method as fresh-water angling. The chief differences are differences
of locality and the habits of the fish. To a certain extent sea
angling may also be divided into three classes--fishing on the surface
with the fly, at mid-water with spinning or other bait, and on the
bottom; but the first method is only practicable at certain times and
in certain places, and the others, from the great depths that often
have to be sounded and the heavy weights that have to be used in
searching them, necessitate shorter and stouter rods, larger reels and
stronger tackle than fresh-water anglers employ. Also, of course, the
sea-fisherman is liable to come into conflict with very large fish
occasionally. In British waters the monster usually takes the form of
a skate or halibut. A specimen of the former weighing 194 lb has
been landed off the Irish coast with rod and line in recent years. In
American waters there is a much greater opportunity of catching fish
of this calibre.
_Great Game Fishes_.--There are several giants of the sea which are
regularly pursued by American anglers, chief among them being the
tarpon (_Tarpon atlanticus_) and the tuna or tunny (Thunnus thynnus),
which have been taken on rod and line up to 223 lb and 251 lb
respectively. Jew-fish and black sea-bass of over 400 lb have been
taken on rod and line, and there are many other fine sporting fish
of large size which give the angler exciting hours on the reefs of
Florida, or the coasts of California, Texas or Mexico. Practically
all of them are taken with a fish-bait either live or dead, and used
stationary on the bottom or in mid-water trailed behind a boat.
_British Game Fishes_.--On a much smaller scale are the fishes most
esteemed in British waters. The bass (_Labrax lupus_) heads the list
as a plucky and rather difficult opponent. A fish of 10 lb is a large
one, but fifteen-pounders have been taken. Small or "school" bass
up to 3 lb or 4 lb may sometimes be caught with the fly (generally a
roughly constructed thing with big wings), and when they are really
taking the sport is magnificent. In some few localities it is possible
to cast for them from rocks with a salmon rod, but usually a boat is
required. In other places bass may be caught from the shore with
fish bait used on the bottom in quite shallow water. They may again
sometimes be caught in mid-water, and in fact there are few methods
and few lures employed in sea angling which will not account for
them at times. The pollack (_Gadus pollachius_) and coal-fish (_Gadus
virens_) come next in esteem. Both in some places reach a weight of 20
lb or more, and both when young will take a fly. Usually, however,
the best sport is obtained by trailing some spinning-bait, such as
an artificial or natural sand-eel, behind a boat. Sometimes, and
especially for pollack, the bait must be kept near the bottom and
heavy weights on the line are necessary; the coal-fish are more prone
to come to the surface for feeding. The larger grey mullet (_Mugil
capito_) is a great favourite with many anglers, as it is extremely
difficult to hook, and when hooked fights strongly. Fishing for mullet
is more akin to fresh-water fishing than any branch of sea-angling,
and indeed can be carried on in almost fresh water, for the fish
frequent harbours, estuaries and tidal pools. They can be caught
close to the surface, at mid-water and at the bottom, and as a rule
vegetable baits, such as boiled macaroni, or ragworms are found to
answer best. Usually ground-baiting is necessary, and the finer the
tackle used the greater is the chance of sport. Not a few anglers fish
with a float as if for river fish. The fish runs up to about 8 lb in
weight. The cod (_Gadus morhua_) grows larger and fights less gamely
than any of the fish already mentioned. It is generally caught with
bait used on the bottom from a boat, but in places codling, or young
cod, give some sport to anglers fishing from the shore. The mackerel
(_Scomber scomber_) gives the best sport to a bait, usually a strip of
fish skin, trailed behind a boat fairly close to the surface, but it
will sometimes feed on the bottom. Mackerel on light tackle are game
fighters, though they do not usually much exceed 2 lb. Whiting and
whiting-pout (_Gadus merlangus_ and _Gadus luscus_) both feed on or
near the bottom, do not grow to any great size, and are best sought
with fine tackle, usually an arrangement of three or four hooks at
intervals above a lead which is called a "paternoster." If one or more
of the hooks are on the bottom the tackle will do for different kinds
of flat fish as well, flounders and dabs being the two species most
often caught by anglers. The bream (_Pagellus centrodontus_) is
another bottom-feeder which resembles the fresh-water bream both in
appearance and habits. It is an early morning or rather a nocturnal
fish, and grows to a weight of 3 lb or 4 lb. Occasionally it will feed
in mid-water or even close to the surface. The conger eel (_Conger
vulgaris_) is another night-feeder, which gives fine sport, as
it grows to a great size, and is very powerful. Strong tackle is
essential for conger fishing, as so powerful an opponent in the
darkness cannot be given any law. The bait must be on or near the
bottom. There are, of course, many other fish which come to the
angler's rod at times, but the list given is fairly complete as
representing the species which are especially sought. Beside them are
occasional (in some waters too frequent) captures such as dog-fish
and sharks, skates and rays. Many of them run to a great size and
give plenty of sport on a rod, though they are not as a rule welcomed.
