1. The Finnish Language and Literature: Poetry; the Kalevala; Lönnrot;
Korhonen.--2. The Hungarian Language and Literature: the Age of Stephen
I.; Influence of the House of Anjou; of the Reformation; of the House of
Austria; Kossuth; Josika; Eötvös; Kuthy; Szigligeti; Petöfi.
1. THE FINNISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.--On passing northward from the
Iranian plateaux through Turan to the Uralian mountains, which separate
Europe and Asia, we arrive at the primitive seat of the Finnish race.
Driven westward by other invading tribes, it scattered through northern
Europe, and established itself more particularly in Finland, where, at the
present time, we find its principal stock. From the earliest period of the
history of the Finns, until the middle of the twelfth century, they lived
under their own independent kings. They were then subjected by the Swedes,
who established colonies upon their coasts, and introduced Christianity
among them. After having been for many centuries the theatre of Russian
and Swedish wars, in the beginning of the present century Finland passed
under the dominion of Russia; yet, through these ages of foreign
domination, its inhabitants preserved their national character, and
maintained the use of their native tongue.
The Finnish language is a branch of the Turanian family; it is written
with the Roman alphabet, but it has fewer sounds; it is complicated in its
declension and conjugation, but it has great capacity of expressing
compound ideas in one word; it is harmonious in sound, and free, yet
clear, in its construction.
The Finns at an early period had attained a high degree of civilization,
and they have always been distinguished for their love of poetry,
especially for the melancholy strains of the elegy. They possess a vast
number of popular songs or ballads, which are either lyrical or
mythological; they are sung by the _song-men_, to the _kantele_, a kind of
harp with five wire strings, a favorite national instrument. They have
also legends, tales, and proverbs, some of which have recently been
collected and published at Helsingfors, the capital of Finland.
The great monument of Finnish literature is the "Kalevala," a kind of epic
poem, which was arranged in a systematic collection, and given to the
world in 1833, by Elias Lönnrot (d. 1884). He wandered from place to place
in the remote districts of Finland, living with the peasants, and taking
down from their lips the popular songs as he heard them chanted. The
importance of this indigenous epic was at once recognized, and
translations were made in various languages. The poem, which strongly
resembles "Hiawatha," takes its name from the heroes of Kaleva, the land
of happiness and plenty, who struggle with three others from the cold
north and the land of death. It begins with the creation, and ends in the
triumph of the heroes of Kaleva. Max Müller says of this poem that it
possesses merits not dissimilar to those of the Iliad, and that it will
claim its place as the fifth national epic of the world, beside that of
the "Mahabharata," "Shah Nameh," and "Nibelungen." It is doubtless the
product of different minds at different periods, having evidently received
additions from time to time.
During the present century there has been considerable literary activity
in Finland, and we meet with many names of poets and dramatists. The
periodical literature is specially rich and voluminous, and valuable works
on Finnish history and geography have recently appeared. Of recent poets
the most popular is Korrhoinen, a peasant, whose productions are
characterized by their sharp and biting sarcasm. The prose of Finland has
a religious and moral character, and is especially enriched by
translations from Swedish literature.
2. HUNGARIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.--The language of the Magyars belongs
to the Turanian family, and more particularly to the Finnish branch. The
Hungarian differs from most European languages in its internal structure
and external form. It is distinguished by harmony and energy of sound,
richness and vigor of form, regularity of inflexion, and power of
expression.
Towards the close of the seventh century, the Magyars emigrated from Asia
into Europe, and for two hundred years they occupied the country between
the Don and Dneiper. Being at length pressed forward by other emigrant
tribes, they entered and established themselves in Hungary, after
subjugating its former inhabitants.
In the year 1000, Stephen I. founded the kingdom of Hungary. He had
introduced Christianity into the country, and with it a knowledge of the
Latin language, which was now taught in the schools and made use of in
public documents, while the native idiom was spoken by the people, and in
part in the assemblies of the Diet. On the accession of the House of Anjou
to the throne of Hungary, in the fourteenth century, a new impulse was
given to the Hungarian tongue. The Bible was translated into it, and it
became the language of the court; although the Latin was still the organ
of the church and state, and from the fourteenth to the close of the
fifteenth century remained the literary language of the country. This
Latin literature boasted of many distinguished writers, but so little
influence had they on the nation at large, that during this period it
appears that many of the high officers of the kingdom could neither read
nor write.
