AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS IN DRAINAGE--DRAINAGE IN IRELAND.
Statement of B. F. Nourse, of Maine.--Statement of Shedd and Edson,
of Mass.--Statement of H. F. French, of New Hampshire.--Letter of
Wm. Boyle, Albert Model Farm, Glasnevin, Ireland.
It was part of the original plan of this work, to give a large number of
statements from American farmers of their success in drainage; but,
although the instances are abundant, want of space limits us to a few.
These are given with such diagrams as will not only make them
intelligible, but, it is hoped, will also furnish good examples of the
arrangement and modes of executing drains, and of laying them down upon
plans for future reference. The mode adopted by Shedd and Edson, of
indicating the size of the pipes used, by the number of dots in the
lines of drains, is original and convenient. It will be seen by close
attention, that a two-inch pipe is denoted by dots in pairs, a
three-inch pipe by dots in threes, and so on.
It is believed that Mr. Nourse's experiment is one of the most thorough
and successful works of drainage yet executed in America. His plan is
upon page 195.
STATEMENT OF B. F. NOURSE, ESQ.
GOODALES CORNER, ORRINGTON, ME.,
Sept. 1st, 1858.
MY DEAR SIR:--So much depends upon the preliminary surveys and
"levels" for conducting works of thorough-draining and irrigation
cheaply, yet to obtain the most beneficial results, that a
competent person, such as an engineer or practiced land-drainer,
should be employed to make them, if one can be obtained.
Unfortunately for me, when I began this operation, some years ago,
there were no such skilled persons in the country, or I could learn
of none professionally such, and was forced to do my own
engineering. Having thus practically acquired some knowledge of it,
I use and enjoy a Summer vacation from other pursuits, in the
prosecution of this; and this employment, for the last few weeks,
has delayed my answer to your inquiries. Nor could I sooner arrive
at the figures of cost, extent, &c., of this season's work.
This is expected to be completed in ten days, and then I shall have
laid, of
Stone drains, including mains 702 rods
Tile drains (two inches, or larger) 1043 "
----
In all 1745 "
or, about five and one-half miles, laying dry, _satisfactorily_,
about thirty-five acres. The character and extent of the work will
better appear by reference to the plan of the farm which I send
with this for your inspection.
The earlier portion was fairly described by the Committee of the
Bangor Hort. Soc.--(See Report, for 1856, of the Maine Board of
Agriculture.) It was far too costly, as usual in works of a novel
character conducted without practical knowledge. No part of my
draining, even that of this season, has been done so cheaply as it
ought to be done in Maine, and will be done when tiles can be
bought at fair prices near at hand. I call your attention
particularly to this, because the magnitude of the cost, as I
represent it, ought not to be taken as a necessary average, or
standard outlay per acre, by any one contemplating similar
improvement, when almost any farmer can accomplish it equally well
at far less cost. My unnecessary expenditures will not have been in
vain, if they serve as a finger-post to point others in a
profitable way.
My land had upon its surface, and mingled in its super soil, a
large quantity of stones, various in size, from the huge boulders,
requiring several blasts of powder to reduce them to movable size,
to the rubble stones which were shoveled from the cart into the
drains. To make clean fields all these had to be removed, besides
the many "heaps" which had been accumulated by the industry of my
predecessors. A tile-drain needs no addition of stone above the
pipe; indeed, the stone may be a positive injury, as harboring
field vermin, or, if allowed to come within two feet of the
surface, as obstructing deep tillage, and favoring the access of
particles of soil upon or into the tile with the rapid access of
water which they promote. Carefully placed to the depth of six or
eight inches in a four-foot drain, quite small stones are, perhaps,
useful, and they certainly facilitate the drawing of water from the
surface. Such was, and still is, with many, the prescribed method
of best drainage in Scotland, and some parts of England. The
increased cost of adding the stone above the tile is obvious; and
when the width of that drain is enlarged to receive them, the cost
is materially enhanced. Yet such has been my practice, at first,
under the impression of its necessity, and all the time from a
desire to put to use, and out of sight, the small stones with which
I was favored in such abundance. The entire cost of moving, and
bringing more than 2,500 heavy loads of stone, is included in the
cost of drains, as set down for the 1,745 rods.
Including this part of expense, which is never _necessary_ with
tile, and cannot be incurred in plain clay soils, or clay loams
free of stones, the last 700 rods cost an average of 97 cents per
rod completed. This includes the largest mains; of which, one of 73
rods was opened four feet wide at bottom of the trench, of which
the channel capacity is 18 x 18 = 324 square inches, and others 110
rods of three and one-half and three feet width at bottom, all
these mains being laid entirely with stone. The remainder of the
700 rods was laid with two-inch tile, which cost at the farm
eighteen dollars per 1,000. These last were opened four rods apart,
and lay dry about seventeen acres, at a cost, including the mains,
of $678, or $40 per acre. In this is included every day's labor of
man and beast, and all the incidental expenses, nothing being
contributed by the farm, which is under lease.
I infer that an intelligent farmer, beginning aright, and availing
himself of the use of team and farm labor, when they can best be
spared from other work--as in the dry season, after haying--or
paying fair prices for digging his ditches only, and doing the rest
of the work from the farm, can drain thoroughly at a cost of $20
per acre, drains four rods apart, and four feet deep; or at $25 per
acre, forty feet apart, and three feet nine inches deep.