Lastly, it must be mentioned that certain of the Salmonidae, smelts
_(Osmerus eperlanus),_ sea-trout, occasionally brown trout, and
still more occasionally salmon can be caught in salt water either in
sea-lochs or at the mouths of rivers. Smelts are best fished for
with tiny hooks tied on fine gut and baited with fragments of shrimp,
ragworm, and other delicacies.
[v.02 p.0031]
MODERN AUTHORITIES AND REFERENCE BOOKS.--_History and Literature:_
Prof. A.N. Mayer, _Sport with Gun and Rod_ (New York and Edinburgh),
with a chapter on "The Primitive Fish-Hook," by Barnet Phillips;
Dr.R. Munro, _Lake Dwellings of Europe_ (London, 1890), with
many illustrations and descriptions of early fish-books, &c.; H.
Cholmondeley Pennell and others, _Fishing Gossip_ (Edinburgh, 1866),
contains a paper on "Fishing and Fish-Hooks of the Earliest Date," by
Jonathan Couch; C.D. Badham, _Prose Halieutics_ (London, 1854), full
of curious lore, relating, however, more to ichthyophagy than angling;
_The Angler's Note-Book and Naturalist's Record_ (London, 1st series
1881, 2nd series 1888), edited by T. Satchell, the two volumes
containing much valuable matter on angling history, literature,
and other topics; R. Blakey, _Angling Literature_ (London, 1856),
inaccurate and badly arranged, but containing a good deal of curious
matter not to be found elsewhere; O. Lambert, _Angling Literature in
England_ (London, 1881), a good little general survey; J.J.
Manley, _Fish and Fishing_ (London, 1881), with chapters on fishing
literature, &c.; R.B. Marston, _Walton and Some Earlier Writers on
Fish and Fishing_ (London and New York, 1894); _Piscatorial Society's
Papers_ (vol. i. London, 1890), contains a paper on "The Useful and
Fine Arts in their Relation to Fish and Fishing," by S.C. Harding;
_Super Flumina_ (Anon.; London, 1904), gives _passim_ useful
information on fishing literature; T. Westwood and T. Satchell,
_Bibliotheca Piscatoria_ (London, 1883) an admirable bibliography
of the sport: together with the supplement prepared by R.B. Marston,
1901, it may be considered wonderfully complete.
_Methods and Practice._--General Fresh-water Fishing: F. Francis,
_A Book on Angling_ (London, 1885), though old, a thoroughly sound
text-book, particularly good on salmon fishing; H.C. Pennell
and others, _Fishing--Salmon and Trout and Pike and Coarse Fish_
(Badminton Library, 2 vols., London, 1904); John Bickerdyke, _The
Book of the All-Round Angler_ (London, 1900); Horace G. Hutchinson
and others, _Fishing (Country Life_ Series, 2 vols., London, 1904),
contains useful ichthyological notes by G.A. Boulenger, a chapter on
"The Feeding of Salmon in Fresh-Water," by Dr.J. Kingston Barton, and
a detailed account of the principal salmon rivers of Norway, by C.E.
Radclyffe.
_Salmon and Trout._--Major J.P. Traherne, _The Habits of the Salmon_
(London, 1889); G.M. Kelson, _The Salmon Fly_ (London, 1895), contains
instructions on dressing salmon-flies; A.E. Gathorne Hardy, _The
Salmon_ ("Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1898); Sir H. Maxwell,
Bt., _Salmon and Sea Trout_ (Angler's Library, London, 1898); Sir E.
