field-marshal, was born on the 17th of May 1768. He was the eldest son
of Henry Paget, 1st earl of Uxbridge (d. 1812), and was educated at
Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, afterwards entering
parliament in 1790 as member for Carnarvon, for which he sat for six
years. At the outbreak of the French Revolutionary wars Lord Paget (as
he was then styled), who had already served in the militia, raised on
his father's estate the regiment of Staffordshire volunteers, in which
he was given the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel (1793). The
corps soon became part of the regular army as the 80th Foot, and it
took part, under Lord Paget's command, in the Flanders campaign of
1794. In spite of his youth he held a brigade command for a time, and
gained also, during the campaign, his first experience of the cavalry
arm, with which he was thenceforward associated. His substantive
commission as lieutenant-colonel of the 16th Light Dragoons bore the
date of the 15th of June 1795, and in 1796 he was made a colonel
in the army. In 1795 he married Lady Caroline Elizabeth Villiers,
daughter of the earl of Jersey. In April 1797 Lord Paget was
transferred to a lieut.-colonelcy in the 7th Light Dragoons, of which
regiment he became colonel in 1801. From the first he applied himself
strenuously to the improvement of discipline, and to the perfection of
a new system of cavalry evolutions. In the short campaign of 1799
in Holland, Paget commanded the cavalry brigade, and in spite of the
unsuitable character of the ground, he made, on several occasions,
brilliant and successful charges. After the return of the expedition,
he devoted himself zealously to his regiment, which under his command
became one of the best corps in the service. In 1802 he was promoted
major-general, and six years later lieutenant-general. In command of
the cavalry of Sir John Moore's army during the Corunna campaign, Lord
Paget won the greatest distinction. At Sahagun, Mayorga and Benavente,
the British cavalry behaved so well under his leadership that Moore
wrote:--"It is impossible for me to say too much in its praise.... Our
cavalry is very superior in quality to any the French have, and the
right spirit has been infused into them by the example and instruction
of their ... leaders...." At Benavente one of Napoleon's best cavalry
leaders, General Lefebvre Desnoëttes, was taken prisoner. Corunna was
Paget's last service in the Peninsula. His _liaison_ with the wife of
Henry Wellesley, afterwards Lord Cowley, made it impossible at
that time for him to serve with Wellington, whose cavalry, on many
occasions during the succeeding campaigns, felt the want of the true
cavalry leader to direct them. His only war service from 1809 to
1815 was in the disastrous Walcheren expedition (1809) in which he
commanded a division. During these years he occupied himself with his
parliamentary duties as member for Milborne Port, which he represented
almost continuously up to his father's death in 1812, when he took
his seat in the House of Lords as earl of Uxbridge. In 1810 he was
divorced and married Mrs Wellesley, who had about the same time been
divorced from her husband. Lady Paget was soon afterwards married
to the duke of Argyll. In 1815 Lord Uxbridge received command of the
British cavalry in Flanders. At a moment of danger such as that of
Napoleon's return from Elba, the services of the best cavalry general
in the British army could not be neglected. Wellington placed the
greatest confidence in him, and on the eve of Waterloo extended his
command so as to include the whole of the allied cavalry and horse
artillery. He covered the retirement of the allies from Quatre Bras
to Waterloo on the 17th of June, and on the 18th gained the crowning
distinction of his military career in leading the great cavalry charge
of the British centre, which checked and in part routed D'Erlon's
_corps d'armée_ (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). Freely exposing his own life
throughout, the earl received, by one of the last cannon shots fired,
a severe wound in the leg, necessitating amputation. Five days later
the prince regent created him marquess of Anglesey in recognition of
his brilliant services, which were regarded universally as second only
to those of the duke himself. He was made a G.C.B. and he was also
decorated by many of the allied sovereigns.