My subsoil is very hard, requiring constant use of the pick, and
sharpening of the picks every day, so that the labor of loosening
the earth was one-third or one-half more than the throwing out with
a shovel. The price paid per rod, for opening only, to the depth of
three and a half feet (or, perhaps, three and three-quarters
average,) of a width for laying tile, was 25 cents per rod. At this
price, the industrious men, skillful with tools, earned $1.12 to
$1.25 per day, besides board; and they threw out one-third more
earth than was really necessary, for "room to work" as they said.
_But they labored hard, 14 hours per day._ The same men, working in
a soil free from stones, and an easier subsoil, would, in the same
time, open from 50 to 100 per cent. more length of ditch.
The greater part of these drains were laid four rods apart. When
first trying this distance upon a field, of which the soil was
called "springy and cold," and was always too wet in the Spring and
early Summer for plowing, a partial, rather than "thorough"
drainage was attempted, with the design, at some future day, to lay
intermediate drains. The execution of that design may yet appear
expedient, although the condition of soil already obtained, is
satisfactory beyond expectation.
Owing to the excess of water that saturated the soil in Spring and
Fall, the former proprietors of the farm had not attempted the
cultivation of the field alluded to, for many years. Originally
producing heavy crops of hay, it had been mowed for thirty years or
more, and was a good specimen of "exhausted land," yielding
one-half or three-fourths of a ton of hay per acre. This field is
designated in the plan, as the "barley field, 1858," lies
south-west of the dwelling-house, and contains nearly six acres.
Its northerly half, being the lower end of the field, was drained
in 1855, having been Summer-plowed, and sowed with buckwheat, which
was turned under, when in flower, as a fallow crop. The other half
was drained in 1856; plowed and subsoiled the same Fall. In 1857,
nearly the whole field was planted with roots--potatoes, rutabagas,
mangolds, carrots, English turnips, &c.--and one acre in corn. For
these crops, fair dressings of manure were applied--say ten or
twelve cartloads of barn-manure plowed in, and one hundred pounds
of either guano or bone-dust harrowed in, or strewed in the drill,
for each acre; about fifteen loads per acre of seasoned muck or
peat were also plowed in. There was a good yield of all the roots;
for the corn, the season was unfavorable. Last Spring, a light
dressing of manure, but all that we could afford, was applied, the
whole well ploughed, harrowed, seeded to grass with barley,
harrowed, and rolled. The barley was taken off last week; and, from
the five and three-quarter acres, seventeen heavy loads were hauled
into the barn, each estimated to exceed a ton in weight. The grain
from a measured acre was put apart to be separately threshed, and I
will advise of its yield when ascertained.[A] This was said, by the
many farmers who saw it, including some from the Western States,
to be the "handsomest field of grain" they had ever seen. The young
grass looks well; and I hope, next Summer, to report a good cut of
"hay from drained land."
[Footnote A: This was threshed about the middle of November, and
yielded "51 bushels, round measure." The entire field averaged 45
bushels per acre.]
Last Winter, there were no snows to cover the ground for sleighing
until March; and, lying uncovered, our fields were all frozen to an
unusual depth. But, _our drains did not cease to run through the
Winter_. And Mr. O. W. Straw, who works the farm, and was requested
to note the facts accurately, wrote to me this Spring, "the frost
came out of the drained land about one week first" (that is,
earlier than from the undrained land adjacent); and, "in regard to
working condition, the drained land was in advance of the
undrained, ten days, at least." The absence of snow permitting this
unusual depth of frost, had caused a rare equality of condition the
last Spring, because, until the frost was out, the drains would not
draw surface-water. Usually, when early snows have fallen to
protect the ground, and it remains covered through the Winter, the
frost goes off with the snow, _or earlier_, and, within a few days,
the land becomes in good condition for plowing--quite two weeks
earlier than the driest of my undrained fields, or any others in
the vicinity.
These remarks apply to land in which the drains are four rods
apart. The farm lies with an inclination northerly and easterly,
the fall varying from 1 in 33 to 1 in 8; that in most of the drains
laid four rods apart, being about 1 in 25. The drains in the
"barley field" fall 1 in 27, average, all affording a rapid run of
water, which, from the mode of construction, and subsequent
subsoiling, finds ready access to the drain-channels. Hence, we
never observe running water upon the surface of any of our drained
lands, either during the heaviest rains, or when snows are melting,
and the wasteful "washing" from the surface that formerly injured
our plowed grounds, has ceased.
It is fair to suppose that it is the considerable descent which
renders the drains so effectual at four rods apart; and that where
there is but slight fall, other circumstances being the same, it
would be necessary to lay drains much nearer, for equal service.
The results of one man's experiments, or practice, whether of
success or failure, should not be conclusive to another, unless all
the circumstances are identical. These are ever varying from one
farm to another; and only a right understanding of the natural laws
or principles brought into use, can determine what is best in each
case. Therefore, a description of the methods I have used, or any
detailed suggestions I may give, as the result of experience, would
not be worth much, unless tested by the well-ascertained rules
applicable to them, which men of science and skill have adopted
and proved, by the immensely extended draining operations in Great
Britain, and those begun in this country. These are now given in
elaborate treatises, and quoted in agricultural journals. But they
should be made familiar to every farmer, in all their practical
details, and with methods suited to our country, where labor is
dear and land cheap, as contrasted with the reversed conditions in
England, where the practice of "thorough-draining" has so generally
obtained, and has so largely improved the conditions of both
landlord and tenant. Your book will do this, and thus do a great
good; for draining will greatly enlarge the productive capacity of
our land, and, consequently, its value, while it will render labor
more effective and more remunerative to the employer and the
employed.
