The Development of the American Navy.
[=Development in Naval Architecture=]
In scarcely any department of human industry are the changes produced
by the progress of civilization more strikingly seen than in the
navy. When America was discovered the galleon and the caravel were
the standard warships of the world--clumsy wooden tubs, towering high
in the air, propelled by sails and even oars, with a large number
of small cannons, and men armed with muskets and cross-bows. Such
was the kind of vessels that made up the famous Armada, "that great
fleet invincible," which was vanquished by the smaller and lighter
crafts of Britain. Three hundred years have passed, and what is the
warship of to-day? A low-lying hulk of iron and steel; armed with a
few big guns, each one of which throws a heavier shot than a galleon's
whole broadside; driven resistlessly through the water by mighty
steam engines; lighted and steered by electric apparatus, and using
an electric search-light that makes midnight as bright as day. All
the triumphs of science and mechanic arts have contributed to the
perfection of these dreadful sea monsters, a single one of which could
have destroyed the whole Armada in an hour, and laughed to scorn the
might of Nelson at Trafalgar.
[=American Sailors and Their Doings=]
And in the development of this modern warship no other nation on earth
has won as much credit as the United States, the whole career of which
upon the sea has been one of glory and success, while its inventors
and engineers have gained as much renown as its admirals and sailors,
in their development of new ideas in naval architecture and warfare.
Of all ocean exploits in history that of John Paul Jones in the _Bon
Homme Richard_ ranks first. Lord Nelson himself scarcely showed such
indomitable pluck and intrepidity. And in the war of 1812 American
ships and sailors took from Great Britain the credit of being the
mistress of the seas, winning gallantly in every conflict where the
forces engaged were at all near equality.
[=American Marksmanship=]
This good work of the sailors was aided by that of the shipwrights, the
Americans winning battles largely because they had better ships than
their opponents. But their success was also in great measure due to the
superiority of their ordnance and the better service of their guns. It
was to the careful sighting of the pieces that our sailors owed much
of their victorious career. While most of the British shot were wasted
on the sea and in the air, nearly all the American balls went home,
carrying death to the British crews and destruction to their hulls and
spars, while the American ships and sailors escaped in great measure
unharmed.
[Illustration: THE OREGON.
One of the most renowned ships of the American Navy
is the mighty Battleship Oregon. Her famous run from
San Francisco around Cape Horn to take part in the
Battle of Santiago has never been equalled by any
battleship in the world's history. After she won fame
in the destruction of Cervera's fleet she was ordered
to Manila by Admiral Dewey "for political reasons" and
remained there throughout the Philippine War hurling
her 13-inch shells into the Insurgent ranks when
occasion required]
[Illustration: IN THE WAR ROOM AT WASHINGTON.
The above illustration shows President McKinley,
Secretary Long, Secretary Alger, and Major-General
Miles consulting map during the progress of the
Spanish-American War. It is in this room that the
plans of conducting the war, by land and sea, are
formulated, and the commands for action are wired to
the fleet and the army.]
As regards the work of our naval inventors, it will suffice to say,
that the Americans, while not the first to plate vessels with iron,
were the first to do so effectively and to prove the superiority of
the ironclad in naval warfare. The memorable contest in Hampton Roads
between the _Monitor_ and the _Merrimac_ made useless in a day all the
fleets of all the nations of the world, and caused such a revolution in
naval architecture and warfare as the world had never known.
