capital of the vilayet of the same name, situated upon a steep, rocky
hill, which rises 500 ft. above the plain, on the left bank of the
Enguri Su, a tributary of the Sakaria (Sangarius), about 220 m.
E.S.E. of Constantinople. The hill is crowned by the ruins of the old
citadel, which add to the picturesqueness of the view; but the town
is not well built, its streets being narrow and many of its houses
constructed of sun-dried mud bricks; there are, however, many
fine remains of Graeco-Roman and Byzantine architecture, the most
remarkable being the temple of Rome and Augustus, on the walls of
which is the famous _Monumentum Ancyranum_ (see ANCYRA). Ancyra was
the centre of the Tectosages, one of the three Gaulish tribes which
settled in Galatia in the 3rd century B.C., and became the capital of
the Roman province of Galatia when it was formally constituted in
25 B.C. During the Byzantine period, throughout which it occupied a
position of great importance, it was captured by Persians and Arabs;
then it fell into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, was held for eighteen
years by the Latin Crusaders, and finally passed to the Ottoman Turks
in 1360. In 1402 a great battle was fought in the vicinity of Angora,
in which the Turkish sultan Bayezid was defeated and made prisoner by
the Tatar conqueror Timur. In 1415 it was recovered by the Turks under
Mahommed I., and since that period has belonged to the Ottoman empire.
In 1832 it was taken by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha. Angora is
connected with Constantinople by railway, and exports wool, mohair,
grain and yellow berries. Mohair cloth is manufactured, and the town
is noted for its honey and fruit. From 1639 to 1768 there was an
agency of the Levant Company here; there is now a British consul.
Pop. estimated at 28,000 (Moslems, 18,000; Christians, largely Roman
Catholic Armenians, about 9400; Jews, 400).
[v.02 p.0041]
(2) A Turkish vilayet in north-central Asia Minor, which includes most
of the ancient Galatia. It is an agricultural country, depending for
its prosperity on its grain, wool (average annual export, 4,400,000
ft), and the mohair obtained from the beautiful Angora goats (average
annual clip, 3,300,000 lb). The fineness of the hair may perhaps be
ascribed to some peculiarity in the atmosphere, for it is remarkable
that the cats, dogs and other animals of the country are to a certain
extent affected in the same way, and that they all lose much of their
distinctive beauty when taken from their native districts. The only
important industry is carpet-weaving at Kir-sheher and Kaisarieh.
There are mines of silver, copper, lignite and salt, and many hot
springs, including some of great repute medicinally. Average annual
exports 1896-1898, £920,762; imports, £411,836. Pop. about 900,000
(Moslems, 765,000 to 800,000, the rest being Christians, with a few
hundred Jews).
(J.G.C.A.)
See C. Ritter, _Erdkunde van Asien_ (vol. xviii., 1837-1839); V.
Cuinet, _La Turquie d'Asie_, t, i. (1891); Murray's _Handbook to Asia
Minor_ (1895); and other works mentioned under ANCYRA.
