THE SECOND REVIVAL OF ITALIAN LITERATURE, AND ITS PRESENT CONDITION
(1675-1885).
1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE THIRD PERIOD.--At the close of the
seventeenth century, a new dawn arose in the history of Italian letters,
and the general corruption which had extended to every branch of
literature and paralyzed the Italian mind began to be arrested by the
appearance of writers of better taste; the affectations of the Marinists
and of the so-called Arcadian poets were banished from literature; science
was elevated and its dominion extended, the melodrama, comedy, and tragedy
recreated, and a new spirit infused into every branch of composition.
Amidst the clash of arms and the vicissitudes of long and bloody wars,
Italy began to awake from her lethargy to the aspiration for greater and
better things, and her intellectual condition soon underwent important
changes and improvements. In the eighteenth century, in Naples, Vico
transformed history into a new science. Filangeri contended with
Montesquieu for the palm of legislative philosophy; and new light was
thrown on criminal science by Mario Pagano. In Rome, letters and science
flourished under the patronage of Benedict XIV., Clement XIV., and Pius
VI., under whose auspices Quirico Visconti undertook his "Pio Clementine
Museum" and his "Greek and Roman Iconography," the two greatest
archaeological works of all ages. Padua was immortalized by the works of
Cesarotti, Belzoni, and Stratico; Venice by Goldoni; Verona by Maffei, the
critic and the antiquarian, as well as the first reformer of Italian
tragedy. Tuscany took the lead of the intellectual movement of the country
under Leopold and his successor Ferdinand, when Florence, Pisa, and Siena
again became seats of learning and of poetry and the arts. Maria Theresa
and Joseph II. fostered the intellectual progress of Lombardy; Spallanzani
published his researches on natural philosophy; Volta discovered the pile
which bears his name; a new era in poetry was created by Parinl; another
in criminal jurisprudence by Beccaria; history was reconstructed by
Muratori; mathematics promoted by Lagrange, and astronomy by Oriani; and
Alfieri restored Italian letters to their primitive splendor.
But at the close of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the
nineteenth, Italy became the theatre of political and military
revolutions, whose influence could not fail to arrest the development of
the literature of the country. The galleries, museums, and libraries of
Rome, Florence, and other cities suffered from the military occupation,
and many of their treasures, manuscripts, and masterpieces of art were
carried to Paris by command of Napoleon. The entire peninsula was subject
to French influence, which, though beneficial to its material progress,
could not fail to be detrimental to national literature. All new works
were composed in French, and indifferent or bad translations from the
French were widely circulated; the French language was substituted for the
Italian, and the national literature seemed about to disappear. But
Italian genius was not wholly extinguished; a few writers powerfully
opposed this new tendency, and preserved in its purity the language of
Dante and Petrarch. Gradually the national spirit revived, and literature
was again moulded in accordance with the national character.
Notwithstanding the political calamities of which, for some time after the
treaty of Vienna in 1815, Italy was continually the victim, the literature
of the country awakened and fostered a sentiment of nationality, and
Italian independence is at this present moment already achieved.
2. THE MELODRAMA.--The first result of the revival of letters at the close
of the seventeenth century was the reform of the theatre. The melodrama,
or Italian opera, arose out of the pastoral drama, which it superseded.
The astonishing progress of musical science succeeded that of poetry and
sculpture, which fell into decline with the decay of literature. Music,
rising into excellence and importance at a time when poetry was on the
decline, acquired such superiority that verse, instead of being its
mistress, became its handmaid. The first occasion of this inversion was in
the year 1594, when Rinuccini, a Florentine poet, associated himself with
three musicians to compose a mythological drama. This and several other
pieces by the same author met with a brilliant reception. Poetry, written
only in order to be sung, thus assumed a different character; Rinuiccini
abandoned the form of the canzone which had hitherto been used in the
lyrical part of the drama, and adopted the Pindaric ode. Many poets
followed in the same path; more action was given to the dramatic parts,
and greater variety to the music, in which the airs were agreeably blended
with the recitative duets; other harmonized pieces were also added, and
after the lapse of a century Apostolo Zeno (1669-1750) still further
improved the melodrama. But it was the spirit of Metastasio that breathed
a soul of fire into this ingenious and happy form created by others.