[=The Early American Navy=]
[=The Naval War with France=]
The fleet with which the United States entered the nineteenth century
was due to the depredations on American ships and commerce of the war
vessels of France and Great Britain. This roused great indignation,
particularly against France. While England contented herself with
stopping American ships on the high seas and impressing sailors claimed
to be of British birth, France seized our ships themselves, under the
pretext that they had British goods on board, and if she found an
American seaman on a British ship--even if impressed--she treated him
as a pirate instead of as a prisoner of war. Protection was felt to be
necessary, and preparations for war were made. The small navy of the
Revolution had practically disappeared, and a new one was built. In
July, 1798, the three famous frigates, the _Constellation_, the _United
States_, and the _Constitution_--the renowned _Old Ironsides_--were
completed and sent to sea, and others were ordered to be built. Actual
hostilities soon began. French piratical cruisers were captured, and
an American squadron sailed for the West Indies to deal with the
French privateers that abounded there, in which work it was generally
successful. In January, 1799, Congress voted a million dollars, for
building six ships of the line and six sloops. Soon after, on February
9, occurred the first engagement between vessels of the American
and French navies. The _Constellation_, Captain Truxton, overhauled
_L'Insurgente_ at St. Kitts, in the West Indies, and after a fight of
an hour and a quarter forced her to surrender. The _Constellation_ had
three men killed and one wounded; _L'Insurgente_ twenty killed and
forty-six wounded.
Again, on February 1, 1800, Truxton with the _Constellation_ came up,
at Guadeloupe, with the French Frigate _La Vengeance_. After chasing
her two days he brought on an action. The two ships fought all night.
In the morning, _La Vengeance_, completely silenced and greatly
shattered, drew away and escaped to Curaçoa, where she was condemned
as unfit for further service. The _Constellation_ was little injured
save in her rigging. For his gallantry, Truxton received a gold medal
from Congress. Later in that year there were some minor engagements, in
which the American vessels were successful.
By the spring of 1801, friendly relations with France were restored.
The President was accordingly authorized to dispose of all the navy,
save thirteen ships, six of which were to be kept constantly in
commission, and to dismiss from the service all officers save nine
captains, thirty-six lieutenants, and one hundred and fifty midshipmen.
At about this time ground was purchased and navy-yards were established
at Portsmouth, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington and Norfolk,
and half a million dollars were appropriated for the completion of six
seventy-four gun ships.
[=The Opening up of Japan=]
Nothing needs to be said here concerning our conflicts with the pirates
of the Mediterranean or of the remarkable exploits of the small
American navy in the second war with Great Britain. These have already
been dealt with in chapters xxv. and xxvi. In the interval between that
period and the Civil War there was little demand upon the American
navy. The naval operations during the Mexican war were of no great
importance. Some vessels were used in scientific exploration, and the
dignity of America had to be asserted on some occasions, but the most
important service rendered by the navy was the opening up of Japan to
the commerce of the world. After some fruitless efforts at intercourse
with the island realm, Commodore Perry was sent thither in 1852, and by
a resolute show of force he succeeded in obtaining a treaty of commerce
from Japan. That treaty opened Japan to the world, and was the first
step in its remarkable recent career.
At the beginning of the Civil War the United States was very poorly
provided with ships of war. There were only forty-two vessels in
commission, nearly all of which were absent in distant parts of the
world. Others were destroyed in southern ports, and for a time there
was actually only one serviceable warship on the North Atlantic coast.
This difficulty was soon overcome by buying and building, and by the
end of 1861 there were 264 vessels in commission, and all the ports in
the South were under blockade. These vessels were a motley set,--ferry
boats, freight steamers, every sort of craft--but they served to tide
over the emergency.
[Illustration: REAR-ADMIRAL WILLIAM T. SAMPSON.
REAR-ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY.
COMMODORE JOHN CRITTENDEN WATSON.
REAR-ADMIRAL WINFIELD SCOTT SCHLEY.
LEADING NAVAL COMMANDERS OF THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.
[Illustration: MAJOR-GENERAL NELSON APPLETON MILES.
MAJOR-GENERAL FITZHUGH LEE.
MAJOR-GENERAL WESLEY MERRITT.
MAJOR-GENERAL WM. R. SHAFTER.
LEADING COMMANDERS OF OUR ARMY IN THE
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.]
With all this we are not particularly concerned, but must turn our
attention to the great naval events of the war, those conflicts which
served as turning points in nineteenth century warfare. And first
and greatest among these was the remarkable naval battle in Hampton
Roads on March 9, 1862.
