G. Krause, _Urkunden, Aktenstucke und Briefe zur Geschichte der
anhaltischen Lande und ihrer Fürsten unter dem Drucke des 30 jahrigen
Krieges_ (Leipzig, 1861-1866); O. von Heinemann, _Codex diplomaticus
Anhaltinus_ (Dessau, 1867-1883); Siebigk, _Das Herzogthum Anhalt
historisch, geographisch und statistisch dargestellt_ (Dessau, 1867).
ANHALT-DESSAU, LEOPOLD I., PRINCE OF (1676-1747), called the "Old
Dessauer" (Alter Dessauer), general field marshal in the Prussian
army, was the only surviving son of John George II., prince of
Anhalt-Dessau, and was born on the 3rd of July 1676 at Dessau. From
his earliest youth he was devoted to the profession of arms, for which
he educated himself physically and mentally. He became colonel of a
Prussian regiment in 1693, and in the same year his father's death
placed him at the head of his own principality; thereafter, during the
whole of his long life, he performed the duties of a sovereign prince
and a Prussian officer. His first campaign was that of 1695 in
the Netherlands, in which he was present at the siege of Namur. He
remained in the field to the end of the war of 1697, the affairs
of the principality being managed chiefly by his mother, Princess
Henriette Catherine of Orange. In 1698 he married Anna Luise Föse,
an apothecary's daughter of Dessau, in spite of his mother's long and
earnest opposition, and subsequently he procured for her the rank of
a princess from the emperor (1701). Their married life was long and
happy, and the princess acquired an influence over the stern nature of
her husband which she never ceased to exert on behalf of his subjects,
and after the death of Leopold's mother she performed the duties of
regent when he was absent on campaign. Often, too, she accompanied him
into the field. Leopold's career as a soldier in important commands
begins with the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession. He had
made many improvements in the Prussian army, notably the introduction
of the iron ramrod about 1700, and he now took the field at the
head of a Prussian corps on the Rhine, serving at the sieges of
Kaiserswerth and Venlo. In the following year (1703), having obtained
the rank of lieutenant-general, Leopold took part in the siege of Bonn
and distinguished himself very greatly in the battle of Höchstädt, in
which the Austrians and their allies were defeated by the French under
Marshal Villars (September 20, 1703). In the campaign of 1704
the Prussian contingent served under Prince Louis of Baden and
subsequently under Eugene, and Leopold himself won great glory by his
conduct at Blenheim. In 1705 he was sent with a Prussian corps to join
Prince Eugene in Italy, and on the 16th of August he displayed his
bravery at the hard-fought battle of Cassano. In the following year he
added to his reputation in the battle of Turin, where he was the first
to enter the hostile entrenchments (September 7, 1706). He served
in one more campaign in Italy, and then went with Eugene to join
Marlborough in the Netherlands, being present in 1709 at the siege
of Tournay and the battle of Malplaquet. In 1710 he succeeded to the
command of the whole Prussian contingent at the front, and in 1712, at
the particular desire of the crown prince, Frederick William, who had
served with him as a volunteer, he was made a general field marshal.
Shortly before this he had executed a _coup de main_ on the castle
of Mörs, which was held by the Dutch in defiance of the claims of the
king of Prussia to the possession. The operation was effected with
absolute precision and the castle was seized without a shot being
fired. In the earlier part of the reign of Frederick William I.,
the prince of Dessau was one of the most influential members of
the Prussian governing circle. In the war with Sweden (1715) he
accompanied the king to the front, commanded an army of 40,000 men,
and met and defeated Charles XII. in a severe battle on the island
of Rügen (November 16). His conduct of the siege of Stralsund which
followed was equally skilful, and the great results of the war
to Prussia were largely to be attributed to his leadership in the
campaign. In the years of peace, and especially after a court quarrel
(1725) and duel with General von Grumbkow, he devoted himself to the
training of the Prussian army. The reputation it had gained in the
wars of 1675 to 1715, though good, gave no hint of its coming glory,
and it was even in 1740 accounted one of the minor armies of Europe.
That it proved, when put to the test, to be by far the best military
force existing, may be taken as the summary result of Leopold's work.