Metastasio (1698-1782) gave early indications of genius, and when only ten
years of age used to collect an audience in his father's shop, by his
talent for improvisation. He thus attracted the notice of Gravina, a
celebrated patron of letters, who adopted him as his son, changed his
somewhat ignoble name of Trepassi to Metastasio, and had him educated in
every branch necessary for a literary career. He still continued to
improvise verses on any given subject for the amusement of company. His
youth, his harmonious voice, and prepossessing appearance, added greatly
to the charm of his talent. It was one generally cultivated in Italy at
this time, and men of mature years often presented themselves as rivals of
the hoy. This occupation becoming injurious to the youth, Gravina forbade
him to compose extempore verses any more, and this rule, imposed on him at
sixteen, he never afterwards infringed. When Metastasio was in his
twentieth year Gravina died, leaving to him his fortune, most of which he
squandered in two years. He afterwards went to Naples, where, under a
severe master, he devoted himself to the closest study and for two years
resisted every solicitation to compose verses. At length, under promise of
secrecy, he wrote a drama. All Naples resounded with its praise, and the
author was soon discovered. Metastasio from this time followed the career
for which nature seemed to have formed him, and devoted himself to the
opera, which he considered to be the natural drama of Italy. An invitation
to become the court poet of Vienna made his future life both stable and
prosperous. On the death of Charles VI., in 1740, several other European
sovereigns made advantageous overtures to the poet, but as Maria Theresa
was disposed to retain him, he would not leave her in her adverse
circumstances. The remainder of his life he passed in Germany, and his
latter years were as monotonous as they were prosperous.
Metastasio seized with a daring hand the true spirit of the melodrama, and
scorning to confine himself to unity of place, opened a wide field for the
display of theatrical variety, on which the charm of the opera so much
depends. The language in which he clothed the favorite passion of his
drama exhibits all that is delicate and yet ardent, and he develops the
most elevated sentiments of loyalty, patriotism, and filial love. The flow
of his verse in the recitative is the most pure and harmonious known in
any language, and the strophes at the close of each scene are scarcely
surpassed by the first masters in lyric poetry. Metastasio is one of the
most pleasing, at the same time one of the least difficult of the Italian
poets, and the tyro in the study of Italian classics may begin with his
works, and at once enjoy the pleasures of poetic harmony at their highest
source.
3. COMEDY.--The revolution, so frequently attempted in Italian comedy by
men whose genius was unequal to the task, was reserved for Goldoni (1707-
1772) to accomplish. His life, written by himself, presents a picture of
Italian manners in their gayest colors. He was a native of Venice, and
from his early youth was constantly surrounded by theatrical people. At
eight years of age he composed a comedy, and at fourteen he ran away from
school with a company of strolling players. He afterwards prepared for the
medical, then for the legal profession, and finally, at the age of twenty-
seven, he was installed poet to a company of players. He now attempted to
introduce the reforms that he had long meditated; he attained a purer
style, and became a censor of the manners and a satirist of the follies of
his country. His dialogue is extremely animated, earnest, and full of
meaning; with a thorough knowledge of national manners, he possessed the
rare faculty of representing them in the most life-like manner on the
stage. The language used by the inferior characters of his comedies is the
Venetian dialect.