Grey, Bt., _Fly Fishing_ (Haddon Hall Library, London and New York,
1899); W. Earl Hodgson, _Salmon Fishing_ (London, 1906), contains a
series of coloured plates of salmon flies; Marquis of Granby, _The
Trout_ ("Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1898). Wet Fly Fishing:
W.C. Stewart, _The Practical Angler_ (London, 1905), a new edition of
an old but still valuable work; E.M. Tod, _Wet Fly Fishing_ (London,
1903); W. Earl Hodgson, _Trout Fishing_ (London, 1905), contains
a series of admirable coloured plates of artificial flies. Dry Fly
Fishing: F.M. Halford, _Dry-Fly Fishing in Theory and Practice_
(London, 1902), the standard work on the subject; G.A.B. Dewar, _The
Book of the Dry Fly_ (London, 1897). Grayling: T.E. Pritt, The Book
of the Grayling (Leeds, 1888); H.A. Rolt, _Grayling Fishing in South
Country Streams_ (London, 1905).
_Coarse Fish._--C.H. Wheeley, _Coarse Fish_ (Angler's Library, London,
1897); J.W. Martin, _Practical Fishing_ (London); _Float-fishing
and Spinning_ (London, 1885); W. Senior and others, _Pike and Perch_
("Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1900); A.J. Jardine, _Pike and
Perch_ (Angler's Library, London, 1898); H.C. Pennell, _The Book of
the Pike_ (London, 1884); Greville Fennell, _The Book of the Roach_
(London, 1884).
_Sea Fishing._--J.C. Wilcocks, _The Sea Fisherman_ (London, 1884);
John Bickerdyke (and others), _Sea Fishing_ (Badminton Library,
London, 1895); _Practical Letters to Sea Fishers_ (London, 1902); F.G.
Aflalo, _Sea Fish_ (Angler's Library, London, 1897); P.L. Haslope,
_Practical Sea Fishing_ (London, 1905).
_Tackle, Flies, &c._--H.C. Pennell, _Modern Improvements in Fishing
Tackle_ (London, 1887); H.P. Wells, _Fly Rods and Fly Tackle_ (New
York and London, 1901); A. Ronalds, _The Fly-Fisher's Entomology_
(London, 1883); F.M. Halford, _Dry Fly Entomology_ (London, 1902);
_Floating Flies and How to Dress them_ (London, 1886); T.E. Pritt,
_North Country Flies_ (London, 1886); H.G. M'Clelland, _How to tie
Flies for Trout and Grayling_ (London, 1905); Capt. J.H. Hale, _How
to tie Salmon Flies_ (London, 1892); F.G. Aflalo, John Bickerdyke and
C.H. Wheeley. How to buy Fishing Tackle (London).
_Ichthyology, Fisheries, Fish-Culture, &c._--Dr. Francis Day, _Fishes
of Great Britain and Ireland_ (2 vols., London, 1889); _British and
Irish Salmonidae_ (London, 1887); Dr. A.C.L.G. Günther, _Introduction
to the Study of Fishes_ (London, 1880); Dr. D.S. Jordan, _A Guide to
the Study of Fishes_ (2 vols., New York and London, 1905); F. Francis,
_Practical Management of Fisheries_ (London, 1883); _Fish Culture_
(London, 1865); F.M. Halford, _Making a Fishery_ (London, 1902); J.J.
Armistead, _An Angler's Paradise_ (Dumfries, 1902); F. Mather, _Modern
Fish-Culture_ (New York, 1899); Livingstone Stone, _Domesticated
Trout_ (Charlestown and London, 1896).