[v.02 p.0017]
In 1818 the marquess was made a knight of the Garter, in 1819 he
became full general, and at the coronation of George IV. he acted as
lord high steward of England. His support of the proceedings against
Queen Caroline made him for a time unpopular, and when he was on one
occasion beset by a crowd, who compelled him to shout "The Queen,"
he added the wish, "May all your wives be like her." At the close of
April 1827 he became a member of the Canning administration, taking
the post of master-general of the ordnance, previously held by
Wellington. He was at the same time sworn a member of the privy
council. Under the Wellington administration he accepted the
appointment of lord-lieutenant of Ireland (March 1828), and in the
discharge of his important duties he greatly endeared himself to
the Irish people. The spirit in which he acted and the aims which
he steadily set before himself contributed to the allaying of party
animosities, to the promotion of a willing submission to the laws,
to the prosperity of trade and to the extension and improvement of
education. On the great question of the time his views were opposed
to those of the government. He saw clearly that the time was come when
the relief of the Catholics from the penal legislation of the past was
an indispensable measure, and in December 1828 he addressed a letter
to the Roman Catholic primate of Ireland distinctly announcing his
view. This led to his recall by the government, a step sincerely
lamented by the Irish. He pleaded for Catholic emancipation in
parliament, and on the formation of Earl Grey's administration in
November 1830, he again became lord-lieutenant of Ireland. The times
were changed; the act of emancipation had been passed, and the task of
viceroy in his second tenure of office was to resist the agitation for
repeal of the union carried on by O'Connell. He felt it his duty now
to demand Coercion Acts for the security of the public peace; his
popularity was diminished, differences appeared in the cabinet on
the difficult subject, and in July 1833 the ministry resigned. To the
marquess of Anglesey Ireland is indebted for the board of education,
the origination of which may perhaps be reckoned as the most memorable
act of his viceroyalty. For thirteen years after his retirement
he remained out of office, and took little part in the affairs of
government. He joined the Russell administration in July 1846 as
master-general of the ordnance, finally retiring with his chief in
March 1852. His promotion in the army was completed by his advancement
to the rank of field-marshal in 1846. Four years before, he exchanged
his colonelcy of the 7th Light Dragoons which he had held over forty
years, for that of the Royal Horse Guards. He died on the 29th of
April 1854.
The marquess had a large family by each of his two wives, two sons
and six daughters by the first and six sons and four daughters by the
second. His eldest son, Henry, succeeded him in the marquessate;
but the title passed rapidly in succession to the 3rd, 4th and 5th
marquesses. The latter, whose extravagances were notorious, died in
1905, when the title passed to his cousin.
Other members of the Paget family distinguished themselves in the army
and the navy. Of the first marquess's brothers one, SIR CHARLES PAGET
(1778-1839), rose to the rank of vice-admiral in the Royal Navy;
another, General SIR EDWARD PAGET (1775-1849), won great distinction
by his skilful and resolute handling of a division at Corunna,
and from 1822 to 1825 was commander-in-chief in India. One of the
marquess's sons by his second marriage, LORD CLARENCE EDWARD PAGET
(1811-1895), became an admiral; another, LORD GEORGE AUGUSTUS
FREDERICK PAGET (1818-1880), led the 4th Light Dragoons in the charge
of the Light Brigade at Balaklava, and subsequently commanded the
brigade, and, for a short time, the cavalry division in the Crimea.
In 1865 he was made inspector-general of cavalry, in 1871
lieutenant-general and K.C.B., and in 1877 full general. His Crimean
journals were published in 1881.
ANGLESEY, or ANGLESEA, an insular northern county of Wales. Its area
is 176,630 acres or about 276 sq. m. Anglesey, in the see of Bangor,
is separated from the mainland by the Menai Straits (Afon Menai),
over which were thrown Telford's suspension bridge, in 1826, and the
Stephenson tubular railway bridge in 1850. The county is flat, with
slight risings such as Parys, Cadair Mynachdy (or Monachdy, _i.e._.
"chair of the monastery"; there is a Nanner, "convent," not far away)
and Holyhead Mountain. There are a few lakes, such as Cors cerrig y
daran, but rising water is generally scarce. The climate is humid, the
land poor for the most part compared with its old state of fertility,
and there are few industries.