In his latter days Goldoni was rivaled by Carlo Gozzi (1722-1806), who
parodied his pieces, and, it is thought, was the cause of his retirement,
in the decline of life, to Paris. Gozzi introduced a new style of comedy,
by reviving the familiar fictions of childhood; he selected and dramatized
the most brilliant fairy tales, such as "Blue Beard," "The King of the
Genii," etc., and gave them to the public with magnificent decorations and
surprising machinery. If his comedies display little resemblance to
nature, they at least preserve the kind of probability which is looked for
in a fairy tale. Many years elapsed after Goldoni and Gozzi disappeared
from the arena before there was any successor to rival their compositions.
Among those who contributed to the perfection of Italian comedy may be
mentioned Albergati (fl. 1774), Gherardo de' Rossi (1754-1827), and above
all, Nota (d. 1847), who is preeminent among the new race of comic
authors; although somewhat cold and didactic, he at least fulfils the
important office of holding the mirror up to nature. He exhibits a
faithful picture of Italian society, and applies the scourge of satire to
its most prevalent faults and follies.
4. TRAGEDY.--The reform of Italian tragedy was early attempted by Martelli
(d. 1727) and by Scipione Maffei (1675-1755). But Martelli was only a tame
imitator of French models, while Maffei, possessing real talent and
feeling, deserved the extended reputation he acquired. His "Merope" is
considered as the last and the best specimen of the elder school of
Italian tragedy.
The honor of raising tragedy to its highest standard was reserved for
Alfieri (1749-1803), whose remarkable personal character exercised a
powerful influence over his works. He was possessed of an impetuosity
which continually urged him towards some indefinite object, a craving for
something more free in politics, more elevated in character, more ardent
in love, and more perfect in friendship; of desires for a better state of
things, which drove him from one extremity of Europe to another, but
without discovering it in the realities of this everyday world. Finally,
he turned to the contemplation of a new universe in his own poetical
creations, and calmed his agitations by the production of those master-
pieces which have secured his immortality. His aim in life, in the pursuit
of which he never deviated, was that of founding a new and classic school
of tragedy. He proposed to himself the severe simplicity of the Greeks
with respect to the plot, while he rejected the pomp of poetry which
compensates for interest among the classic writers of antiquity. Energy
and conciseness are the distinguishing features of his style; and this, in
his earlier dramas, is carried to the extreme. He brings the whole action
into one focus; the passion he would exhibit is introduced into the first
verse and kept in view to the last. No event, no character, no
conversation unconnected with the advancement of the plot is permitted to
appear; all confidants and secondary personages are, therefore, excluded,
and there seldom appear more than four interlocutors. These tragedies
breathe the spirit of patriotism and freedom, and for this, even
independently of their intrinsic merit, Alfieri is considered as the
reviver of the national character in modern times, as Dante was in the
fourteenth century. "Saul" is regarded as his masterpiece; it represents a
noble character suffering under those weaknesses which sometimes accompany
great virtues, and are governed by the fatality, not of destiny, but of
human nature.
Among the earliest and most distinguished of those who followed in the
path of Alfieri was Monti (1754-1828). Though endowed with a sublime
imagination and exquisite taste, his character was weak and vain, and he,
in turn, celebrated every party as it became the successful one. Educated
in the school of Dante, he introduced into Italian poetry those bold and
severe beauties which adorned its infancy. His "Aristodemus" is one of the
most affecting tragedies in Italian literature. The story is founded on
the narrative of Pausanias. It is simple in its construction, and its
interest is confined almost entirely to the principal personage. In the
loftiness of the characters of his tragedies, and the energy of sentiment
and simplicity of action which characterize them, we recognize the school
of Alfieri, while in harmony and elegance of style and poetical language,
Monti is superior.
Another follower of the school of Alfieri is Ugo Foscolo (1778-1827), one
of the greatest writers of this age, in whom inspiration was derived from
a lofty patriotism. At the time of the French revolution he joined the
Italian army, with the object of restoring independence to his country.