The fact of increased production from a given quantity of land, by
draining, being ascertained beyond question, and the measure of
that increase, at its minimum, being more than the interest at six
per cent. upon the sum required to effect it--even at $50 per
acre--the question of expediency is answered. To the owner of
tillage lands there is no other such safe, sure, and profitable
investment for his money. He lodges it in a bank that will never
suspend payments, and from which better than six per cent. dividend
can be received annually.
Very truly, yours, B. F. NOURSE.
Hon. H. F. FRENCH, Exeter, N. H.
STATEMENT OF SHEDD AND EDSON.
BOSTON, February 1, 1859.
DEAR SIR:--The plan for a system of thorough drainage, a copy of
which we send you herewith, was executed for Mr. I. P. Rand, of
Roxbury.
An outfall was obtained, at the expense of considerable labor, by
deepening the Roxbury and Dorchester Brook for a distance of nearly
a quarter of a mile, about four hundred feet of which was through a
rocky bottom, which required some blasting. The fall thus obtained
was only about two inches in the whole distance.
The fall which can be obtained for the main drain is less than two
inches per hundred feet, but the lateral drains entering into the
main, will have a fall varying from two inches to a foot per
hundred.
The contour lines, or lines traced along the ground, intersecting
points on an equal level, are drawn on this plan, showing a fall of
four-tenths of a foot, each line being in every part four-tenths of
a foot lower than the line above it. Where the lines are near
together, the fall is greater, as a less horizontal distance is
passed over before reaching a point which is four-tenths lower than
the line above.
[Illustration: Thorough Drainage BY SHEDD & EDSON. AGR'L ENG'S
BOSTON, 1859]
It will be seen by the plan, that the fall in the line occupied by
the main drain is very slight, while the side drains have a fall
much greater.
The lateral drains are run in the line of steepest descent, which
is, of course, at right angles to the general direction of the
contour lines.
The water from the entire system is collected, and escapes at one
outlet into the brook.
A peep hole is placed at the intersection of the sub-main drain
with the main, which commands about one-half the entire area--the
other, half is commanded by the outlet.
Two-inch tile will be laid in the lateral drains, and three, four,
and five-inch in the sub-main and main.
It is quite indispensable, to the successful execution of a plan of
drainage on land so level as this, that careful measurements be
made on the ground with an engineer's level, and such a
representation of its surface projected as will show to the eye at
a glance what all the natural inclinations are. The work can then
be laid out with ease in the best position, and executed in a
systematic manner. The time and labor which is devoted to such an
examination of the ground is well spent, and, with the knowledge
gained by it, the work can be carried on with such economy as to
save the original cost of the examination many times over.
Very truly, yours,
SHEDD & EDSON
Hon. H. F. FRENCH, Exeter, N. H.
STATEMENT OF HENRY F. FRENCH, OF EXETER, N. H.
The drained field represented in the plan (Fig. 102), contains
about eight acres. I purchased it in 1846. The upper part of it is
sand, with underlying clay at depths of from four to ten feet. The
field slopes towards the river, and, on the slope, the clay strata
coming out to the surface, naturally bring out the water, so that
the side hill was so wet as to produce cranberries--quite too wet
for any hoed crop. At the foot of the hill the soil is a stiff
clay, with veins of sand and gravel. Through the centre was a wet
ravine, which served as a natural outlet for the springs, and which
was so full of black alders as to make an excellent cover for
woodcock. Until the land was drained, this ravine was impassable in
the hay season even, except by a bridge which I built across it.
Now it may be crossed at any season and at any point.
I first attempted to drain the wettest parts with brush drains,
running them into the wet places merely, and succeeded in drying
the land sufficiently to afford good crops of hay. I laid one
brush-drain across the brow of the hill, five feet deep, hoping to
cut off all the water, which I supposed ran along upon the surface
of the clay. This dried the land for a few rods, but the water
still ruined the lower parts of the field, and the drain produced
very little effect upon the land above it. In 1856, finding my
brush drains quite insufficient, I thorough-drained the side-hill
on the lower part of the plan at the reader's left hand, at fifty
feet distances, up and down the slope, at an average of about four
feet depth, going five feet deep on the brow of the hill, to cut
through the brush-drain. I used two-inch sole-tiles for minors, and
three-inch for the main.
The effect was instantaneous. The land which, in the Spring of
1856, had been so wet that it could not, even though partially
drained with brush-drains, be planted till the 5th of June, was, in
1857, ready to work as soon as the snow was off. My farm journal
says, under date of April 6th, "plowed drained land with double
plow two days after a heavy storm--dry enough." I spent that Summer
in Europe. The land was planted with corn, which produced a heavy
crop. I find an entry in my journal, on my return, "My drained land
has been in good condition--neither too wet nor too dry--all
Summer."