ANGOULÊME, CHARLES DE VALOIS, DUKE OF (1573-1650), the natural son of
Charles IX. of France and Marie Touchet, was born on the 28th of April
1573, at the castle of Fayet in Dauphiné. His father dying in the
following year, commended him to the care and favour of his brother
and successor, Henry III., who faithfully fulfilled the charge. His
mother married François de Balzac, marquis d'Entragues, and one of her
daughters, Henriette, marchioness of Verneuil, afterwards became the
mistress of Henry IV. Charles of Valois, was carefully educated, and
was destined for the order of Malta. At the early age of sixteen he
attained one of the highest dignities of the order, being made grand
prior of France. Shortly after he came into possession of large
estates left by Catherine de' Medici, from one of which he took his
title of count of Auvergne. In 1591 he obtained a dispensation from
the vows of the order of Malta, and married Charlotte, daughter of
Henry, Marshal d'Amville, afterwards duke of Montmorency. In 1589
Henry III. was assassinated, but on his deathbed he commended Charles
to the good-will of his successor Henry IV. By that monarch he was
made colonel of horse, and in that capacity served in the campaigns
during the early part of the reign. But the connexion between the king
and the marchioness of Verneuil appears to have been very displeasing
to Auvergne, and in 1601 he engaged in the conspiracy formed by the
dukes of Savoy, Biron and Bouillon, one of the objects of which was
to force Henry to repudiate his wife and marry the marchioness. The
conspiracy was discovered; Biron and Auvergne were arrested and Biron
was executed. Auvergne after a few months' imprisonment was released,
chiefly through the influence of his half-sister, his aunt, the
duchess of Angouleme and his father-in-law. He then entered into
fresh intrigues with the court of Spain, acting in concert with
the marchioness of Verneuil and her father d'Entragues. In 1604
d'Entragues and he were arrested and condemned to death; at the same
time the marchioness was condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a
convent. She easily obtained pardon, and the sentence of death against
the other two was commuted into perpetual imprisonment. Auvergne
remained in the Bastille for eleven years, from 1605 to 1616. A decree
of the parlement (1606), obtained by Marguerite de Valois, deprived
him of nearly all his possessions, including Auvergne, though he still
retained the title. In 1616 he was released, was restored to his
rank of colonel-general of horse, and despatched against one of the
disaffected nobles, the duke of Longueville, who had taken Péronne.
Next year he commanded the forces collected in the Île de France, and
obtained some successes. In 1619 he received by bequest, ratified in
1620 by royal grant, the duchy of Angoulême. Soon after he was engaged
on an important embassy to Germany, the result of which was the
treaty of Ulm, signed July 1620. In 1627 he commanded the large forces
assembled at the siege of La Rochelle; and some years after in 1635,
during the Thirty Years' War, he was general of the French army in
Lorraine. In 1636 he was made lieutenant-general of the army. He
appears to have retired from public life shortly after the death of
Richelieu in 1643. His first wife died in 1636, and in 1644 he married
Francoise de Narbonne, daughter of Charles, baron of Mareuil. She had
no children and survived her husband until 1713. Angouleme himself
died on the 24th of September 1650. By his first wife he had three
children: Henri, who became insane; Louis Emmanuel, who succeeded his
father as duke of Angoulême and was colonel-general of light cavalry
and governor of Provence; and Françoise, who died in 1622.
The duke was the author of the following works:--(i)_Mémoires_, from
the assassination of Henri III. to the battle of Arques (1589-1593)
published at Paris by Boneau, and reprinted by Buchon in his _Choix de
chroniques_ (1836) and by Petitot in his _Mémoires_ (1st series, vol.
xliv.); (2) _Les Harangues, prononcés en assemblée de MM. les princes
protestants d'Allemagne_, par Monseigneur le duc d' Angoulême (1620);
(3) a translation of a Spanish work by Diego de Torres. To him has
also been ascribed the work, _La générale et fidèle Rélation de tout
ce qui s'est passé en l'isle de Ré, envoyée par le roi à la royne sa
mère_ (Paris, 1627).
ANGOULÊME, a city of south-western France, capital of the department
of Charente, 83 m. N.N.E. of Bordeaux on the railway between Bordeaux
and Poitiers. Pop. (1906) 30,040. The town proper occupies an elevated
promontory, washed on the north by the Charente and on the south
and west by the Anguienne, a small tributary of that river. The more
important of the suburbs lie towards the east, where the promontory
joins the main plateau, of which it forms the north-western extremity.
The main line of the Orleans railway passes through a tunnel beneath
the town. In place of its ancient fortifications Angoulême is
encircled by boulevards known as the _Remparts_, from which fine views
may be obtained in all directions. Within the town the streets are
often dark and narrow, and, apart from the cathedral and the hôtel
de ville, the architecture is of little interest. The cathedral of
St. Pierre (see CATHEDRAL), a church in the Byzantine-Romanesque style,
dates from the 11th and 12th centuries, but has undergone frequent
restoration, and was partly rebuilt in the latter half of the igth
century by the architect Paul Abadie. The façade, flanked by two
towers with cupolas, is decorated with arcades filled in with statuary
and sculpture, the whole representing the Last Judgment. The crossing
is surmounted by a dome, and the extremity of the north transept by
a fine square tower over 160 ft. high. The hôtel de ville, also by
Abadie, is a handsome modern structure, but preserves two towers of
the chateau of the counts of Angoulême, on the site of which it is
built. It contains museums of paintings and archaeology. Angoulême is
the seat of a bishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes. Its public
institutions include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
council of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of
the Bank of France. It also has a lycée, training-colleges, a school
of artillery, a library and several learned societies. It is a centre
of the paper-making industry, with which the town has been connected
since the 14th century. Most of the mills are situated on the banks
of the watercourses in the neighbourhood of the town. The subsidiary
industries, such as the manufacture of machinery and wire fabric,
are of considerable importance. Iron and copper founding, brewing,
tanning, and the manufacture of gunpowder, confectionery, heavy iron
goods, gloves, boots and shoes and cotton goods are also carried on.