The "Old Dessauer" was one of the sternest disciplinarians in an age
of stern discipline, and the technical training of the infantry, under
his hand, made them superior to all others in the proportion of five
to three (see AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE). He was essentially an
infantry soldier; in his time artillery did not decide battles, but he
suffered the cavalry service, in which he felt little interest, to
be comparatively neglected, with results which appeared at Mollwitz.
Frederick the Great formed the cavalry of Hohenfriedberg and Leuthen
himself, but had it not been for the incomparable infantry trained by
the "Old Dessauer" he would never have had the opportunity of doing
so. Thus Leopold, heartily supported by Frederick William, who was
himself called the great drill-master of Europe, turned to good
account the twenty years following the peace with Sweden. During this
time two incidents in his career call for special mention: first,
his intervention in the case of the crown prince Frederick, who
was condemned to death for desertion, and his continued and finally
successful efforts to secure Frederick's reinstatement in the Prussian
army; and secondly, his part in the War of the Polish Succession on
the Rhine, where he served under his old chief Eugene and held the
office of field marshal of the Empire.
[v.02 p.0047]
With the death of Frederick William in 1740, Frederick succeeded to
the Prussian throne, and a few months later took place the invasion
and conquest of Silesia, the first act in the long Silesian wars and
the test of the work of the "Old Dessauer's" lifetime. The prince
himself was not often employed in the king's own army, though his sons
held high commands under Frederick. The king, indeed, found Leopold,
who was reputed, since the death of Eugene, the greatest of living
soldiers, somewhat difficult to manage, and the prince spent most of
the campaigning years up to 1745 in command of an army of observation
on the Saxon frontier. Early in that year his wife died. He was
now over seventy, but his last campaign was destined to be the most
brilliant of his long career. A combined effort of the Austrians and
Saxons to retrieve the disasters of the summer by a winter campaign
towards Berlin itself led to a hurried concentration of the Prussians.
Frederick from Silesia checked the Austrian main army and hastened
towards Dresden. But before he had arrived, Leopold, no longer in
observation, had decided the war by his overwhelming victory of
Kesselsdorf (December 14, 1745). It was his habit to pray before
battle, for he was a devout Lutheran. On this last field his words
were, "O Lord God, let me not be disgraced in my old days. Or if Thou
wilt not help me, do not help these scoundrels, but leave us to try it
ourselves." With this great victory Leopold's career ended. He retired
from active service, and the short remainder of his life was spent at
Dessau, where he died on the 7th of April 1747.
He was succeeded by his son, LEOPOLD II., MAXIMILIAN, PRINCE OF
ANHALT-DESSAU (1700-1751), who was one of the best of Frederick's
subordinate generals, and especially distinguished himself by the
capture of Glogau in 1741, and his generalship at Mollwitz, Chotusitz
(where he was made general field marshal on the field of battle),
Hohenfriedberg and Soor.
Another son, PRINCE DIETRICH OF ANHALT-DESSAU (d. 1769), was also a
distinguished Prussian general.
But the most famous of the sons was PRINCE MORITZ OF ANHALT-DESSAU
(1712-1760), who entered the Prussian army in 1725, saw his first
service as a volunteer in the War of the Polish Succession (1734-35),
and in the latter years of the reign of Frederick William held
important commands. In the Silesian wars of Frederick II., Moritz,
the ablest of the old Leopold's sons, greatly distinguished himself,
especially at the battle of Hohenfriedberg (Striegau), 1745. At
Kesselsdorf it was the wing led by the young Prince Moritz that
carried the Austrian lines and won the "Old Dessauer's" last fight. In
the years of peace preceding the Seven Years' War, Moritz was employed
by Frederick the Great in the colonizing of the waste lands of
Pomerania and the Oder Valley. When the king took the field again in
1756, Moritz was in command of one of the columns which hemmed in the
Saxon army in the lines of Pirna, and he received the surrender of
Rutowski's force after the failure of the Austrian attempts at relief.
Next year Moritz underwent changes of fortune. At the battle of Kolin
he led the left wing, which, through a misunderstanding with the
king, was prematurely drawn into action and failed hopelessly. In
the disastrous days which followed, Moritz was under the cloud of
Frederick's displeasure. But the glorious victory of Leuthen (December
5, 1757) put an end to this. At the close of that day, Frederick
rode down the lines and called out to General Prince Moritz,
"I congratulate you, Herr Feldmarschall!" At Zorndorf he again
distinguished himself, but at the surprise of Hochkirch fell wounded
into the hands of the Austrians. Two years later, soon after his
release, his wound proved mortal.