As regards geology, the younger strata in Anglesey rest upon a
foundation of very old pre-Cambrian rocks which appear at the
surface in three areas:--(1) a western region including Holyhead and
Llanfaethlu, (2) a central area about Aberffraw and Trefdraeth,
and (3) an eastern region which includes Newborough, Caerwen and
Pentraeth. These pre-Cambrian rocks are schists and slates, often much
contorted and disturbed. The general line of strike of the formations
in the island is from N.E. to S.W. A belt of granitic rocks lies
immediately north-west of the central pre-Cambrian mass, reaching from
Llanfaelog near the coast to the vicinity of Llanerchymedd. Between
this granite and the pre-Cambrian of Holyhead is a narrow tract of
Ordovician slates and grits with Llandovery beds in places; this
tract spreads out in the N. of the island between Dulas Bay and Carmel
Point. A small patch of Ordovician strata lies on the northern side of
Beaumaris. In parts, these Ordovician rocks are much folded, crushed
and metamorphosed, and they are associated with schists and altered
volcanic rocks which are probably pre-Cambrian. Between the eastern
and central pre-Cambrian masses carboniferous rocks are found. The
carboniferous limestone occupies a broad area S. of Ligwy Bay and
Pentraeth, and sends a narrow spur in a south-westerly direction by
Llangefni to Malldraeth sands. The limestone is underlain on the
N.W. by a red basement conglomerate and yellow sandstone (sometimes
considered to be of Old Red Sandstone age). Limestone occurs again on
the N. coast about Llanfihangel and Llangoed; and in the S.W. round
Llanidan on the border of the Menai Strait. Puffin Island is made
of carboniferous limestone. Malldraeth Marsh is occupied by coal
measures, and a small patch of the same formation appears near
Tall-y-foel Ferry on the Menai Straits. A patch of granitic and
felsitic rocks form Parys Mountain, where copper and iron ochre have
been worked. Serpentine (Mona Marble) is found near Llanfaerynneubwll
and upon the opposite shore in Holyhead. There are abundant evidences
of glaciation, and much boulder clay and drift sand covers the older
rocks. Patches of blown sand occur on the S.W. coast.
[v.02 p.0018]
The London & North-Western railway (Chester and Holyhead branch)
crosses Anglesey from Llanfairpwllgwyngyll to Gaerwen and Holyhead
(Caer Gybi), also from Gaerwen to Amlwch. The staple of the island is
farming, the chief crops being turnips, oats, potatoes, with flax in
the centre. Copper (near Amlwch), lead, silver, marble, asbestos, lime
and sandstone, marl, zinc and coal have all been worked in Anglesey,
coal especially at Malldraeth and Trefdraeth. The population of the
county in 1901 was 50,606. There is no parliamentary borough, but one
member is returned for the county. It is in the north-western circuit,
and assizes are held at Beaumaris, the only municipal borough (pop.
2326). Amlwch (2994), Holyhead (10,079), Llangefni (1751) and Menai
Bridge (Pont y Borth, 1700) are urban districts. There are six
hundreds and seventy-eight parishes.
Môn (a cow) is the Welsh name of Anglesey, itself a corrupted form of
O.E., meaning the Isle of the Angles. Old Welsh names are Ynys Dywyll
("Dark Isle") and Ynys y cedairn (cedyrn or kedyrn; "Isle of brave
folk"). It is the Mona of Tacitus (_Ann._ xiv. 29, _Agr._ xiv. 18),
Pliny the Elder (iv. 16) and Dio Cassius (62). It is called Mam Cymru
by Giraldus Cambrensis. Clas Merddin, Y vel Ynys (honey isle), Ynys
Prydein, Ynys Brut are other names. According to the Triads (67),
Anglesey was once part of the mainland, as geology proves. The island
was the seat of the Druids, of whom 28 cromlechs remain, on uplands
overlooking the sea, _e.g._ at Plâs Newydd. The Druids were attacked
in A.D. 61 by Suetonius Paulinus, and by Agricola in A.D. 78. In the
5th century Caswallon lived here, and here, at Aberffraw, the
princes of Gwynedd lived till 1277. The present road from Holyhead
to Llanfairpwllgwyngyll is originally Roman. British and Roman camps,
coins and ornaments have been dug up and discussed, especially by the
Hon. Mr. Stanley of Penrhos. Pen Caer Gybi is Roman. The island was
devastated by the Danes (_Dub Gint_ or black nations, _gentes_),
especially in A.D. 853.
See Edw. Breese, _Kalendar of Gwynedd_ (Venedocia), on Anglesey,
Carnarvon and Merioneth (London, 1873); and _The History of Powys
Fadog_.
ANGLESITE, a mineral consisting of lead sulphate, PbSO_{4},
crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, and isomorphous with
barytes and celestite. It was first recognized as a mineral species
by Dr. Withering in 1783, who discovered it in the Parys copper-mine
in Anglesey; the name anglesite, from this locality, was given by F.S.
Beudant in 1832. The crystals from Anglesey, which were formerly found
abundantly on a matrix of dull limonite, are small in size and simple
in form, being usually bounded by four faces of a prism and four faces
of a dome; they are brownish-yellow in colour owing to a stain of
limonite. Crystals from some other localities, notably from Monteponi
in Sardinia, are transparent and colourless, possessed of a brilliant
adamantine lustre, and usually modified by numerous bright faces. The
variety of combinations and habits presented by the crystals is very
extensive, nearly two hundred distinct forms being figured by V.
von Lang in his monograph of the species; without measurement of the
angles the crystals are frequently difficult to decipher. The hardness
is 3 and the specific gravity 6.3. There are distinct cleavages
parallel to the faces of the prism (110) and the basal plane (001),
but these are not so well developed as in the isomorphous minerals
barytes and celestite.