Disappointed in this hope, he left Italy for England, where he
distinguished himself by his writings. The best of his tragedies,
"Ricciarda," is founded on events supposed to have occurred in the Middle
Ages. While some of its scenes and situations are forced and unnatural,
some of the acts are wrought with consummate skill and effect, and the
conception of the characters is tragic and original. Foscolo adopts in his
tragedies a concise and pregnant style, and displays great mastery over
his native language. Marenco (d. 1846) is distinguished for the noble and
moral ideas, lofty images, and affections of his tragedies; but he lacks
unity of design and vigor of style. Silvio Pellico (1789-1854) was born in
Piedmont. As a writer he is best known as the author of "My Prisons," a
narrative full of simplicity and resignation, in which he relates his
sufferings during ten years in the fortress of Spielberg. His tragedies
are good specimens of modern art; they abound in fine thoughts and tender
affections, but they lack that liveliness of dialogue and rapidity of
action which give reality to the situations, and that knowledge of the
human heart and unity and grandeur of conception which are the
characteristics of true genius.
Manzoni (1785-1873) and Nicolini (1782-1861) are the last of the modern
representatives of the tragic drama of Italy. The tragedies of Manzoni,
and especially his "Conte di Carmagnola," and "Adelchi," abound in
exquisite beauties. His style is simple and noble, his verse easy and
harmonious, and his object elevated. The merits of these tragedies,
however, belong rather to parts, and while the reading of them is always
interesting, on the stage they fail to awaken the interest of the
audience. After Manzoni, Nicolini was the most popular literary man of
Italy of his time. Lofty ideas, generous passions, splendor and harmony of
poetry, purity of language, variety of characters, and warmth of
patriotism, constitute the merit of his tragedies; while his faults
consist in a style somewhat too exuberant and lyrical, in ideas sometimes
too vague, and characters often too ideal.
5. LYRIC, EPIC, AND DIDACTIC POETRY.--In the latter part of the eighteenth
century, a class of poets who called themselves "The Arcadians" attempted
to overthrow the artificial and bombastic school of Marini; but their
frivolous and insipid productions had little effect on the literature. The
first poets who gave a new impulse to letters were Parini and Monti.
Parini (1729-1799) was a man of great genius, integrity, and taste; he
contributed more than any other writer of his age to the progress of
literature and the arts. His lyrical poems abound in noble thoughts, and
breathe a pure patriotism and high morality. His style is forcible,
chaste, and harmonious. The poems of Monti have much of the fire and
elevation of Pindar. Whatever object employs his thoughts, his eyes
immediately behold; and, as it stands before him, a flexible and
harmonious language is ever at his command to paint it in the brightest
colors. His "Basvilliana" is the most celebrated of his lyric poems, and,
beyond every other, is remarkable for majesty, nobleness of expression,
and richness of coloring.
The poetical writings of Pindemonte (1753-1828) are stamped with the
melancholy of his character. Their subjects are taken from contemporary
events, and his inspiration is drawn from nature and rural life. His
"Sepulchres" breathes the sweetest and most pathetic tenderness, and the
brightest hopes of immorality. The poems of Foscolo have the grace and
elegance of the Greek poets; but in his "Sepulchres" the gloom of his
melancholy imagination throws a funereal light over the nothingness of all
things, and the silence of death is unbroken by any voice of hope in a
future life. Torti (1774-1852), a pupil of Parini, rivaled his master in
the simplicity of style and purity of his images; while Leopardi (1798-
1837) impressed upon his lyric poems the peculiarities of his own
character. A sublime poet and a profound scholar, his muse was inspired by
a deep sorrow, and his poems pour out a melancholy that is terrible and
grand, the most agonizing cry in modern literature uttered with a solemn
quietness that elevates and terrifies. The poetry of despair has never had
a more powerful voice than his. He is not only the first poet since Dante,
but perhaps the most perfect prose writer. Berchet (1790-1851) is
considered as the Italian Béranger, and his songs glow with patriotic
fire. Those of Silvio Pellico, always sweet and truthful, bear the stamp
of a calm resignation, hope, and piety. The list of modern lyric poets
closes with Manzoni, whose hymns are models of this style of poetry.