_Angling Guide Books, Geographical Information, &c._--Great Britain:
_The Angler's Diary_ (London), gives information about most important
waters in the British Isles, and about some foreign waters, published
annually; _The Sportsman's and Tourist's Guide to Scotland_ (London),
a good guide to angling in Scotland, published twice a year; Augustus
Grimble, _The Salmon Rivers of Scotland_ (London, 1900, 4 vols.); _The
Salmon Rivers of Ireland_ (London, 1903); _The Salmon and Sea Trout
Rivers of England and Wales_ (London, 1904, 2 vols.), this fine series
gives minute information as to salmon pools, flies, seasons, history,
catches, &c.; W.M. Gallichan, _Fishing in Wales_ (London, 1903);
_Fishing in Derbyshire_ (London, 1905); J. Watson, _English Lake
District Fisheries_ (London, 1899); C. Wade, _Exmoor Streams_ (London,
1903); G.A.B. Dewar, _South Country Trout Streams_ (London, 1899);
"Hi Regan," _How and Where to Fish in Ireland_ (London, 1900); E.S.
Shrubsole, _The Land of Lakes_ (London, 1906), a guide to fishing in
County Donegal. Europe: "Palmer Hackle," _Hints on Angling_ (London,
1846), contains "suggestions for angling excursions in France and
Belgium," but they are too old to be of much service; W.M. Gallichan,
_Fishing and Travel in Spain_ (London, 1905); G.W. Hartley, _Wild
Sport with Gun, Rifle and Salmon Rod_ (Edinburgh, 1903), contains a
chapter on huchen fishing; Max von dem Borne, _Wegweiser für Angler
durch Deutschland, Oesterreich und die Schweiz_ (Berlin, 1877), a book
of good conception and arrangement, and still useful, though out of
date in many particulars; _Illustrierte Angler-Schule (der deutschen
Fischerei Zeitung)_, Stettin, contains good chapters on the wels and
huchen; H. Storck, Der Angelsport (Munich, 1898), contains a certain
amount of geographical information; E.B. Kennedy, _Thirty Seasons
in Scandinavia_ (London, 1904), contains useful information about
fishing; General E.F. Burton, _Trouting in Norway_ (London, 1897);
Abel Chapman, _Wild Norway_ (London, 1897); F. Sandeman, _Angling
Travels in Norway_ (London, 1895). America: C.F. Holder, _Big Game
Fishes of the United States_ (New York, 1903); J.A. Henshall, _Bass,
Pike, Perch and Pickerel_ (New York, 1903); Dean Sage and others,
_Salmon and Trout_ (New York, 1902); E.T.D. Chambers, Angler's Guide
to Eastern Canada (Québec, 1899); Rowland Ward, _The English Angler in
Florida_ (London, 1898); J. Turner Turner, _The Giant Fish of Florida_
(London, 1902). India: H.S. Thomas, _The Rod in India_ (London, 1897);
"Skene Dhu," _The Mighty Mahseer_ (Madras, 1906), contains a chapter
on the acclimatization of trout in India and Ceylon. New Zealand:
W.H. Spackman, _Trout in New Zealand_ (London, 1894); Capt. Hamilton,
_Trout Fishing and Sport in Maoriland_ (Wellington, 1905), contains a
valuable section on fishing waters.
_Fishery Law._--G.C. Oke, _A Handy Book of the Fishery Laws_ (edited
by J.W. Willis Band and A.C. M'Barnet, London, 1903).
ANGLO-ISRAELITE THEORY, the contention that the British people in the
United Kingdom, its colonies, and the United States, are the racial
descendants of the "ten tribes" forming the kingdom of Israel, large
numbers of whom were deported by Sargon king of Assyria on the fall
of Samaria in 721 B.C. The theory (which is fully set forth in a
book called _Philo-Israel_) rests on premises which are deemed by
scholars--both theological and anthropological--to be utterly unsound.
ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE:--The French language (_q.v._) came over
to England with William the Conqueror. During the whole of the 12th
century it shared with Latin the distinction of being the literary
language of England, and it was in use at the court until the 14th
century. It was not until the reign of Henry IV. that English became
the native tongue of the kings of England. After the loss of the
French provinces, schools for the teaching of French were established
in England, among the most celebrated of which we may quote that
of Marlborough. The language then underwent certain changes which
gradually distinguished it from the French spoken in France; but,
except for some graphical characteristics, from which certain rules
of pronunciation are to be inferred, the changes to which the language
was subjected were the individual modifications of the various
authors, so that, while we may still speak of Anglo-Norman writers, an
Anglo-Norman language, properly so called, gradually ceased to exist.