Commerce is carried on in wine, brandy and building-stone.
Angoulême (_Iculisma_) was taken by Clovis from the Visigoths in
507, and plundered by the Normans in the 9th century. In 1360 it
was surrendered by the peace of Bretigny to the English; they were,
however, expelled in 1373 by the troops of Charles V., who granted
the town numerous privileges. It suffered much during the Wars of
Religion, especially in 1568 after its capture by the Protestants
under Coligny.
[v.02 p.0042]
The countship of Angoulême dated from the 9th century, the most
important of the early counts being William Taillefer, whose
descendants held the title till the end of the 12th century. Withdrawn
from them on more than one occasion by Richard Coeur-de-Lion, it
passed to King John of England on his marriage with Isabel, daughter
of Count Adhémar, and by her subsequent marriage in 1220 to Hugh X.
passed to the Lusignan family, counts of Marche. On the death of Hugh
XIII. in 1302 without issue, his possessions passed to the crown. In
1394 the countship came to the house of Orleans, a member of which,
Francis I., became king of France in 1515 and raised it to the rank
of duchy in favour of his mother Louise of Savoy. The duchy afterwards
changed hands several times, one of its holders being Charles of
Valois, natural son of Charles IX. The last duke was Louis-Antoine,
eldest son of Charles X., who died in 1844.
See A.F. Lièvre, _Angoulême: histoire, institutions et monuments_
(Angoulême, 1885).
ANGOUMOIS, an old province of France, nearly corresponding to-day to
the department of Charente. Its capital was Angoulême.
See _Essai d'une bibliothèque historique de l'Angoumois,_ by E.
Castaigne (1845).
ANGRA, or ANGRA DO HEROISMO ("Bay of Heroism," a name given it in
1829, to commemorate its successful defence against the Miguelist
party), the former capital of the Portuguese archipelago of the
Azores, and chief town of an administrative district, comprising the
islands of Terceira, St. George and Graciosa. Pop. (1900) 10,788. Angra
is built on the south coast of Terceira in 38° 38' N. and in 27° 13'
W. It is the headquarters of a military command, and the residence of
a Roman Catholic bishop; its principal buildings are the cathedral,
military college, arsenal and observatory. The harbour, now of little
commercial or strategic importance, but formerly a celebrated naval
station, is sheltered on the west and south-west by the promontory
of Mt. Brazil; but it is inferior to the neighbouring ports of Ponta
Delgada and Horta. The foreign trade is not large, and consists
chiefly in the exportation of pineapples and other fruit. Angra served
as a refuge for Queen Maria II. of Portugal from 1830 to 1833.
ANGRA PEQUENA, a bay in German South-West Africa, in 26° 38' S.,
15° E., discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in 1487. F.A.E. Lüderitz, of
Bremen, established a trading station here in 1883, and his agent
concluded treaties with the neighbouring chiefs, who ceded large
tracts of country to the newcomers. On the 24th of April 1884 Luderitz
transferred his rights to the German imperial government, and on the
following 7th of August a German protectorate over the district was
proclaimed. (See AFRICA, §5, and GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA.) Angra
Pequena has been renamed by the Germans Lüderitz Bay, and the adjacent
country is sometimes called Lüderitzland. The harbour is poor. At the
head of the bay is a small town, whence a railway, begun in 1906, runs
east in the direction of Bechuanaland. The surrounding country
for many miles is absolute desert, except after rare but terrible
thunderstorms, when the dry bed of the Little Fish river is suddenly
filled with a turbulent stream, the water finding its way into the
bay.