In the Fall of 1857, I laid about 170 rods in other parts of the
field, at similar depths and distances, and in 1858 completed the
upper part, on which is an orchard of apple trees. A part of this
orchard was originally so wet as to kill the trees the first year,
but by brush-drains I dried it enough to keep the next set alive.
There was no water visible at the surface, and the land was dry
enough for corn and potatoes; still the trees looked badly, and
many were winter-killed. I had learned the formation of the earth
about my premises, of which I had at first no adequate conception,
and was satisfied that no fruit tree could flourish with its feet
in cold water, even in Winter. All nursery-men and fruit-growers
agree, that land must be well drained for fruit. I therefore laid
four-foot tile drains between the rows of trees, in this apparently
dry sand. We found abundance of water, in the driest season, at
four feet, and it has never ceased to flow copiously.
I measured accurately the discharge of water from the main which
receives the drainage of about one and a half acres of the orchard,
at a time when it gave, what seemed to me an average quantity for
the Winter months, when the earth was frozen solid, and found it to
be about 480 barrels per day! The estimate was made by holding a
bucket, which contained ten quarts, under the outlet, when it was
found that it would fill in fifteen seconds, equal to ten gallons
per minute; and six hundred gallons, or twenty barrels per hour,
and four hundred and eighty barrels per day.
I have seen the same drain discharge at least four times that
quantity, at some times! The peep-holes give opportunity for
inspection, and I find the result to be, that the water-table is
kept down four feet below the surface at all times, except for a
day or two after severe rain-storms.
There is an apparent want of system in this plan, partly to be
attributed to my desire to conform somewhat to the line of the
fences, and partly to the conformation of the land, which is quite
uneven. At several points near the ravine, springs broke out,
apparently from deep fountains, and short drains were run into
them, to keep them below the surface.
The general result has been, to convert wet land into early warm
soil, fit for a garden, to render my place more dry and healthful,
and to illustrate for the good of the community the entire
efficiency of tile-drainage. The cost of this work throughout, I
estimate at fifty cents per rod, reckoning labor at $1 per day, and
tiles at $12 per thousand, and all the work by hand-tools. I think
in a few years, we may do the same work at one-half this cost.
Further views on this point are given in the chapter on the "Cost
of Drainage."
After our work was in press, we received from Mr. William Boyle, Farmer
at the Albert Model Farm in Ireland, the paper which is given below,
kindly sent in reply to a series of questions proposed by the author.
The Albert Model Farm is one of the Government institutions for the
promotion of agriculture, by the education of young men in the science
and the practice of farming; and from what was apparent, by a single
day's examination of the establishment in our visit to it in August,
1857, we are satisfied of its entire success. The crops then growing
were equal, if not superior, to any we have seen in any country. Much of
the land covered by those crops is drained land; and having confidence
that the true principles of drainage for that country must be taught and
practiced at this institution, we thought it might be instructive, as
well as interesting to the farmers of America, to give them the means of
comparison between the system there approved, and those others which we
have described.
Had the paper been sooner received, we should have referred to it
earlier in our book; yet coming as it does, after our work was mostly in
type, we confess to some feeling of satisfaction, at the substantial
coincidence of views entertained at the Albert Model Farm, with our own
humble teachings. With many thanks to Mr. Boyle for his valuable letter,
which we commend to our readers as a reliable exposition of the most
approved principles of land-draining for Ireland, we give the paper
entire:
ALBERT MODEL FARM, Glasnevin, Dublin,
January 31, 1859.
To the Hon. HENRY F. FRENCH, Exeter, N. H.:
SIR:--Your queries on land-drainage have been too long unanswered.
I have now great pleasure in sending you, herewith, my views on the
points noted. * * *
Pray excuse me for the delay in writing. I am, sir,
Your obliged and obedient servant, WILLIAM BOYLE.
LAND DRAINAGE--REPLIES TO QUERIES, ETC.
_Introductory observations._ Ireland contains close on to
twenty-one millions of acres, thirteen and a half millions of which
were returned as "arable land," in 1841. By "Arterial" and
thorough-drainage, &c., effected through loans granted by
government, the extent of arable land has been increased to fifteen
and a half millions of acres. The "Board of Works" has the
management of the funds granted for drainage and land improvements
generally, and competent inspectors are appointed to see that the
works are properly executed. The proprietor, or farmer, who obtains
a loan may, if competent, claim and obtain the appointment of
overseer on his own property, and thus have an opportunity of
economically expending the sum which he will have to repay
(principal and interest) by twenty-two installments. The average
cost of thorough-drainage, under the Board of Works, has been about
L5 per statute acre. In 1847, when government granted the first
loan for land-drainage, tiles were not so easily obtained as at
present, nor was tile-drainage well understood in this country; and
the greater part of the drains then made--and for some years
after--were either sewered with stones, formed into a conduit of
various dimensions, and covered over with finely-broken stones, or
the latter were filled into the bottom of the drain, to about one
foot in depth, as recommended by Smith, of Deanston. The
dimensions for minor drains, sewered with stones, were, usually,
three and a half feet deep, fifteen inches wide at top, and three
to four inches wide at bottom (distance apart being twenty-one
feet); and the overseer carried about with him a wooden gauge, of a
size to correspond, so that the workmen could see at a glance what
they had to do. These drains are reported to have given general
satisfaction; and they were cheaply made, as the stones were to be
had in great abundance in almost every field. On _new_ land,
trenching was sometimes carried on simultaneously with the
drainage; and it very often happened that the removal of the stones
thus brought to the surface, was very expensive; but they were
turned to profitable account in sewering drains and building
substantial fences. In almost every case the drains were made in
the direction of the greatest inclination, or fall of the land; and
this is the practice followed throughout the country. Some
exceptions occur on _hill-sides_, where I have seen the drains laid
off at an acute angle with the line of inclination. It is not
necessary that I should explain the scientific reasons for draining
in the direction of the fall of the land, as that point has been
fully treated of, and well illustrated, in your article already
referred to. I shall now pass on to the Queries.