[=The Idea of Ironplating of American Origin=]
[=Early Ironclads of Great Britain and France=]
The use of iron for plating the hulls of ships was not first adopted
in American war. This device was employed by England and France in
the Crimean war in attacks on the Turkish forts. The idea, however,
was American. As early as 1813 Colonel John Stevens, of New York,
made plans for an ironclad ship somewhat resembling the _Monitor_
in type. His son Edwin afterwards performed experiments with cannon
balls against iron plate, and in 1844 Robert L. Stevens began the
construction of a vessel to be plated with 4¼-inch iron for the
government. It was never finished, though in all nearly $2,000,000
were spent upon it. New invention rendered it obsolete before it could
be completed, yet to it belongs the credit of inaugurating the era
of the ironclad navy. After the Crimean war France and England both
built ironclad ships, the French _La Gloire_ being the first ironclad
ever constructed. It was followed by the British _Warrior_, launched
in January, 1861. Yet despite this enterprise, the fact remains that
the first conception of an ironclad ship belongs to the United States,
and the first hostile meeting of two ironclads took place in American
waters.
[=The Ironclad "Manassas"=]
At the opening of the American Civil War this idea was in the air,
and it was soon made evident that the era of wooden warships was
near its end. It is interesting to learn that the Confederates were
the first to adopt the new idea, the earliest ironclad of the war
being produced by them on the lower Mississippi. A large double-screw
tugboat was employed, whose deck was covered with a rounded roof,
plated with bar iron one and a half inches thick. This craft--named the
_Manassas_ after the first Confederate victory--made its appearance
at the mouth of the Mississippi on the night of October 31, 1861, and
created a complete panic in the blockading fleet at that point. The
_Manassas_ wrecked one of her engines in attempting to ram the flagship
_Richmond_, and crept slowly back, at the same time as the alarmed
fleet was hastening away with all speed over the waters of the gulf.
[=The Plating of the "Merrimac"=]
While this event was taking place, two ironclads of more formidable
description were being built elsewhere, the meeting of which
subsequently was the most startling revelation to the nations of the
earth ever shown in naval warfare. The United States steam frigate
_Merrimac_ had been set on fire at the Gosport Navy Yard, when hastily
abandoned by the Federal navy officers at the outbreak of the war.
It was burned to the water's edge and sunk, but soon after the
Confederates raised the hull, which was seriously damaged--its engines
being in reasonably good condition--and they hurriedly undertook
the work of converting it into an ironclad. A powerful prow of cast
iron was attached to its stem, a few feet under water and projecting
sufficiently to enable it to break in the side of any wooden vessel.
A low wooden roof two feet thick was built at an incline of about
36 degrees, and this was plated with double iron armor, making a
four-inch iron plating. Under this protection were mounted two
broadside batteries of four guns each, and a gun at the stem and stern.
The government was soon advised of the raising of the hull of the
_Merrimac_, and without having detailed information on the subject,
knew that a powerful ironclad was being constructed. A board of naval
officers had been selected by the government to consider the various
suggestions for the construction of ironclad vessels, and although, as
a rule, naval officers had little faith in the experiment, Congress
coerced them into action by the appropriation of half a million dollars
for the work. The Naval Board recommended a trial of three of the most
acceptable plans presented, and ships on these plans were put under
contract.
[=Ericsson and the "Monitor"=]
Among those who pressed the adoption of light ironclads, capable of
penetrating our shallow harbors, rivers, and bayous, was John Ericsson.
He was a Swede by birth, but had long been an American citizen, and
exhibited uncommon genius and scientific attainments in engineering.