AUTHORITIES.--Varnhagen von Ense, _Preuss. biographische Denkmale_,
vol. ii. (3rd ed., 1872); _Militar Konversations-Lexikon_, vol. ii.
(Leipzig, 1833); Anon., _Fürst Leopold I. von Anhalt und seine Sohne_
(Dessau, 1852); G. Pauli, _Leben grosser Helden_, vol. vi.; von
Orlich, _Prinz Moritz von Anhalt-Dessau_ (Berlin, 1842); Crousatz,
_Militarische Denkwurdigkeiten des Fürsten Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau_
(1875); supplements to _Militär Wochenblatt_ (1878 and 1889); Siebigk,
_Selbstbiographie des Fürsten Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau_ (Dessau,
1860 and 1876); Hosäus, _Zur Biographie des Fürsten Leopold von
Anhalt-Dessau_ (Dessau, 1876); Würdig, _Des Alten Dessauers Leben und
Taten_ (3rd ed., Dessau, 1903); _Briefe Konig Friedrich Wilhelms I. an
den Fürsten L._ (Berlin, 1905).
ANHYDRITE, a mineral, differing chemically from the more commonly
occurring gypsum in containing no water of crystallization, being
anhydrous calcium sulphate, CaSO_{4}. It crystallizes in the
orthorhombic system, and has three directions of perfect cleavage
parallel to the three planes of symmetry. It is not isomorphous with
the orthorhombic barium and strontium sulphates, as might be expected
from the chemical formulae. Distinctly developed crystals are somewhat
rare, the mineral usually presenting the form of cleavage masses. The
hardness is 3-1/2 and the specific gravity 2.9. The colour is white,
sometimes greyish, bluish or reddish. On the best developed of the
three cleavages the lustre is pearly, on other surfaces it is of the
ordinary vitreous type.
Anhydrite is most frequently found in salt deposits with gypsum; it
was, for instance, first discovered, in 1794, in a salt mine near
Hall in Tirol. Other localities which produce typical specimens of the
mineral, and where the mode of occurrence is the same, are Stassfurt
in Germany, Aussee in Styria and Bex in Switzerland. At all these
places it is only met with at some depth; nearer the surface of the
ground it has been altered to gypsum owing to absorption of water.
From an aqueous solution calcium sulphate is deposited as crystals
of gypsum, but when the solution contains an excess of sodium or
potassium chloride anhydrite is deposited. This is one of the several
methods by which the mineral has been prepared artificially, and
is identical with its mode of origin in nature, the mineral having
crystallized out in salt basins.
The name anhydrite was given by A.G. Werner in 1804, because of the
absence of water, as contrasted with the presence of water in gypsum.
Other names for the species are muriacite and karstenite; the former,
an earlier name, being given under the impression that the substance
was a chloride (muriate). A peculiar variety occurring as contorted
concretionary masses is known as tripe-stone, and a scaly granular
variety, from Vulpino, near Bergamo, in Lombardy, as vulpinite; the
latter is cut and polished for ornamental purposes.
(L.J.S.)
ANI (anc. _Abnicum_), an ancient and ruined Armenian city, in Russian
Transcaucasia, government Erivan, situated at an altitude of 4390 ft.,
between the Arpa-chai (_Harpasus_) and a deep ravine. In 961 it became
the capital of the Bagratid kings of Armenia, and when yielded to the
Byzantine emperor (1046) it was a populous city, known traditionally
as the "city with the 1001 churches." It was taken eighteen years
later by the Seljuk Turks, five times by the Georgians between 1125
and 1209, in 1239 by the Mongols, and its ruin was completed by an
earthquake in 1319. It is still surrounded by a double wall partly in
ruins, and amongst the remains are a "patriarchal" church finished in
1010, two other churches, both of the 11th century, a fourth built in
1215, and a palace of large size.
See Brosset, _Les Ruines d'Ani_ (1860-1861).
ANICETUS, pope c. 154-167. It was during his pontificate that
St. Polycarp visited the Roman Church.
ANICHINI, LUIGI, Italian engraver of seals and medals, a native of
Ferrara, lived at Venice about 1550. Michelangelo pronounced his
"Interview of Alexander the Great with the high-priest at Jerusalem,"
"the perfection of the art." His medals of Henry II. of France and
Pope Paul III. are greatly valued.