[Illustration: Thorough Drainage BY HENRY F. FRENCH. EXETER N.H.]
_Depth of drains, and distance apart._ There is still a great
diversity of opinion on these points, and particularly in reference
to the drainage of stiff clay soils; some of the most intelligent
and practical farmers in this country hold to the opinion that, on
such soils, the maximum depth should not exceed three feet, and the
distance apart sixteen to twenty feet. On clay loams, having a
subsoil more or less free, the general practice is, to make the
drains three and a half to four feet deep, and at twenty-one to
thirty feet apart. On lighter soils, having a free subsoil, four
feet deep and forty feet apart are the usual limitations. This farm
may be taken as a fair average of the land in Ireland, as a test
for drainage; the soil is a deep clay loam; the subsoil a compact
mixture of strong clay and calcareous gravel, almost free from
stones. Thirty miles of drains have been made on the farm, the
least distance apart being twenty-one feet, and the greatest
distance thirty feet; the depth in every case, three and a half to
four feet for minor drains. This drainage has given the greatest
satisfaction; for although the greatest part of the work was
performed by the Agricultural pupils, in training here, we have not
had occasion to re-make a single drain, except in one instance,
where the tiles got choked, and which I shall explain hereafter.
_Tiles: Size, Shape, Draining, Capacity, &c._ We use circular pipe
tiles, of inch and a half bore, for all parallel drains whose
length does not exceed one hundred yards, and two-inch pipes for
any additional length up to one hundred and fifty yards, the
greatest length, in my opinion, a parallel drain should reach
before discharging into a main or sub-main drain. We do not find it
necessary to use collars on this farm, as we have _firm_ ground to
place the tiles on, and we can cut the drain to fit the tiles
exactly. As regards the size of tiles for main and sub-main drains,
_that_ can only be regulated by the person in charge of the
drainage at any particular place, after seeing the land opened up
and the minor drains discharging. As a general rule, a circular
pipe of three inches internal diameter will discharge the
_ordinary_ drainage of five or six statute acres, and give
sufficient space for the circulation of air. It should be observed,
however, that this applies to a district where the annual rain-fall
is from twenty-six to thirty inches, that of all Ireland being
about thirty-five inches; besides, we have not the immense falls of
rain in a _few hours_ that occur in other countries. All these
points should be carefully considered in estimating the water-way
for drainage. I have said that collars are not used with the tiles
on this farm, as the bottom of the drains is quite firm and even;
but, where the bed for the tile is soft, and the subsoil is of a
_shifting_ nature, then collars should be used in every case.
Collars cost about half the price of tiles, which they are made to
connect, so that the use of them adds one-third to the expense of
the sewering material; and, as I have already pointed out, I think
it quite unnecessary to use them where the subsoil is _firm_, and
where the drain can be bottomed to _fit the tile_. Where large
pipes are not to be had conveniently for sewering main or
sub-drains, I find a proportional number of pipes of lesser
diameter to answer perfectly. It is very desirable to provide
_branch pipes_ for connecting the minor with the main drains. The
branch should be socketed to receive the end of the last tile in
the minor drain, and the point of attachment to the main pipe may
be on the top or on the side of the latter. If the branch be made
to lead the water into the side of the main pipe, then it should
join the latter at an acute angle, that both streams may meet with
the least possible opposition of forces.
_Fall necessary in Tile Drainage._ I consider one foot in one
hundred yards the _least_ fall to work upon with safety.
_Securing Outlets._ All the outlets from main-drains should be well
secured against the intrusion of vermin, by a wrought-iron grating,
built in mason-work. The water may flow into a stone trough
provided with an overflow-pipe, by which the quantity discharged
may be ascertained at any time, so as to compare the drainage
before and after rain, &c.
_Traps, or Silt Ponds._ Where extensive drainage is carried on in
low-lying districts, and the principal outlet at a considerable
distance, it may be found necessary to have traps at several points
where the silt from the tiles will be kept. These traps may be of
cast-iron, or mason-work, cemented; and provision should be made,
by which they can be cleaned out and examined regularly--the
drainage at these periods also undergoing inspection at the
different traps.
_Plow-Draining._ We have no draining-plows in use in Ireland, that
I know of; the common plow is sometimes used for marking off the
drains, cutting the sides, and throwing out the earth to a
considerable depth, thereby lessening the manual labor
considerably. Efforts have been made in England to produce an
efficient implement of this description; but it would appear there
is ample room for an inventive Jonathan to walk in for a profitable
patent in this department, and thus add another to the many
valuable ones brought out in your great country.