The sixteenth century was more favorable to Hungarian literature, and the
political and religious movements which took place in the reign of
Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. (1527-1576) proved to be most beneficial
to the intellectual development of the people. The Reformation, which was
introduced into Hungary through Bohemia, the example of this neighboring
country, and the close alliance which existed between the two people,
exercised great influence on the public mind. The Hungarian language was
introduced into the church, the schools, and the religious controversies,
and became the vehicle of sacred and popular poetry. It was thus enriched
and polished, and acquired a degree of perfection which it retained until
the latter part of the eighteenth century. Translations of the Bible were
multiplied; chronicles, histories, grammars, and dictionaries were
published, and the number of schools, particularly among the Protestants,
was greatly increased.
But these brilliant prospects were soon blighted when the country came
under the absolute dominion of Austria. In order to crush the national
tendencies of the Magyars, the government now restored the Latin and
German languages; and newspapers, calendars, and publications of all
kinds, including many valuable works, appeared in Latin. Indeed, the
interval from 1702 to 1780 was the golden age of this literature in
Hungary. Maria Theresa and Joseph II., however, by prescribing the use of
the German language in the schools, official acts, and public
transactions, produced a reaction in favor of the national tongue, which
was soon after taught in the schools, heard in the lecture-room, the
theatre, and popular assemblies, and became the organ of the public press.
These measures, however, the good effects of which were mainly confined to
the higher classes, were gradually pursued with less zeal. It is only of
late that the literature of Hungary has assumed a popular character, and
become a powerful engine for the advancement of political objects.
Kossuth may be considered as the founder of a national party which is at
the head of the contemporary literature of the Magyars. Through the action
of this party and of its leader, the Hungarian Diet passed, in 1840, the
celebrated "Law of the Language," by which the supremacy of the Hungarian
tongue was established, and its use prescribed in the administration and
in the institutions of learning. From 1841 to 1844, Kossuth published a
paper, in which the most serious and important questions of politics and
economy were discussed in a style characterized by great elegance and
simplicity, and by a fervid eloquence, which awakened in all classes the
liveliest emotions of patriotism and independence. His writings greatly
enriched the national language, and excited the emulation even of those
who did not accept his political views. His memoirs, lately published,
have been extensively translated.
The novels of Josika (1865), modeled after those of Walter Scott, the
works of Eötvös and Kemeny after the writers of Germany, and those of
Kuthy and others who have followed the French school, have greatly
contributed to enrich the literature of Hungary. The comedies and the
dramas of Eötvös and Gal, and particularly those of Szigligeti, show great
progress in the Hungarian theatre, while in the poems of Petöfi and others
is heard the harmonious yet sorrowful voice of the national muse.
After 1849, the genius of Hungary seemed for a while buried under the
ruins of the nation. Many of the most eminent writers either fell in the
national struggle, or, being driven into exile, threw aside their pens in
despair. But the intellectual condition of the people has of late been
greatly improved. Public education has been promoted, scholastic
institutions have been established, and at the present time there are
eloquent voices heard which testify to the presence of a vigorous life
latent in the very heart of the country.
Among many other writers of the present day, are Jokai (b. 1825), the
author of various historical romances which have been extensively
translated, Varga, a lyric poet, and Arany, perhaps the greatest poet
Hungary has produced, some of whose works are worthy of the literature of
any age.
3. THE TURKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.--The Turks, or Osmanlis, are
descendants of the Tartars, and their language, which is a branch of the
Turanian family, is at the present day the commercial and political tongue
throughout the Levant. This language is divided into two principal
dialects, the eastern and the western. The eastern, though rough and
harsh, has been the vehicle of certain literary productions, of which the
most important are the biographies of more than three hundred ancient
poets, written by Mir-Ali-Schir, who flourished in the middle of the
fifteenth century, and who was the Maecenas of several Persian poets,
particularly of Jami; several historical memoirs, and a number of ballads,
founded on the traditions of the ancient Turkish tribes, belong also to
the literature of this dialect. The western idiom constitutes what is more
properly called the Turkish language. It is euphonious in sound and
regular in its grammatical forms, though poor in its vocabulary. To supply
its deficiencies, the Osmanlis have introduced many elements of the Arabic
and Persian. They have also adopted the Arabic alphabet, with some
alterations; and, like the Arabians, they write from right to left.
The literature of Turkey, although it is extremely rich, contains little
that is original or national, but is a successful imitation of Persian or
Arabic. Even before the capture of Constantinople works had been produced
which the nation has not let perish. The most flourishing period was
during the reign of Solyman the Magnificent and his son Selim in the
sixteenth century. Fasli (d. 1563) was an erotic poet, who attained a high
reputation; and Baki (d. 1600), a lyric poet, is ranked by the Orientals
with the Persian Hafiz. In the seventeenth century a new period of
literature arose, though inferior to the last. Nebi was the most admired
poet, Nefi a distinguished satirist, and Hadji Khalfa a historian of
Arabic, Persian, and Turkish literature, who is the chief authority upon
this subject for the East and West. The annals of Saad-El-Din (d. 1599)
are important for the student of the history of the Ottoman Empire. The
style of these writers, however, is for the most part bombastic,
consisting of a mixture of poetry and prose overladen with figures. Novels
and tales abound in this literature, and it affords many specimens of
geographical works, many important collections of juridical decisions, and
valuable researches on the Persian and Arabian languages.