In the epic department the third period does not afford any poems of a
high order. But the translation of the Iliad by Monti, that of the Odyssey
by Pindemonte, for their purity of language and beauty of style, may be
considered as epic additions to Italian literature. "The Longobards of the
First Crusade," written by Grossi (1791-1853), excels in beauty and
splendor of poetry all the epic poems of this age, though it lacks unity
of design and comprehensiveness of thought.
Among the didactic poems may be mentioned the "Invitation of Lesbia," by
Mascheroni (1750-1800), a distinguished poet as well as a celebrated
mathematician. This poem, which describes the beautiful productions of
nature in the Museum of Pavia, is considered a masterpiece of didactic
poetry. The "Riseide," or cultivation of rice, by Spolverini (1695-1762),
and the "Silkworm," by Betti (1732-1788), are characterized by poetical
beauties. The poem on the "Immortality of the Soul," by Filorentino (1742-
1815), though defective in style, is distinguished by its elevation of
ideas and sentiments. "The Cultivation of Mountains," by Lorenzi (1732-
1822), is rich in beautiful images and thoughts. "The Cultivation of Olive
Trees," by Arici (1782-1836), his "Corals," and other poems, especially in
their descriptions, are graceful and attractive. "The Seasons" of Barbieri
(1774-1852), though bearing marks of imitation from Pope, is written in a
pure and elegant style.
6. HEROIC-COMIC POETRY, SATIRE, AND FABLE.--The period of heroic-comic
poetry closes in the eighteenth century. The "Ricciardetto" of Fortiguerri
(1674-1735) is the last of the poems of chivalry, and with it terminated
the long series of romances founded on the adventures of Charlemagne and
his paladins. The "Cicero" of Passeroni (1713-1803) is a rambling
composition in a style similar to Sterne's "Tristram Shandy," which, it
appears, was suggested by this work.
Satiric poetry, which had flourished in the preceding period, was enriched
by new productions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. G. Gozzi
(1713-1789) attacked in his satires the vices and prejudices of his
fellow-citizens, in a forcible and elegant style; and Parini, the great
satirist of the eighteenth century, founded a school of satire, which
proved most beneficial to the country. His poem, "The Day," is
distinguished by fine irony and by the severity with which he attacks the
effeminate habits of his age. He lashes the affectations and vices of the
Milanese aristocracy with a sarcasm worthy of Juvenal. The satires of
D'Elei, Guadagnali, and others are characterized by wit and beauty of
versification. Those of Leopardi are bitter and contemptuous, while Giusti
(1809-1850), the political satirist of his age, scourged the petty tyrants
of his country with biting severity and pungent wit; the circulation of
his satires throughout Italy, in defiance of its despotic governments,
greatly contributed to the revolution of 1848.
In the department of fable may be mentioned Roberti (1719-1786),
Passeroni, Pignotti (1739-1812), and Clasio (1754-1825), distinguished for
invention, purity, and simplicity of style.
7. ROMANCES.--Though the tales of Boccaccio and the story tellers of the
sixteenth century paved the way to the romances of the present time, it
was only at a late period that the Italians gave their attention to this
kind of composition. In the eighteenth century we find only two specimens
of romance, "The Congress of Citera," by Algarotti, of which Voltaire said
that it was written with a feather drawn from the wings of love; and the
"Roman Nights," by Alexander Verri (1741-1816). In his romance he
introduces the shades of celebrated Romans, particularly of Cicero, and an
ingenious comparison of ancient and modern institutions is made. The style
is picturesque and poetical, though somewhat florid.
This kind of composition has found more favor in the nineteenth century.