The vessel he proposed to build was to be only 127 feet in length, 27
feet in width, and 12 feet deep, to be covered by a flat deck rising
only one or two feet above water. The only armament of the vessel was
to be a revolving turret, about 20 feet in diameter and nine feet high,
made of plated wrought iron aggregating eight inches in thickness,
with two eleven-inch Dahlgren guns. The guns were so constructed that
they could be fired as the turret revolved, and the port-hole would be
closed immediately after firing. The size of the _Merrimac_ was well
known to the government to be quite double the length and breadth of
the _Monitor_, but it had the disadvantage of requiring nearly double
the depth of water in which to manoeuvre it. Various sensational
reports were received from time to time of the progress made on the
_Merrimac_, the name of which was changed by the Confederates to
_Virginia_, and as there were only wooden hulls at Fortress Monroe
to resist it, great solicitude was felt for the safety of the fleet
and the maintenance of the blockade. While the government hurried the
construction of the new ironclads to the utmost, little faith was felt
that so fragile a vessel as the _Monitor_ could cope with so powerful
an engine of war as the _Merrimac_. The most formidable vessels of
the navy, including the _Minnesota_, the twin ship of the original
_Merrimac_, the _St. Lawrence_, the _Roanoke_, the _Congress_ and the
_Cumberland_, were all in Hampton Roads waiting the advent of the
_Merrimac_.
[=The Coming of the "Merrimac"=]
[=The Fate of the "Congress" and the "Cumberland"=]
On Saturday, the 8th of March, the _Merrimac_ appeared at the mouth of
the Elizabeth River and steamed directly for the Federal fleet. All
the vessels slipped cable and started to enter the conflict, but the
heavier ships soon ran aground and became helpless. The _Merrimac_
hurried on, and, after firing a broadside at the _Congress_, crashed
into the sides of the _Cumberland_, whose brave men fired broadside
after broadside at their assailant only to see their balls glance from
its mailed roof. An immense hole had been broken into the hull by the
prow of the _Merrimac_, and in a very few minutes the _Cumberland_
sank in fifty feet of water, her last gun being fired when the water
had reached its muzzle, while the whole gallant crew went to the
bottom with their flag still flying from the masthead. The _Merrimac_
then turned upon the _Congress_, which was compelled to flee from
such a hopeless struggle, and was finally grounded near the shore;
but the _Merrimac_ selected a position where her guns could rake her
antagonist, and, after a bloody fight of more than an hour, with the
commander killed and the ship on fire, the _Congress_ struck her
flag, and was soon blown up by the explosion of her magazine. Most
fortunately for the Federal fleet, the _Merrimac_ had not started
out on its work of destruction until after midday. Its iron prow was
broken in breaching the _Cumberland_, and, after the fierce broadsides
it had received from the _Congress_ and the _Cumberland_, with the
other vessels firing repeatedly during the hand-to-hand conflict, the
_Merrimac's_ captain was content to withdraw for the day, and anchor
for the night under the Confederate shore batteries on Sewall's Point.
[=The Monitor in Hampton Roads=]
The night of March 8th was one of the gloomiest periods of the war.
The _Merrimac_ was sure to resume its work on the following day, and,
with the fleet destroyed and the blockade raised, Washington, and even
New York, might be at the mercy of this terrible engine of war. But
deliverance was at hand. The building of the _Monitor_ had been hurried
with all speed, and this little vessel,--"a cheese box on a raft," as
it was contemptuously termed--was afloat and steaming in all haste to
Hampton Roads. It entered there that night, and took up a position
near the helpless _Minnesota_ in bold challenge to the _Merrimac_. On
Sunday morning, March 9th, the Confederate ironclad came out to finish
its work of destruction, preparatory to a cruise against the northern
ports.
[=The First Battle of Ironclads=]
The little _Monitor_ steamed boldly out to meet it. The history of that
conflict need not be repeated. To the amazement of the commander of the
_Merrimac_, the _Monitor_ was impervious to its terrible broadsides,
while its lightness and shallow draft enabled it to out-manoeuvre its
antagonist at every turn; and while it did not fire one gun to ten from
its adversary, its aim was precise and the _Merrimac_ was materially
worsted in the conflict. After three hours of desperate battle the
defiant and invincible conqueror of the day before found it advisable
to give up the contest and retreat to Norfolk.