_Case of Obstruction in Tiles._ Some years since, one of the
principal main-drains on this farm was observed not discharging the
water freely, as it hitherto had done, after a heavy fall of rain;
and the land adjoining it showed unmistakable signs of wetness. The
drain was opened, and traced to the point of obstruction, which was
found to be convenient to a _small poplar tree_, the rootlets of
which made their way into the tiles, at the depth of five and a
half feet, and completely filled them, in the direction of the
stream, for several yards. We have some of the tiles (horse-shoe)
in our museum here, as they were then lifted from the drain,
showing clearly the formidable nature of the obstruction. Another
serious case of obstruction has come to my knowledge, occasioned by
frogs or toads getting into the tiles of the main-drain in large
numbers, on account of the outlet being insufficiently protected.
In this case, a large expenditure had to be incurred, to repair the
damage done.
I have not observed any case of obstruction from the roots of our
cultivated plants. It has been said by some that the rootlets of
mangold will reach the drains under them; and, particularly, where
the drains contain most water in rapid motion. I took up the tiles
from a drain on this farm, in '54, which had been laid down (by a
former occupier), about the year '44, at a depth not exceeding
two-and-a-half feet, and not one of these was obstructed in the
least degree, although parsnips, carrots, cabbages, mangolds, &c.,
had been grown on this field. Obstructions may occur through the
agency of _mineral_ springs; but very few cases of this nature are
met with, at least in this country. I would anticipate this class
of obstruction, if from the nature of the land there was reason to
expect it, by increasing the fall in the drains and having _traps_
more frequent, where the main outlets are at a distance to render
them necessary. In my opinion, the roots of trees are the great
intruders to be guarded against, and more particularly the
_soft_-wooded sorts, such as poplars, willows, alders, &c. The
distance of a drain from a tree ought always to be equal to the
height of the latter.
_Tiles flattening in the drying process._ With this subject, I am
not practically familiar. In most tile-works, the tiles, after
passing through the moulding-machine, are placed horizontally on
shelves, which rise one above another to any convenient height, on
which the tiles are dried by means of heated flues which traverse
the sheds where the work is carried on; or they are allowed to dry
without artificial heat. I prefer the tiles prepared by the latter
method, as, if sufficient time be given them to be well dried, they
will burn more equally, and be more durable. The tiles will flatten
more or less for the first day or two on the shelves, after which
they are _rolled_. This is done by boys (who are provided with
pieces of wood of a diameter equal to the bore of the tile when
made), who very soon learn to get over a large number daily. The
"roller" should have a shouldered handle attached, the whole
thickness of which should not be greater than that of the tile. The
_shoulder_ is necessary to make the _ends_ of the tiles even, that
there may be no _very open_ joints when they are placed in a drain.
Once rolled, the tiles are not likely to flatten again, if the
operation be performed at the proper time.
As good tiles as I ever saw were dried in a different way, and not
rolled at all. As they were taken from the machine--six at a
time--each carrier passed off with his tray, and placed them _on
end_ carefully, upon an _even floor_. When five or six rows of
tiles were thus placed, the whole length of the drying-house, a
board was set on edge to keep them from falling to one side; then
followed five or six other rows of tiles, and so on, till the
drying-ground was filled.
This was the plan adopted in a tilery near Dublin, some years ago.
It is only a few days since I examined some of the tiles made at
these works, which had been taken from a drain, where they had been
in use for nine years; and the _clear ringing sound_ produced by
striking them against each other, showed what little effect that
length of time produced upon them, and how well they had been
manufactured.
_Cost of Tiles._ We have recently paid at the works--
For 1-1/2 inch pipes 17s. 6d. per thousand.
" 2 " 25s. "
" 3 " 45s. "
Each tile one foot in length, and the one and one-half-inch pipes
weighing 16 cwt. per thousand.
One of the great difficulties in connection with tile-making is, in
many districts, to procure clay sufficiently free from lime. Tiles
are very often sold by sample, sent a considerable distance, and it
becomes necessary to test them, which we do (for
lime) by placing them in water for a night; and, if lime is present
in the tile, it will, of course, swell out, and break the latter,
or leave it in a riddled state.
I have now endeavored to answer the queries in your postscript, and
I have carefully avoided enlarging on some points in them with
which your readers are already familiar. If I shall have thrown a
single ray of additional light on this subject across the Atlantic,
I shall be amply repaid for any attention I have given to
thorough-drainage during the past twelve years.
I should here observe that I mislaid amongst my papers the portion
of your letter containing the queries (it was a separate sheet),
and it has not as yet turned up, so that I had to depend on a
rather treacherous memory to keep the queries in my mind's eye. It
is highly probable, therefore, that I have overlooked some of them.
This circumstance was the chief cause of the delay in writing.
You are quite at liberty to make any use you please of this
communication.
WILLIAM BOYLE.
INDEX.