First among the writers of this age is Manzoni, whose "Betrothed" is a
model of romantic literature. The variety, originality, and truthfulness
of the characters, the perfect knowledge of the human heart it displays,
the simplicity and vivacity of its style, form the principal merits of
this work. The "Marco Visconti" of Grossi is distinguished for its pathos
and for the purity and elegance of its style.
The "Ettore Fieramosca" of Massimo d'Azeglio is distinguished from the
works already spoken of by its martial and national spirit. His "Nicolò de
Lapi," though full of beauties, partakes in some degree of the faults
common to the French school. After these, the "Margherita Pusterla" of
Cantil, the "Luisa Strozzi" of Rosini, the "Lamberto Malatesta" of Rovani,
the "Angiola Maria" of Carcano, are the best historical romances of
Italian literature. Both in an artistic and moral point of view, they far
excel those of Guerrazzi, which represent the French school of George Sand
in Italy, and whose "Battle of Benevento," "Isabella Orsini," "Siege of
Florence," and "Beatrice Cenci," while they are written in pure language
and abound in minor beauties, are exaggerated in their characters,
bombastic and declamatory in style, and overloaded in description.
The "Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis," by Foscolo, belongs to that kind of
romance which is called sentimental. Overcome by the calamities of his
country, with his soul full of fiery passion and sad disappointment,
Foscolo wrote this romance, the protest of his heart against evils which
he could not heal.
8. HISTORY.--Among the most prominent of the numerous historians of this
period, a few only can be named. Muratori (1672-1750), for his vast
erudition and profound criticism, has no rivals. He made the most accurate
and extensive researches and discoveries relating to the history of Italy
from the fifth to the sixteenth century, which he published in twenty-
seven folio volumes; the most valuable collection of historical documents
which ever appeared in Italy. He wrote, also, a work on "Italian
Antiquities," illustrating the history of the Middle Ages through ancient
monuments, and the "Annals of Italy," a history of the country from the
beginning of the Christian era to his own age. Though its style is
somewhat defective, the richness and abundance of its erudition, its
clearness, and arrangement, impart to this work great value and interest.
Maffei, already spoken of as the first reformer of Italian tragedy,
surpassed Muratori in the purity of his style, and was only second to him
in the extent and variety of his erudition. He wrote several works on the
antiquities and monuments of Italy.
Bianchini (1662-1729), a celebrated architect and scholar, wrote a
"Universal History," which, though not complete, is characterized as a
work of great genius. It is founded exclusively on the interpretations of
ancient monuments in marble and metal.
Vico (1670-1744), the founder of the philosophy of history, embraced with
his comprehensive mind the history of all nations, and from the darkness
of centuries he created the science of humanity, which he called "Scienza
Nuova." Vico does not propose to illustrate any special historical epoch,
but follows the general movement of mankind in the most remote and obscure
times, and establishes the rules which must guide us in interpreting
ancient historians. By gathering from different epochs, remote from each
other, the songs, symbols, monuments, laws, etymologies, and religious and
philosophical doctrines,--in a word, the infinite elements which form the
life of mankind,--he establishes the unity of human history. The "Scienza
Nuova" is one of the great monuments of human genius, and it has inspired
many works on the philosophy of history, especially among the Germans,
such as those of Hegel, Niebuhr, and others.
Giannone (1676-1748) is the author of a "Civil History of the Kingdom of
Naples," a work full of juridical science as well as of historical
interest. Having attacked with much violence the encroachments of the
Church of Rome on the rights of the state, he became the victim of a
persecution which ended in his death in the fortress of Turin. Giannone,
in his history, gave the first example in modern times of that intrepidity
and courage which belong to the true historian.