[=Fate of the First Ironclads=]
It was this naval conflict, and the signal triumph of the little
_Monitor_, that revolutionized the whole naval warfare of the world in
a single day, and from that time until the present the study of all
nations in aggressive or defensive warfare has looked to the perfection
of the ironclad. To the people of the present time the ironclad is so
familiar, and its discussion so common, that few recall the fact that
less than fifty years ago it was almost undreamed of as an important
implement of war. It is notable that neither of those vessels which
inaugurated ironclad warfare, and made it at once the accepted method
for naval combat for the world, ever afterward engaged in battle during
the three years of war which continued. The _Merrimac_ was feared as
likely to make a new incursion against our fleet, but her commander did
not again venture to lock horns with the _Monitor_. Early in May the
capture of Norfolk by General Wool placed the _Merrimac_ in a position
of such peril that on the 11th of that month she was fired by her
commander and crew and abandoned, and soon after was made a hopeless
wreck by the explosion of her magazine. The fate of the _Monitor_ was
even more tragic. The following December, when being towed off Cape
Hatteras, she foundered in a gale and went to the bottom with part
of her officers and men; but she had taught the practicability of
ironclads in naval warfare, and when she went down a whole fleet was
under construction after her own model, and some vessels already in
active service.
While these events were taking place in the waters of the coast, a
fleet of ironclad boats was being built for service on the rivers of
the West, seven of these being begun in August, 1861, by James B. Eads,
the famous engineer of later times. These were light-draught, stern
paddle-wheel river steamers, plated with 2½-inch iron on their
sloping sides and ends. These, and those that followed them, saw much
service in the western rivers, bombarding Forts Henry and Donelson,
running through the fire of the forts on Island No. 10, and daring the
terrible bombardment from the Vicksburg batteries.
[=Farragut on the Mississippi=]
But the most famous event in river warfare during the conflict was the
exploit of the daring Farragut in running past Forts St. Philip and
Jackson on the Mississippi with his fleet of wooden vessels, breaking
their iron chain, dispersing their gun-boats, and driving ashore the
ironclad _Manassas_. The Confederates had also an ironclad battery,
the _Louisiana_, but it proved of little service, and Farragut sailed
triumphantly through the hail of fire of the forts, and on the same
afternoon reached the wharves of New Orleans.
The most famous exploit of Farragut was the passing of the forts at
Mobile. It is worth a brief relation, for in this the resources of
ironclad warfare, as then developed, were fully employed, while the
bottom of the channel was thickly sown with torpedoes, a mechanism in
naval warfare to become of great importance in the following years.
Farragut's main fleet, indeed, was of wooden ships, but he had four
monitors; while the Confederates, in addition to their forts and
gunboats, had the ironclad ram _Tennessee_, the most powerful floating
battery ever built by them. This formidable craft--for that period--was
plated with six inch iron armor in front and five inch elsewhere; and,
while carrying only six guns, these were 6- and 8-inch rifled cannon.
[=Farragut and the Torpedoes=]
The torpedoes, of which no fewer than 180 were sown in the channel,
were not quite ineffective, since one of them exploded under the
monitor _Tecumseh_, and she went down head first with nearly all her
crew. The _Brooklyn_, following in her track, halted as this disaster
was seen, her recoil checking all the vessels in her rear. Farragut
had taken his famous stand in the shrouds, just under the maintop,
and hailed the _Brooklyn_ as he came up in the _Hartford_. "What is
the matter?" he demanded. "Torpedoes," came back the reply. "Damn the
torpedoes!" cried Farragut, in a burst of noble anger. "Follow me."
As the _Hartford_ passed on the percussion caps of the torpedoes were
heard snapping under her keel. Fortunately they were badly made, and no
other explosion took place.
The story of the battle we may briefly complete. The ships dashed
almost unharmed through the fire of the forts, driving the Confederate
gunners from their pieces with a shower of grape and canister; and the
contest ended with an attack upon the _Tennessee_, whose stern-port
shutters were jammed and her steering gear shot away. Rendered
helpless, she was forced to surrender, and the fight was at an end.