The prestige enjoyed by the French language, which, in the 14th
century, the author of the _Manière de language_ calls "le plus bel et
le plus gracious language et plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole,
qui soit au monde et de touz genz mieulx prisée et amée que nul autre
(quar Dieux le fist si douce et amiable principalement à l'oneur et
loenge de luy mesmes. Et pour ce il peut comparer au parler des angels
du ciel, pour la grand doulceur et biaultée d'icel)," was such that it
was not till 1363 that the chancellor opened the parliamentary session
with an English speech. And although the Hundred Years' War led to a
decline in the study of French and the disappearance of Anglo-Norman
literature, the French language continued, through some vicissitudes,
to be the classical language of the courts of justice until the 17th
century. It is still the language of the Channel Islands, though there
too it tends more and more to give way before the advance of English.
[v.02 p.0032]
It will be seen from the above that the most flourishing period of
Anglo-Norman literature was from the beginning of the 12th century to
the end of the first quarter of the 13th. The end of this period is
generally said to coincide with the loss of the French provinces to
Philip Augustus, but literary and political history do not correspond
quite so precisely, and the end of the first period would be more
accurately denoted by the appearance of the history of William the
Marshal in 1225 (published for the _Societe de l'histoire de France_,
by Paul Meyer, 3 vols., 1891-1901). It owes its brilliancy largely to
the protection accorded by Henry II. of England to the men of letters
of his day. "He could speak French and Latin well, and is said to
have known something of every tongue between'the Bay of Biscay and
the Jordan.' He was probably the most highly educated sovereign of his
day, and amid all his busy active life he never lost his interest in
literature and intellectual discussion; his hands were never empty,
they always had either a bow or a book" (_Dict. of Nat. Biog._). Wace
and Benoît de Sainte-More compiled their histories at his bidding, and
it was in his reign that Marie de France composed her poems. An event
with which he was closely connected, viz. the murder of Thomas Becket,
gave rise to a whole series of writings, some of which are purely
Anglo-Norman. In his time appeared the works of Béroul and Thomas
respectively, as well as some of the most celebrated of the
Anglo-Norman _romans d'aventure_. It is important to keep this fact in
mind when studying the different works which Anglo-Norman literature
has left us. We will examine these works briefly, grouping them
into narrative, didactic, hagiographic, lyric, satiric and dramatic
literature.
_Narrative Literature:_ (_a_) _Epic and Romance_.--The French epic
came over to England at an early date. We know that the _Chanson
de Roland_ was sung at the battle of Hastings, and we possess
Anglo-Norman MSS. of a few _chansons de geste_. The _Pèlerinage de
Charlemagne_ (Koschwitz, _Altfranzösische Bibliothek_, 1883) was, for
instance, only preserved in an Anglo-Norman manuscript of the British
Museum (now lost), although the author was certainly a Parisian. The
oldest manuscript of the _Chanson de Roland_ that we possess is also
a manuscript written in England, and amongst the others of less
importance we may mention _La Chançun de Willame_, the MS. of which
has (June 1903) been published in facsimile at Chiswick (cf. Paul
Meyer, _Romania_, xxxii. 597-618). Although the diffusion of epic
poetry in England did not actually inspire any new _chansons de
geste_, it developed the taste for this class of literature, and the
epic style in which the tales of _Horn_, of _Bovon de Hampton_, of
_Guy of Warwick_ (still unpublished), of _Waldef_ (still unpublished),
and of _Fulk Fitz Warine_ are treated, is certainly partly due to this
circumstance. Although the last of these works has come down to us
only in a prose version, it contains unmistakable signs of a previous
poetic form, and what we possess is really only a rendering into prose
similar to the transformations undergone by many of the _chansons de
geste_ (cf. L. Brandin, _Introduction to Fulk Fitz Warine_, London,
1904).
The interinfluence of French and English literature can be studied in
the Breton romances and the _romans d'aventure_ even better than in
the epic poetry of the period. The _Lay of Orpheus_ is known to us
only through an English imitation; the _Lai du cor_ was composed by
Robert Biket, an Anglo-Norman poet of the 12th century (Wulff, Lund,
1888). The _lais_ of Marie de France were written in England, and the
greater number of the romances composing the _matière de Bretagne_
seem to have passed from England to France through the medium of
Anglo-Norman. The legends of Merlin and Arthur, collected in the
_Historia Regum Britanniae_ by Geoffrey of Monmouth ([+] 1154), passed
into French literature, bearing the character which the bishop of
St. Asaph had stamped upon them. Chrétien de Troye's _Perceval_ (c.