ANILINE, PHENYLAMINE, or AMINOBENZENE, (C_{6}H_{5}NH_{2}), an organic
base first obtained from the destructive distillation of indigo in
1826 by O. Unverdorben (_Pogg. Ann._, 1826, 8, p. 397), who named it
crystalline. In 1834, F. Runge (_Pogg. Ann._, 1834, 31, p. 65; 32,
p. 331) isolated from coal-tar a substance which produced a beautiful
blue colour on treatment with chloride of lime; this he named kyanol
or cyanol. In 1841, C.J. Fritzsche showed that by treating indigo with
caustic potash it yielded an oil, which he named aniline, from the
specific name of one of the indigo-yielding plants, _Indigofera anil_,
_anil_ being derived from the Sanskrit _n[=i]la_, dark-blue, and
_n[=i]l[=a]_, the indigo plant. About the same time N.N. Zinin found
that on reducing nitrobenzene, a base was formed which he named
benzidam. A.W. von Hofmann investigated these variously prepared
substances, and proved them to be identical, and thenceforth they took
their place as one body, under the name aniline or phenylamine. Pure
aniline is a basic substance of an oily consistence, colourless,
melting at -8° and boiling at 184° C. On exposure to air it absorbs
oxygen and resinifies, becoming deep brown in colour; it ignites
readily, burning with a large smoky flame. It possesses a somewhat
pleasant vinous odour and a burning aromatic taste; it is a highly
acrid poison.
[v.02 p.0048]
Aniline is a weak base and forms salts with the mineral acids. Aniline
hydrochloride forms large colourless tables, which become greenish
on exposure; it is the "aniline salt" of commerce. The sulphate forms
beautiful white plates. Although aniline is but feebly basic, it
precipitates zinc, aluminium and ferric salts, and on warming expels
ammonia from its salts. Aniline combines directly with alkyl iodides
to form secondary and tertiary amines; boiled with carbon disulphide
it gives sulphocarbanilide (diphenyl thio-urea), CS(NHC_{6}H_{5})_{2},
which may be decomposed into phenyl mustard-oil, C_{6}H_{5}CNS, and
triphenyl guanidine, C_{6}H_{5}N: C(NHC_{6}H_{5})_{2}. Sulphuric acid
at 180° gives sulphanilic acid, NH2.C_{6}H_{4}.SO_{3}H. Anilides, compounds
in which the amino group is substituted by an acid radical, are
prepared by heating aniline with certain acids; antifebrin or
acetanilide is thus obtained from acetic acid and aniline. The
oxidation of aniline has been carefully investigated. In alkaline
solution azobenzene results, while arsenic acid produces the
violet-colouring matter violaniline. Chromic acid converts it into
quinone, while chlorates, in the presence of certain metallic salts
(especially of vanadium), give aniline black. Hydrochloric acid and
potassium chlorate give chloranil. Potassium permanganate in neutral
solution oxidizes it to nitrobenzene, in alkaline solution to
azobenzene, ammonia and oxalic acid, in acid solution to aniline
black. Hypochlorous acid gives para-amino phenol and para-amino
diphenylamine (E. Bamberger, _Ber._, 1898, 31, p. 1522).
The great commercial value of aniline is due to the readiness with
which it yields, directly or indirectly, valuable dyestuffs. The
discovery of mauve in 1858 by Sir W.H. Perkin was the first of
a series of dyestuffs which are now to be numbered by hundreds.
Reference should be made to the articles DYEING, FUCHSINE, SAFRANINE,
INDULINES, for more details on this subject. In addition to dyestuffs,
it is a starting-product for the manufacture of many drugs, such
as antipyrine, antifebrin, &c. Aniline is manufactured by reducing
nitrobenzene with iron and hydrochloric acid and steam-distilling the
product. The purity of the product depends upon the quality of the
benzene from which the nitrobenzene was prepared. In commerce three
brands of aniline are distinguished--aniline oil for blue, which
is pure aniline; aniline oil for red, a mixture of equimolecular
quantities of aniline and ortho- and para-toluidines; and aniline
oil for safranine, which contains aniline and ortho-toluidine, and
is obtained from the distillate (_échappés_) of the fuchsine fusion.