Botta (1766-1837) is among the first historians of the present age. He was
a physician and a scholar, and devoted to the freedom of his country. He
filled important political offices in Piedmont, under the administration
of the French government. In 1809 he published, in Paris, his "History of
the American Revolution," a work held in high estimation both in this
country and in Italy. In the political changes which followed the fall of
Napoleon, Botta suffered many pecuniary trials, and was even obliged to
sell, by weight, to a druggist, the entire edition of his history, in
order to pay for medicines for his sick wife. Meanwhile, he wrote a
history of Italy, from 1789 to 1814, which was received with great
enthusiasm through Italy, and for which the Academy della Crusca, in 1830,
granted to him a pecuniary reward. This was followed by the "History of
Italy," in continuation of Guicciardini, from the fall of the Florentine
Republic to 1789, a gigantic work, with which he closed his historical
career. The histories of Botta are distinguished by clearness of
narrative, vividness and beauty of description, by the prominence he gives
to the moral aspect of events and characters, and by purity, richness, and
variety of style.
Colletta (1775-1831) was born in Naples; under the government of Murat he
rose to the rank of general, and fell with his patron. His "History of the
Kingdom of Naples," from 1734 to 1825, is modeled after the annals of
Tacitus. The style is simple, clear, and concise, the subject is treated
without digressions or episodes; it is conceived in a partial spirit, and
is a eulogium of the administration of Joachim; but no writer can rival
Colletta in his descriptions of strategic movements, of sieges and
battles.
Balbo (1789-1853) was born in Turin; during the administration of Napoleon
he filled many important political offices, and afterwards entered upon a
military career. Devoted to the freedom of his country, he strove to
promote the progress of Italian independence. In 1847 he published the
"Hopes of Italy," the first political work that had appeared in the
peninsula since the restoration of 1814; it was the spark which kindled
the movements of 1848. In the events of that and of the succeeding year,
he ranked among the most prominent leaders of the national party. His
historical works are a "Life of Dante," considered the best on the
subject; "Historical Contemplations," in which he developed the history of
mankind from a philosophical point of view; and "The Compendium of the
History of Italy," which embraces in a synthetic form all the history of
the country from the earliest times to 1814. His style is pure, clear, and
sometimes eloquent, though often concise and abrupt.
Cantù, a living historian, has written a universal history, in which he
attempts the philosophical style. Though vivid in his narratives,
descriptions, and details, he is often incorrect in Ms statements, and
rash in his judgments; his work, though professing liberal views, is
essentially conservative in its tendency. The same faults may be
discovered in his more recent "History of the Italians."
Tiraboschi (1731-1794) is the great historian of Italian literature; his
work is biographical and critical, and is the most extensive literary
history of Italy. His style is simple and elegant, and his criticism
profound; but he gives greater prominence to the biographies of writers
than to the consideration of their works. This history was continued by
Corniani (1742-1813), and afterwards by Ugoni (1784-1855).
9. AESTHETICS, CRITICISM, PHILOLOGY, AND PHILOSOPHY.--Italian literature
is comparatively deficient in aesthetics, the science of the beautiful.
The treatise of Gioberti on the "Beautiful," the last work which has
appeared on this subject, is distinguished for its profound doctrines and
brilliant style. Philology and criticism first began to flourish at the
close of the seventeenth century, and are well represented at the present
time. The revival of letters was greatly promoted by the criticism of
Gravina (1664-1718), one of the most celebrated jurisconsults and scholars
of his age, who, through his work, "The Poetical Reason," greatly
contributed to the reform of taste. Zeno, Maffei, and Muratori also
distinguished themselves in the art of criticism, and by their works aided
in overthrowing the school of Marini. At a later date, Gaspar Gozzi,
through his "Observer," a periodical publication modeled after the
"Spectator" of Addison, undertook to correct the literary taste of the
country; for its invention, pungent wit, and satire, and the purity and
correctness of its style, it is considered one of the best compositions of
this kind. Baretti (1716-1789) propagated in England the taste for Italian
literature, and at the same time published his "Literary Scourge," a
criticism of the ancient and modern writers of Italy. His style, though
always pure, is often caustic. He wrote several books in the English
language, one of which is in defense of Shakspeare against Voltaire.