[=Lieutenant Cushing and the "Albemarle"=]
The Confederates were singularly unfortunate with their ironclads. With
the exception of the temporary advantage gained by the _Merrimac_,
all their labor and expense proved of no avail. The last of these
war-monsters, the _Albemarle_, built in Roanoke River, and causing
some alarm in the blockading fleet on the coast, was sent to the
bottom by a daring young officer, Lieutenant Cushing, in one of the
most gallant exploits of the war. He and a few men, in a steam launch
carrying a large torpedo, sailed up the stream at night to where the
ironclad lay in her dock at Plymouth. A protecting raft of logs guarded
the _Albemarle_, but Cushing daringly drove his launch up on the slimy
logs, exploded the torpedo as it touched the sides of the ship, and
leaped with his men into the stream. The _Albemarle_ sank to a muddy
bed in the river's bottom, and Cushing escaped to the blockading fleet,
after a series of thrilling adventures.
[=The Type of the New Navies=]
But the most important thing achieved in this war was the entire
transformation effected in naval science. Previously the warship had
been of the type of an armed merchantship, propelled by sails or,
latterly, by steam, and carrying a large number of small guns. Modern
inventiveness made it, after the duel of the _Monitor_ and _Merrimac_,
a floating fortress of iron or steel, carrying a few enormously
heavy guns. The glory of the old line-of-battle ship, with three or
four tiers of guns on each side and a big cloud of canvas overhead,
firing rattling broadsides, and manoeuvring to get and hold the
weather-gauge of the enemy--all that was relegated to the past forever.
In its place came the engine of war, with little pomp and circumstance,
but with all the resources of science shut within its ugly, black iron
hull.
John Paul Jones, with his _Bon Homme Richard_, struck the blow
that made universal the law of neutrals' rights. Hull, with the
_Constitution_, sending a British frigate to the bottom, showed what
Yankee ingenuity in sighting guns could do. Ericsson and Worden, with
the _Monitor_, sent wooden navies to the hulk-yard and ushered in the
era of iron and steel fighting-engines. These were the great naval
events of a century.
[=Beginning of the Modern American Fleet=]
Yet the American navy was greatly neglected in the years succeeding
the Civil War, while foreign nations, quick to learn the lesson taught
at Hampton Roads, were straining every nerve to build powerful fleets
of iron and steelclad ships, and to develop the breech-loading rifled
cannon into an implement of war capable of piercing through many inches
of solid steel. It was not until after 1880 that our government awoke
to the need of a navy on the new lines, and began to take advantage
of the lessons that had been learned abroad. It is not our purpose to
speak in detail of the results. The steelclad battleship and cruiser,
the armor-piercing breech-loader, the quick-firing gun, the machine
gun, the submarine torpedo-boat, the anchored mine, the automobile
torpedo, and other devices have come to make the naval warfare of our
day a wonderfully different thing from that of the past.
[=The "Columbia" and the "Minneapolis"=]
The United States began late to build a modern navy, but has made
highly encouraging progress, and while still far in the rear of Great
Britain and France in the number of her ships, possesses some of the
finest examples of naval architecture now afloat upon the waters.
Among commerce-destroyers the _Columbia_ and the _Minneapolis_, with
their respective trial speeds of 22.81 and 23.07 knots, stand beyond
any rivals to-day in the navies of Europe, while the inventive naval
engineering of the Americans is exemplified in the double turrets of
the _Kearsarge_ and _Kentucky_, two additions to our navy of original
formation, and likely to give an excellent account of themselves should
any new war occur.
[=The Powerful Fleet of Great Britain=]
Of modern fleets, however, far the most powerful one is that of Great
Britain, the government of which island shows a fixed determination to
keep its naval force beyond rivalry. This stupendous fleet forms the
most striking example of naval destructiveness the world has ever seen,
and the nations of the world are entering the twentieth century with
powers of warfare developed enormously beyond those with which they
entered the nineteenth. We can only hope that this vast development
both in army and navy may prove to exert a peace-compelling influence,
and that every new discovery in the art of killing and destroying may
be a nail in the coffin of Mars, the god of war.