The islands off the coast of Angra Pequena, together with others north
and south, were annexed to Great Britain in 1867 and added to Cape
Colony in 1874. Seal Island and Penguin Island are in the bay;
Ichaboe, Mercury, and Hollam's Bird islands are to the north; Halifax,
Long, Possession, Albatross, Pomona, Plumpudding, and Roastbeef
islands are to the south. On these islands are guano deposits; the
most valuable is on Ichaboe Island.
ANGSTRÖM, ANDERS JONAS (1814-1874), Swedish physicist, was born on
the 13th of August 1814 at Lögdö, Medelpad, Sweden. He was educated at
Upsala University, where in 1839 he became _privat docent_ in physics.
In 1842 he went to Stockholm Observatory in order to gain experience
in practical astronomical work, and in the following year ht became
observer at Upsala Observatory. Becoming interested in terrestrial
magnetism he made many observations of magnetic intensity and
declination in various parts of Sweden, and was charged by the
Stockholm Academy of Sciences with the task, not completed till
shortly before his death, of working out the magnetic data obtained
by the Swedish frigate "Eugénie" on her voyage round the world in
1851-1853. In 1858 he succeeded Adolph Ferdinand Svanberg (1806-1857)
in the chair of physics at Upsala, and there he died on the 21st of
June 1874. His most important work was concerned with the conduction
of heat and with spectroscopy. In his optical researches, _Optiska
Undersökningar,_ presented to the Stockholm Academy in 1853, he
not only pointed out that the electric spark yields two superposed
spectra, one from the metal of the electrode and the other from the
gas in which it passes, but deduced from Euler's theory of
resonance that an incandescent gas emits luminous rays of the same
refrangibility as those which it can absorb. This statement, as Sir
E. Sabine remarked when awarding him the Rumford medal of the
Royal Society in 1872, contains a fundamental principle of spectrum
analysis, and though for a number of years it was overlooked it
entitles him to rank as one of the founders of spectroscopy. From 1861
onwards he paid special attention to the solar spectrum. He announced
the existence of hydrogen, among other elements, in the sun's
atmosphere in 1862, and in 1868 published his great map of the normal
solar spectrum which long remained authoritative in questions of
wave-length, although his measurements were inexact to the extent
of one part in 7000 or 8000 owing to the metre which he used as his
standard having been slightly too short. He was the first, in 1867, to
examine the spectrum of the aurora borealis, and detected and measured
the characteristic bright line in its yellow green region; but he was
mistaken in supposing that this same line, which is often called by
his name, is also to be seen in the zodiacal light.
His son, KNUT JOHAN ÅNGSTRÖM, was born at Upsala on the 12th of
January 1857, and studied at the university of that town from 1877
to 1884. After spending a short time in Strassburg he was appointed
lecturer in physics at Stockholm University in 1885, but in 1891
returned to Upsala, where in 1896 he became professor of physics. He
especially devoted himself to investigations of the radiation of heat
from the sun and its absorption by the earth's atmosphere, and to that
end devised various delicate methods and instruments, including his
electric compensation pyrheliometer, invented in 1893, and apparatus
for obtaining a photographic representation of the infra-red spectrum
(1895).
ANGUIER, FRANÇOIS (c. 1604-1669), and MICHEL (1612-1686), French
sculptors, were two brothers, natives of Eu in Normandy. Their
apprenticeship was served in the studio of Simon Guillain. The chief
works of François are the monument to Cardinal de Bérulle, founder of
the Carmelite order, in the chapel of the oratory at Paris, of which
all but the bust has been destroyed, and the mausoleum of Henri II.,
last duc de Montmorency, at Moulins. To Michel are due the sculptures
of the triumphal arch at the Porte St. Denis, begun in 1674, to serve
as a memorial for the conquests of Louis XIV. A marble group of the
Nativity in the church of Val de Grâce was reckoned his masterpiece.
From 1662 to 1667 he directed the progress of the sculpture and
decoration in this church, and it was he who superintended the
decoration of the apartments of Anne of Austria in the old Louvre. F.