Cesarotti (1730-1808), though eminent as a critic, introduced into the
Italian language some innovations, which contributed to its corruption;
while the nice judgment, good taste, and pure style of Parini place him at
the head of this department. In the latter part of this period we find, in
the criticisms of Monti, vigorous logic and a splendid and attractive
style. Foscolo is distinguished for his acumen and pungent wit. The works
of Perticari (1779-1822) are written with extreme polish, erudition,
judgment, and dignity. In Leopardi, philosophical acumen equals the
elegance of his style. Giordani (d. 1848), as a critic and an epigraphist,
deserves notice for his fine judgment and pure taste, as do Tommaseo and
Cattaneo, who are both epigrammatic, witty, and pungent.
The golden age of philology dates from the time of Lorenzo de' Medici to
the seventeenth century. It then declined until the eighteenth, but
revived in the works of Maffei, Muratori, Zeno, and others. In the same
century this study was greatly promoted by Foscolo, Monti, and Cesari
(1760-1828), who, among other philological works, published a new edition
of the Dictionary della Crusca, revised and augmented. Of the modern
writers on philology, Gherardini, Tommaseo, and Ascoli are the most
prominent.
The revival of philosophy in Italy dates from the age of Galileo, when the
authority of the Peripatetics was overthrown, and a new method introduced
into scientific researches. From that time to the present, this science
has been represented by opposite schools, the one characterized by
sensualism and the other by rationalism. The experimental method of
Galileo paved the way to the first, which holds that experience is the
only source of knowledge, a doctrine which gained ground in the
seventeenth century, became universally accepted in the eighteenth,
through the influence of Locke and Condillac, and continued to prevail
during the first part of the nineteenth. Gioja (1767-1829), and Romagnosi
(1761-1835) are the greatest representatives of this system, in the last
part of this period. But while the former developed sensualism in
philosophy and economy, the latter applied it to political science and
jurisprudence. The numerous Works of Gioja are distinguished for their
practical value and clearness of style, though they lack eloquence and
purity; those of Romagnosi are more abstract, and couched in obscure arid
often incorrect language, but they are monuments of vast erudition, acute
and profound judgment, and powerful dialectics.
Galluppi (1773-1846), though unable to extricate himself entirely from the
sensualistic school, attempted the reform of philosophy, which resulted in
a movement in Italy similar to that produced by Reid and Dugald Stewart in
Scotland.
While sensualism was gaining ground in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, rationalism, having its roots in the Platonic system which had
prevailed in the fifteenth and sixteenth, was remodeled under the
influence of Descartes, Leibnitz, and Wolf, and opposed to the invading
tendencies of its antagonist. From causes to be found in the spirit of the
age and the political condition of the country, this system was unable to
take the place to which it was entitled, though it succeeded in purifying
sensualism from its more dangerous consequences, and infusing into it some
of its own elements. But the overthrow of that system was completed only
by the works of Rosmini and Gioberti. Rosmini (1795-1855) gave a new
impulse to metaphysical researches, and created a new era in the history
of Italian philosophy. His numerous works embrace all philosophical
knowledge in its unity and universality, founded on a new basis, and
developed with deep, broad, and original views. His philosophy, both
inductive and deductive, rests on experimental method, reaches the highest
problems of ideology and ontology, and infuses new life into all
departments of science. This philosophical progress was greatly aided by
Gioberti (1801-1851), whose life, however, was more particularly devoted
to political pursuits. His work on "The Regeneration of Italy" contains
his latest and soundest views on Italian nationality. Another
distinguished philosophical and political writer is Mamiani, whose work on
"The Rights of Nations" deserves the attention of all students of history
and political science. As a statesman, he belongs to the National party,
of which Count Cavour (1810-1861), himself an eminent writer on political
economy, was the great representative, and to whose commanding influence
is to be attributed the rapid progress which the Italian nation was making
towards unity and independence at the time of his death.