Absorption of moisture; 303, 304, 322
" Fertilizing substances; 268
Aeration; 269, 276
Albert Model Farm; 375
American experiments; 367
Anderson, J. F.; 112
Arrangement of drains; 173
Artesian Wells; 83
Attraction, adhesive; 301
" capillary; 302
" of soils for vapor; 304
Auger, Elkington's; 35, 246
Bache, Prof.; 65
Back water; 181
Barn cellar; 356-359
Bergen, Mr.; 199
Birmingham spades; 240
Bletonism; 36
Blodgett, Lorin; 51, 59
Bligh, Captain; 24, 27
Bogs; 91
Boning-rod; 234
Bore, form of; 129
Boring; 35, 365
Boring tools; 35, 346
Boyle, Wm.; 375
Branch pipes; 196, 378
Bricks, draining; 121, 144
" cost of; 204
Brush drains; 104, 105
Capacity of pipes; 131, 132, 134, 201
Capillary attraction; 302
Cellars, drainage of; 351-359
Challoner's Level; 235
Clay soil; 167, 329
Clays, drainage of; 322-332
Clays, cracking of; 275, 324-331
Collars; 47, 126, 127, 128, 219, 316, 320, 378
Cold from evaporation; 63, 272
Cost of drainage; 211-224, 309, 376
" tiles; 201-205, 381
Count Rumford; 272, 273, 287
_Country Gentleman_; 16, 198, 329
Crisp, Thomas; 203
Custis, G. W. P.; 18
Dams; 333, 347
Deanston system; 37
Delafield; 46, 76, 168
Denton, J. Bailey; 21, 161
" Letter from; 200
Depth of drains; 164-173, 326, 328, 377
Directions how to lay drains; 252-258
Dew, cause of; 305
" increased by drainage; 284, 306
" imparts warmth; 307
Dew-point; 65, 66, 306
Dickinson, A. B.; 108
Direction of drains; 146-155
Distance " ; 155-164, 377
Ditch diggers; 247-251
Drainage acts; 349
" companies; 333
" effects of; 258-276
" methods of; 99-120
" water of; 60, 61, 339
Drainage, will it pay? 95
Drain bricks; 121, 144
Drains of brush; 104
" larch tubes; 111
" plug; 106
" of poles; 113
" rails; 112
" stones; 114-119
" wedge; 110
" run before rain; 269, 270
Drought, drains prevent; 281-286, 300
Dry Wells; 197, 198
Durability of drains; 141-145
Elkington's system; 27, 33, 240, 365
Embankment; 18
Emerson, R. W.; 15, 23
Engineering; 163, 213
England; 19, 340
" wet land in; 89
English tools; 243
Evaporation; 48, 61, 62, 293-297
" cold from; 63, 272, 293-297
" from land; 62, 69, 72
" " water; 62, 69, 73
Excavation; 165
" cost of; 165, 201, 214
" table of; 216
Experiments, American; 367, 376
Factory reservoirs; 341-343
Fall in drains; 174, 378
Fences; 211, 346
Filtration; 41, 60, 61
Filtration tables of; 70, 71
Fitzherbert; 23
Flat-bottomed tiles; 129
Flowage, effects of; 333, 341, 343, 346
Flushing drains; 186
Freezing out; 75, 262
" of pipes; 171
French's plan; 373
Friction of water; 131, 133
Frost; 67, 143, 170, 172, 297, 299
Fruit trees; 298, 374
Furrows; 195
Gauge; 246
Germination; 276-281
Gillis, Lieut.; 65
Gisborne; 122, 126
Gravitation; 131
Grading drains; 233
Gratings at outlets; 183
Great Britain; 89
" wet lands in; 89
Greeley, Horace; 88
Haarlaem, Lake; 19
Headers; 153, 154
Heat in wet land; 288-290
" water; 272, 273
Hobbs, Doctor; 51, 54, 56
Holyoke, Doctor; 62
Horse-shoe tiles; 124
Implements; 225, 252
Indications of moisture; 93
Injury by drainage; 308, 313
Ireland, drainage in; 376
Irrigation; 14
Irish spade; 238
Johnson, B. P.; 17
Johnston, John; 46, 168, 256, 262, 328, 329
Johnstone; 28, 31, 120
Joints, how covered; 255
" spaces at; 134, 140
Junction of drains; 195, 196
Keythorpe system; 40
Klippart, J. H.; 16
Land Drainage Companies; 349
Larch tubes; 111
Lardner, Dr.; 270
Laying out drains; 213, 253
Laying tiles; 219, 252-258
Legal rights to water; 85, 86, 346
Legislation; 340
Levelling instruments; 229-235
Lincolnshire fens; 19, 310
Lines, use of; 233, 253
Lord Lincoln's Act; 347
Madden, Doctor; 276
Mains, position and size of; 190-194
Mangolds, obstruction by; 316, 317, 379
Mapes, Prof.; 16, 167
Massachusetts, laws; 347
Mechi, Sheriff; 260, 339
Methods of drainage; 99
Mice; 104, 116, 315
Mill dams; 340-344
Mill streams; 89, 333
Minors; 194
Moisture, sources of; 78
Moles; 104, 116
Mole drains; 107
Mole Plow; 108
Moon, influence of; 306
Morris, Edward; 60
Nash, Prof.; 199
Nene River; 337
New York Park; 47, 219
Nourse, B. F.; 285, 299, 367
" statement and plan of; 195, 367, 372
Obstruction of drains; 313-320
" by sand; 313, 321
" by frogs, &c.; 183, 315, 379
" per-oxide of iron; 317
" roots; 315, 316, 379
" filling at joints; 319
Open ditches; 99, 263
" objections to; 101, 102
Opening ditches; 252
Outfalls; 345
Outlets; 176-183, 219, 252, 257, 315, 378
Over-draining peats; 309, 366