The press was introduced into Constantinople early in the eighteenth
century, and has been actively engaged in publishing translations of the
most important works in Persian and Arabic, as well as in the native
tongue. Societies are established for the promotion of various branches of
science, and many scientific and literary journals are published. There
are numerous primary free schools and high scholastic institutions in
Constantinople, and some public libraries.
4. THE ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.--The language of Armenia belongs
to the Indo-European family, and particularly to the Iranian variety; but
it has been greatly modified by contact with other languages, especially
the Turkish. At present the modern dialect is spoken in southern Russia
around the sea of Azof, in Turkey, Galicia, and Hungary. The ancient
Armenian, which was spoken down to the twelfth century, is preserved in
its purity in the ancient books of the people, and is still used in their
best works. This tongue, owing to an abundance of consonants, is lacking
in euphony; it is deficient in distinction of gender, though it is
redundant in cases and inflexions. Its alphabet is modeled after the
Greek.
The Armenians, from the earliest period of their existence, through all
the political disasters which have signalized their history, have
exhibited a strong love for a national literature, and maintained
themselves as a cultivated people amidst all the revolutions which
barbarism, despotism, and war have occasioned. During so many ages they
have faithfully preserved not only their historical traditions, reaching
back to the period of the ancient Hebrew histories, but also their
national character. Their first abode--the vicinity of Mount Ararat--is
even at the present day the centre of their religious and political union.
Commerce has scattered them, like the Israelites, among all nations, but
without debasing their character; on the contrary, they are distinguished
by superior cultivation, manners, and honesty from the barbarians under
whose yoke they live. The cause is to be found in their creed and in their
religious union.
Until the beginning of the fourth century A.D. the Armenians were Parsees;
the literature of the country up to this period was contained in a few
songs or ballads, and its civilization was only that which could be
wrought out by the philosophy of Zoroaster. In 319, when Christianity was
introduced into Armenia, the language and learning of the Greeks were
exciting the profound admiration of the most eminent fathers of the
church, and this attention to Greek literature was immediately manifest in
the literary history of Armenia. A multitude of Grecian works was
translated, commented upon, and their philosophy adopted, and the
literature was thus established upon a Grecian basis.
About the same period, the alphabet at present in use in the Armenian
language was invented, or the old alphabet perfected by Mesrob, in
connection with which the language underwent many modifications. Mesrob,
with his three sons, especially educated for the task, commenced the
translation of the Bible 411 A.D., and its completion nearly half a
century later gave a powerful impulse to Armenian learning, and at the
same time stamped upon it a religious character which it has never lost.
The period from the sixth to the tenth century is the golden age of this
literature. Its temporary decline after this period was owing to the
invasion of the Arabians, when many of the inhabitants were converted to
the Mohammedan faith and many more compelled to suffer persecution for
their refusal to abjure Christianity. After the subjection of Armenia to
the Greek empire, literature again revived, and until the fourteenth
century was in a flourishing condition. In 1375, when the Turks took
possession of the country, the inhabitants were again driven from their
homes, and from that time their literature has steadily declined. After
their emigration, the Armenians established themselves in various
countries of Europe and Asia, and amidst all the disadvantages of their
position they still preserve not only the unity of their religious faith,
but the same unwearied desire to sustain a national literature. Wherever
they have settled, in Amsterdam, Leghorn, Venice, Constantinople, and
Calcutta, they have established printing presses and published valuable
books. Of their colonies or monasteries, the most interesting and fruitful
in literary works is that of Venice, which was founded in the eighteenth
century by Mechitar, an Armenian, and from him its monks are called
Mechitarists. From the time of their establishment they have constantly
issued translations of important religious works. They now publish a semi-
monthly paper in the Armenian language, which is circulated and read among
the scattered families of the Armenian faith over the world. They also
translate and publish standard works of modern literature.
About the year 1840, through the influence of American missionaries, the
Bible was translated into Armenian, freed as far as possible from foreign
elements; school-books were also translated, newspapers established, and
the language awoke to new life. Within the last twenty years the
intellectual progress in Armenia has been very great. In 1863 Christopher
Robert, an American gentleman, established and endowed a college at
Constantinople for the education of pupils of all races, religions, and
languages found in the empire. This institution, not sectarian, though
Christian, has met with great success. It has two hundred and fifty
students from fifteen nationalities, though chiefly Armenian, Bulgarian,
and Greek.