[Illustration: Anglesite specimen.]
Anglesite is a mineral of secondary origin, having been formed by the
oxidation of galena in the upper parts of mineral lodes where these
have been affected by weathering processes. At Monteponi the crystals
encrust cavities in glistening granular galena; and from Leadhills,
in Scotland, pseudomorphs of anglesite after galena are known. At most
localities it is found as isolated crystals in the lead-bearing
lodes, but at some places, in Australia and Mexico, it occurs as large
masses, and is then mined as an ore of lead, of which the pure mineral
contains 68%.
ANGLI, ANGLII or ANGLES, a Teutonic people mentioned by Tacitus in
his _Germania_ (cap. 40) at the end of the 1st century. He gives no
precise indication of their geographical position, but states that,
together with six other tribes, including the Varini (the Warni of
later times), they worshipped a goddess named Nerthus, whose sanctuary
was situated on "an island in the Ocean." Ptolemy in his _Geography_
(ii. 11. § 15), half a century later, locates them with more precision
between the Rhine, or rather perhaps the Ems, and the Elbe, and speaks
of them as one of the chief tribes of the interior. Unfortunately,
however, it is clear from a comparison of his map with the evidence
furnished by Tacitus and other Roman writers that the indications
which he gives cannot be correct. Owing to the uncertainty of these
passages there has been much speculation regarding the original home
of the Angli. One theory, which however has little to recommend it, is
that they dwelt in the basin of the Saale (in the neighbourhood of the
canton Engilin), from which region the _Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc
est Thuringorum_ is believed by many to have come. At the present time
the majority of scholars believe that the Angli had lived from the
beginning on the coasts of the Baltic, probably in the southern part
of the Jutish peninsula. The evidence for this view is derived partly
from English and Danish traditions dealing with persons and events of
the 4th century (see below), and partly from the fact that striking
affinities to the cult of Nerthus as described by Tacitus are to
be found in Scandinavian, especially Swedish and Danish, religion.
Investigations in this subject have rendered it very probable that
the island of Nerthus was Sjaelland (Zealand), and it is further to be
observed that the kings of Wessex traced their ancestry ultimately
to a certain Scyld, who is clearly to be identified with Skiöldr, the
mythical founder of the Danish royal family (Skiöldungar). In English
tradition this person is connected with "Scedeland" (pl.), a name
which may have been applied to Sjaelland as well as Skåne, while in
Scandinavian tradition he is specially associated with the ancient
royal residence at Leire in Sjaelland.
Bede states that the Angli before they came to Britain dwelt in a
land called Angulus, and similar evidence is given by the _Historia
Brittonum_. King Alfred and the chronicler Æthelweard identified this
place with the district which is now called Angel in the province of
Schleswig (Slesvig), though it may then have been of greater extent,
and this identification agrees very well with the indications given by
Bede. Full confirmation is afforded by English and Danish traditions
relating to two kings named Wermund (_q.v._) and Offa (_q.v._), from
whom the Mercian royal family were descended, and whose exploits are
connected with Angel, Schleswig and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has
preserved record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in
their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig), from whom the royal
family of Wessex claimed descent. During the 5th century the Angli
invaded this country (see BRITAIN, _Anglo-Saxon_), after which time
their name does not recur on the continent except in the title of the
code mentioned above.
The province of Schleswig has proved exceptionally rich in prehistoric
antiquities which date apparently from the 4th and 5th centuries.
Among the places where these have been found, special mention should
be made of the large cremation cemetery at Borgstedterfeld, between
Rendsburg and Eckernförde, which has yielded many urns and brooches
closely resembling those found in heathen graves in England. Of still
greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsbjaerg (in Angel)
and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments,
articles of clothing, agricultural implements, &c., and in the latter
case even ships. By the help of these discoveries we are able to
reconstruct a fairly detailed picture of English civilization in the
age preceding the invasion of Britain.
AUTHORITIES.--Bede, _Hist. Ecc._ i. 15: King Alfred's version of
_Orosius_, i. 1. §§ 12, 19; Æthelweard's _Chronicle_, lib. i. For
traditions concerning the kings of Angel, see under OFFA (1). L.
Weiland, _Die Angeln_ (1889); A. Erdmann, _Über die Heimat und den
Namen der Angeln_ (Upsala, 1890--cf. H. Möller in the _Anzeiger für
deutsches Altertum und deutsche Litteratur_, xxii. 129 ff.); A. Kock
in the _Historisk Tidskrift_ (Stockholm), 1895, xv. p. 163 ff.; G.
