literature of the Netherlands, like the people, is earnest, religious,
always simple, and often elevated and sublime. It is especially
distinguished for its reflective and patriotic character, and bears the
mark of that accurate study of the classic models which has formed the
basis of the national education, and to which its purity of taste,
naturalness, and simplicity are undoubtedly to be attributed. There exists
no nation of equal population which, within the course of two or three
centuries, has produced a greater number of eminent men.
From the age of Hooft and Vondel to the present day, though the Dutch
literature may have submitted at times to foreign influence, and though,
like all others, it may have paid its tribute to the fashions and faults
of the day, it has still preserved its nationality, and is worthy of being
known and admired.