Monomethyl and dimethyl aniline are colourless liquids prepared by
heating aniline, aniline hydro-chloride and methyl alcohol in
an autoclave at 220°. They are of great importance in the colour
industry. Monomethyl aniline boils at 193-195°; dimethyl aniline at
192°.
ANIMAL (Lat. _animalis_, from _anima_, breath, soul), a term first
used as a noun or adjective to denote a living thing, but now used to
designate one branch of living things as opposed to the other branch
known as plants. Until the discovery of protoplasm, and the series
of investigations by which it was established that the cell was a
fundamental structure essentially alike in both animals and plants
(see CYTOLOGY), there was a vague belief that plants, if they could
really be regarded as animated creatures, exhibited at the most a
lower grade of life. We know now that in so far as life and living
matter can be investigated by science, animals and plants cannot be
described as being alive in different degrees. Animals and plants
are extremely closely related organisms, alike in their fundamental
characters, and each grading into organisms which possess some of
the characters of both classes or kingdoms (see PROTISTA). The actual
boundaries between animals and plants are artificial; they are
rather due to the ingenious analysis of the systematist than actually
resident in objective nature. The most obvious distinction is that
the animal cell-wall is either absent or composed of a nitrogenous
material, whereas the plant cell-wall is composed of a carbohydrate
material--cellulose. The animal and the plant alike require food to
repair waste, to build up new tissue and to provide material which,
by chemical change, may liberate the energy which appears in the
processes of life. The food is alike in both cases; it consists of
water, certain inorganic salts, carbohydrate material and proteid
material. Both animals and plants take their water and inorganic salts
directly as such. The animal cell can absorb its carbohydrate and
proteid food only in the form of carbohydrate and proteid; it is
dependent, in fact, on the pre-existence of these organic substances,
themselves the products of living matter, and in this respect the
animal is essentially a parasite on existing animal and plant life.
The plant, on the other hand, if it be a green plant, containing
chlorophyll, is capable, in the presence of light, of building up both
carbohydrate material and proteid material from inorganic salts; if
it be a fungus, devoid of chlorophyll, whilst it is dependent on
pre-existing carbohydrate material and is capable of absorbing,
like an animal, proteid material as such, it is able to build up its
proteid food from material chemically simpler than proteid. On these
basal differences are founded most of the characters which make the
higher forms of animal and plant life so different. The animal body,
if it be composed of many cells, follows a different architectural
plan; the compact nature of its food, and the yielding nature of its
cell-walls, result in a form of structure consisting essentially of
tubular or spherical masses of cells arranged concentrically round the
food-cavity. The relatively rigid nature of the plant cell-wall, and
the attenuated inorganic food-supply of plants, make possible and
necessary a form of growth in which the greatest surface is exposed to
the exterior, and thus the plant body is composed of flattened laminae
and elongated branching growths. The distinctions between animals and
plants are in fact obviously secondary and adaptive, and point clearly
towards the conception of a common origin for the two forms of life, a
conception which is made still more probable by the existence of many
low forms in which the primary differences between animals and plants
fade out.
An animal may be defined as a living organism, the protoplasm of which
does not secrete a cellulose cell-wall, and which requires for its
existence proteid material obtained from the living or dead bodies of
existing plants or animals. The common use of the word animal as
the equivalent of mammal, as opposed to bird or reptile or fish, is
erroneous.
The classification of the animal kingdom is dealt with in the article
ZOOLOGY.
(P.C.M.)
ANIMAL HEAT. Under this heading is discussed the physiology of the
temperature of the animal body.
The higher animals have within their bodies certain sources of heat,
and also some mechanism by means of which both the production and loss
of heat can be regulated. This is conclusively shown by the fact that
both in summer and winter their mean temperature remains the same. But
it was not until the introduction of thermometers that any exact data
on the temperature of animals could be obtained. It was then found
that local differences were present, since heat production and heat
loss vary considerably in different parts of the body, although the
circulation of the blood tends to bring about a mean temperature of
the internal parts. Hence it is important to determine the temperature
of those parts which most nearly approaches to that of the internal
organs. Also for such results to be comparable they must be made in
the same situation. The rectum gives most accurately the temperature
of internal parts, or in women and some animals the vagina, uterus or
bladder.
[v.02 p.0049]
Occasionally that of the urine as it leaves the urethra may be of use.
More usually the temperature is taken in the mouth, axilla or groin.