1175) is doubtless based on an Anglo-Norman poem. Robert de Boron (c.
1215) took the subject of his Merlin (published by G. Paris and J.
Ulrich, 1886, 2 vols., _Société des Anciens Textes_) from Geoffrey of
Monmouth. Finally, the most celebrated love-legend of the middle ages,
and one of the most beautiful inventions of world-literature, the
story of Tristan and Iseult, tempted two authors, Béroul and Thomas,
the first of whom is probably, and the second certainly, Anglo-Norman
(see ARTHURIAN LEGEND; GRAIL, THE HOLY; TRISTAN). One _Folie Tristan_
was composed in England in the last years of the 12th century. (For
all these questions see _Soc. des Anc. Textes_, Muret's ed. 1903;
Bédier's ed. 1902-1905). Less fascinating than the story of Tristan
and Iseult, but nevertheless of considerable interest, are the two
_romans d'aventure_ of Hugh of Rutland, _Ipomedon_ (published by
Kölbing and Koschwitz, Breslau, 1889) and _Protesilaus_ (still
unpublished) written about 1185. The first relates the adventures of
a knight who married the young duchess of Calabria, niece of King
Meleager of Sicily, but was loved by Medea, the king's wife. The
second poem is the sequel to _Ipomedon_, and deals with the wars and
subsequent reconciliation between Ipomedon's sons, Daunus, the elder,
lord of Apulia, and Protesilaus, the younger, lord of Calabria.
Protesilaus defeats Daunus, who had expelled him from Calabria. He
saves his brother's life, is reinvested with the dukedom of Calabria,
and, after the death of Daunus, succeeds to Apulia. He subsequently
marries Medea, King Meleager's widow, who had helped him to seize
Apulia, having transferred her affection for Ipomedon to his younger
son (cf. Ward, _Cat. of Rom._, i. 728). To these two romances by an
Anglo-Norman author, _Amadas et Idoine_, of which we only possess a
continental version, is to be added. Gaston Paris has proved indeed
that the original was composed in England in the 12th century
(_An English Miscellany presented to Dr. Furnivall in Honour of his
Seventy-fifth Birthday_, Oxford, 1901, 386-394). The Anglo-Norman poem
on the _Life of Richard Coeur de Lion_ is lost, and an English version
only has been preserved. About 1250 Eustace of Kent introduced into
England the _roman d'Alexandre_ in his _Roman de toute chevalerie_,
many passages of which have been imitated in one of the oldest English
poems on Alexander, namely, _King Alisaunder_ (P. Meyer, _Alexandre
le grand_, Paris, 1886, ii. 273, and Weber, _Metrical Romances_,
Edinburgh).
(_b_) _Fableaux, Fables and Religious Tales_.--In spite of the
incontestable popularity enjoyed by this class of literature, we have
only some half-dozen _fableaux_ written in England, viz. _Le chevalier
à la corbeille, Le chevalier qui faisait parler les muets, Le
chevalier, sa dame et un clerc, Les trois dames, La gageure, Le prêtre
d'Alison, La bourgeoise d'Orléans_ (Bédier, _Les Fabliaux_, 1895). As
to fables, one of the most popular collections in the middle ages was
that written by Marie de France, which she claimed to have translated
from _King Alfred_. In the _Contes moralisés_, written by Nicole Bozon
shortly before 1320 (_Soc. Anc. Textes_, 1889), a few fables bear a
strong resemblance to those of Marie de France.
The religious tales deal mostly with the Mary Legends, and have been
handed down to us in three collections:
(i.) The Adgar's collection. Most of these were translated from
William of Malmesbury ([+] 1143?) by Adgar in the 12th century
("Adgar's Marien-Legenden," _Altfr. Biblioth_. ix.; J.A. Herbert,
_Rom_. xxxii. 394).