Parkes, Josiah; 25, 38, 40, 128
Paul's ditcher; 250
Peat tiles; 113
Peats, over-draining of; 309, 366
Peep-holes; 187, 188, 321, 373
Per-oxide of iron; 317
Pettibone, J. S.; 329
Picks; 245
Pipes; 47, 122, 123, 144
" capacity of; 131-138, 159, 191, 193
" cost in England; 201, 204
" " United States; 202-205, 218
" position of; 190-194
Pipe layer; 244, 245
Plans of drains; 195, 372, 377
" importance of; 161
Plow, use of; 253, 379
Plow, Fowler's drain; 247, 248
" Shanghae; 109
Paul's ditcher; 250
Routt's; 251
Plug drains; 107
Pole drain; 113
Pratt's Ditch digger; 248, 249
Pressure of water; 131, 132, 331, 332, 356
" water of; 84
Process of draining; 252-258
Puddling; 198, 266, 323
Pulverization; 260, 282, 299
Rain; 48, 158, 159, 284
Rain-fall; 50, 158, 378
Rain-fall, tables of; 53-60, 70-73
Relief pipes; 184, 186
Reservoirs; 341, 343
Ridge and furrow; 195
Rolling pipes; 205, 380
Roots, length of; 258, 259, 283
" obstruction by; 315, 316, 379
Round pipes; 47, 122
Rumford, Count; 272, 273, 287
Ruffin, Edmund, Esq.; 29, 364
Rye and Derwent; 344
Saturation; 66
Scoops; 244
Screens at outlets; 183
Season lengthened; 261
Shallow drains; 168
Shanghae plow; 109
Shedd and Edson; 21, 51, 372
Shoulder drain; 110
Shovels; 236, 237
Silt basin; 186, 379
Sinkholes; 198
Size of tiles; 190, 201, 377
Smith, of Deanston; 26, 37
Snow, fall of; 59
Sole-tile; 125
Spades; 235, 236, 240-242
Spirit level; 230
Springs; 78-83
" drainage of; 34
" run before rain; 270-271
" how to preserve; 189
Staff and target; 231
Stagnant water; 93
Stone drains; 114-119, 377
" cost of; 114, 222
Stones above tiles; 118
Streams affected by drainage; 333-340
Subsoil plow; 169
Subsoiler, Marcus and Co.'s; 107
Surface washing prevented; 261
Swallow-holes; 197, 198
Swamps; 91, 360
" drainage of; 360-363
Swamp-lands; 17
Swan, R. J.; 168
System, importance of; 160, 173
Tables of evaporation; 72, 73
" excavation; 216
" filtration; 70, 71
" rain-fall; 53-59, 71-73
" of tiles to acre; 220
" number of rods; 220
" capacity of pipes; 135-138
Talpa; 23
Temperature; 67, 189, 280, 287-300
" underground; 187, 288, 291
" for vegetation; 271
Thermometer, wet and dry; 64, 65
Thomas, J. J.; 229
Tile-drainage; 120
Tiles, cost in England; 201, 212
" " United States; 201-205
" forms of; 122-130
" length of; 221
" size of; 130-138
" weight of; 219
" number to the acre; 220
Tile machines; 46, 202-210
Tile-works; 47, 121
Tools; 225-246
Tops and bottoms; 140, 319, 379
Traps; 185, 186, 379, 380
Velocity of water; 131
Vermin; 104
Virginia; 18, 364
Warder, Doctor; 346
Water, how it enters; 138, 314, 320
" stagnant; 93
" of drainage, uses of; 189, 339
" velocity of; 131
Water passage; 129
Water-line; 51, 139
Water-powers; 333, 335, 341-345
Water of pressure; 84, 161
Water, pressure of; 84, 140, 141
" rights in; 85, 86
Wedge drain; 110, 236
Weight of tiles; 219, 381
Wells, drainage into; 197-199
" dried by drains; 85, 366
Well and relief-pipe; 184-186
Well with silt trap; 186
Wharncliffe system; 44
Width of ditches; 215-218, 226
Wright, Gov.; 17
Yeomans, T. G.; 46, 108
* * * * *
Transcriber's Note:
Summarized here are the corrections applied to the text.
List of Engravings:
Drain Gauge
"Gauge" was printed as "Guage"
H. F. French's Drainage 376
the page number was printed as "374"
unmindful of their obligations to him
"unmindful" was printed as "unmindul"
of gauging
the quantity of water traveling along an important drain
"gauging" was printed as "guaging"
were removed, a pond would remain
"would" was unreadable in the Original
knowledge of the subject
"knowledge" was printed as "knowlege"
That drains will long continue to be opened in
this vast country by hand labor
"vast" was printed as "fast"
the greater permanency
of tiles
"permanency" was printed as "permanancy"
have come to our knowledge
"knowledge" was printed as "knowlege"
lay drains deep enough to be beyond the danger of water
bursting in
"bursting" was printed as "brusting"
people of Great Britain
"Britain" was printed as "Britian"
The farmer sees his
thousand bushels of potatoes submerged
"potatoes" was printed as "potatos"
the temperature at the latter
depth
"the" was printed twice
representing the
cellar referred to
"cellar" was printed as "celler"
and another outside
"another" was printed as "auother"
becomes necessary to test them
"to" was printed twice