Schütte, _Var Anglerne Tyskere?_ (Flensborg, 1900); R. Munro Chadwick,
_The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge, 1907); C. Engelhardt,
_Denmark in the Early Iron Age_ (London, 1866); J. Mestorf,
_Urnenfriedhofe in Schleswig-Holstein_ (Hamburg, 1886); S. Müller,
_Nordische Altertumskunde_ (Ger. trans., Strassburg, 1898), ii. p. 122
ff.; see further ANGLO-SAXONS and BRITAIN, _Anglo-Saxon_.
(H.M.C.)
[v.02 p.0019]
ANGLICAN COMMUNION, the name used to denote that great branch of the
Christian Church consisting of the various churches in communion with
the Church of England. The necessity for such a phrase as "Anglican
Communion," first used in the 19th century, marked at once the immense
development of the Anglican Church in modern times and the change
which has taken place in the traditional conceptions of its character
and sphere. The Church of England itself is the subject of a separate
article (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF); and it is not without significance
that for more than two centuries after the Reformation the history
of Anglicanism is practically confined to its developments within the
limits of the British Isles. Even in Ireland, where it was for over
three centuries the established religion, and in Scotland, where it
early gave way to the dominant Presbyterianism, its religious was long
overshadowed by its political significance. The Church, in fact,
while still claiming to be Catholic in its creeds and in its religious
practice, had ceased to be Catholic in its institutional conception,
which was now bound up with a particular state and also with a
particular conception of that state. To the native Irishman and the
Scotsman, as indeed to most Englishmen, the Anglican Church was one of
the main buttresses of the supremacy of the English crown and nation.
This conception of the relations of church and state was hardly
favourable to missionary zeal; and in the age succeeding the
Reformation there was no disposition on the part of the English Church
to emulate the wonderful activity of the Jesuits, which, in the 16th
and 17th centuries, brought to the Church of Rome in countries beyond
the ocean compensation for what she had lost in Europe through the
Protestant reformation. Even when English churchmen passed beyond the
seas, they carried with them their creed, but not their ecclesiastical
organization. Prejudice and real or imaginary legal obstacles stood in
the way of the erection of episcopal sees in the colonies; and though
in the 17th century Archbishop Laud had attempted to obtain a bishop
for Virginia, up to the time of the American revolution the churchmen
of the colonies had to make the best of the legal fiction that
their spiritual needs were looked after by the bishop of London, who
occasionally sent commissaries to visit them and ordained candidates
for the ministry sent to England for the purpose.
The change which has made it possible for Anglican churchmen to claim
that their communion ranks with those of Rome and the Orthodox East
as one of the three great historical divisions of the Catholic Church,
was due, in the first instance, to the American revolution. The
severance of the colonies from their allegiance to the crown brought
the English bishops for the first time face to face with the idea of
an Anglican Church which should have nothing to do either with the
royal supremacy or with British nationality. When, on the conclusion
of peace, the church-people of Connecticut sent Dr. Samuel Seabury to
England, with a request to the archbishop of Canterbury to consecrate
him, it is not surprising that Archbishop Moore refused. In the
opinion of prelates and lawyers alike, an act of parliament was
necessary before a bishop could be consecrated for a see abroad; to
consecrate one for a foreign country seemed impossible, since, though
the bestowal of the _potestas ordinis_ would be valid, the crown,
which, according to the law, was the source of the episcopal
_jurisdiction_, could hardly issue the necessary mandate for the
consecration of a bishop to a see outside the realm (see BISHOP).
The Scottish bishops, however, being hampered by no such legal
restrictions, were more amenable; and on the 11th of November 1784
Seabury was consecrated by them to the see of Connecticut. In 1786,
on the initiative of the archbishop, the legal difficulties in England
were removed by the act for the consecration of bishops abroad; and,
on being satisfied as to the orthodoxy of the church in America and
the nature of certain liturgical changes in contemplation, the two
English archbishops proceeded, on the 14th of February 1787,
to consecrate William White and Samuel Prevoost to the sees of
Pennsylvania and New York (see PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH).
This act had a significance beyond the fact that it established in the
United States of America a flourishing church, which, while completely
loyal to its own country, is bound by special ties to the religious
life of England. It marked the emergence of the Church of England from
that insularity to which what may be called the territorial principles
of the Reformation had condemned her. The change was slow, and it is
not yet by any means complete.