Fouquet also employed him for his chateau in Vaux.
See Henri Stein, _Les frères Anguier_ (1889), with catalogue of
works, and many references to original sources; Armand Sanson, _Deux
sculpteurs Normands: les frères Anguier_ (1889).
ANGUILLA, or SNAKE, a small island in the British Indies, part of the
presidency of St. Kitts-Nevis, in the colony of the Leeward Islands.
Pop. (1901) 3890, mostly negroes. It is situated in 18° 12' N. and 63°
5' W., about 60 m. N.W. of St Kitts, is 16 m. long and has an area of
35 sq. m. The destruction of trees by charcoal-burners has resulted in
the almost complete deforestation of the island. Nearly all the land
is in the hands of peasant proprietors, who cultivate sweet potatoes,
peas, beans, corn, &c., and rear sheep and goats. Cattle, phosphate
of lime and salt, manufactured from a lake in the interior, are the
principal exports, the market for these being the neighbouring island
of St. Thomas.
[v.02 p.0043]
ANGULATE (Lat. _angulus_, an angle), shaped with corners or angles;
an adjective used in botany and zoology for the shape of stems, leaves
and wings.
ANGUS, EARLS OF. Angus was one of the seven original earldoms of
the Pictish kingdom of Scotland, said to have been occupied by seven
brothers of whom Angus was the eldest. The Celtic line ended with
Matilda (_fl._ 1240), countess of Angus in her own right, who married
in 1243 Gilbert de Umfravill and founded the Norman line of three
earls, which ended in 1381, the then holder of the title being
summoned to the English parliament. Meanwhile John Stewart of Bonkyl,
co. Berwick, had been created earl of Angus in a new line. This third
creation ended with Margaret Stewart, countess of Angus in her
own right, and widow of Thomas, 13th earl of Mar. By an irregular
connexion with William, 1st earl of Douglas, who had married Mar's
sister, she became the mother of George Douglas, 1st earl of Angus
(_c._ 1380-1403), and secured a charter of her estates for her son,
to whom in 1389 the title was granted by King Robert II. He was taken
prisoner at Homildon Hill and died in England. The 5th earl was his
great-grandson.
ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 5th earl of Angus (_c._ 1450-_c._ 1514), the famous
"Bell the Cat," was born about 1450 and succeeded his father, George
the 4th earl, in 1462 or 1463. In 1481 he was made warden of the east
marches, but the next year he joined the league against James III. and
his favourite Robert Cochrane at Lauder, where he earned his nickname
by offering to bell the cat, _i.e._ to deal with the latter, beginning
the attack upon him by pulling his gold chain off his neck and causing
him with others of the king's favourites to be hanged. Subsequently he
joined Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, in league with Edward IV.
of England on the 11th of February 1483, signing the convention at
Westminster which acknowledged the overlordship of the English
king. In March however they returned, outwardly at least, to their
allegiance, and received pardons for their treason. Later Angus was
one of the leaders in the rebellion against James in 1487 and 1488,
which ended in the latter's death. He was made one of the guardians of
the young king James IV. but soon lost influence, being superseded by
the Homes and Hepburns, and the wardenship of the marches was given
to Alexander Home. Though outwardly on good terms with James, he
treacherously made a treaty with Henry VII. about 1489 or 1491, by
which he undertook to govern his relations with James according
to instructions from England, and to hand over Hermitage Castle,
commanding the pass through Liddesdale into Scotland, on the condition
of receiving English estates in compensation. In October 1491 he
fortified his castle of Tantallon against James, but was obliged to
submit and exchange his Liddesdale estate and Hermitage Castle for the
lordship of Bothwell. In 1493 he was again in favour, received various
grants of lands, and was made chancellor, which office he retained
till 1498. In 1501 he was once more in disgrace and confined to
Dumbarton Castle. After the disaster at Flodden in 1513, at which he
was not present, but at which he lost his two eldest sons, Angus was
appointed one of the counsellors of the queen regent. He died at the
close of this year, or in 1514. He was married three times, and by his
first wife had four sons and several daughters. His third son, Gavin
Douglas, bishop of Dunkeld, is separately noticed.