According to Hutchison their composition is as follows:--

+-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------+------+

| |Water. | Proteid.| Ether | Carbo- | Ash. | Cellu- |Acids.|

| | | |Extract.|hydrate.| | lose. | |

| +-------+---------+--------|--------|------+--------+------+

| Fresh | 82.5 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 12.5 | 0.4 | 2.7 | 1.0 |

| Dried | 36.2 | 1.4 | 3.0 | 49.1 | 1.8 | 4.9 | 3.6 |

+-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------+------+

Many exotic fruits, having nothing in common with the apple; are known

by that name, e.g. the Balsam apple, _Momordica Balsamina_; the custard

apple (q.v.), _Anona reticulata_; the egg apple, _Solanum esculentum_;

the rose apple, various species of _Eugenia_; the pineapple (q.v.),

_Ananas sativus_; the star apple, _Chrysophyllum Cainito_; and the

apples of Sodom, _Solanum sodomeum_. (A. B. R.)

APPLEBY, a market town and municipal borough, and the county town of

Westmorland, England, in the Appleby parliamentary division, 276 m.

N.N.W. from London, on the Midland and a branch of the North Eastern

railways. Pop. (1901) 1764. It is picturesquely placed in the valley of

the Eden, which is richly wooded, and flanked on the north-east by spurs

of Milburn Forest and Dufton and other fells, which rise up to 2600 ft.

On a hill above the town stands the castle, retaining a fine Norman keep

and surrounded by a double moat, now partly laid out as gardens. The

remainder of the castle was rebuilt as a mansion in the 17th century. It

was held for the royalists in the civil wars by Sir Philip Musgrave, and

was the residence of Anne, countess of Pembroke, the last of the family

of Clifford, which had great estates in this part of England. St Ann's

hospital for thirteen poor women (1654) was of her foundation. The

grammar school (1453) was refounded by Queen Elizabeth. The modern

incorporation dates from 1885, with a mayor, four aldermen and twelve

councillors. Area, 1876 acres.

Appleby is not mentioned in any Saxon records, but after the Conquest it

rose to importance as the head of the barony of Appleby which extended

over the eastern portion of the present county of Westmorland. This

barony formed part of the province of Carlisle granted by Henry I. to

Ranulf Meschin, who erected the castle at Appleby and made it his place

of residence. Appleby is a borough by prescription, and the old charter

of incorporation, granted in the first year of James II., was very

shortly abandoned. In 1292 we find the mayor and commonalty claiming the

right to elect a coroner and to have tolls of markets and fairs. In 1685

the governing body comprised a mayor, aldermen, a town clerk, burgesses

of the common council, a coroner and subordinate officers. An undated

charter from Henry II. conceding to the burgesses the customs of York,

Was confirmed in 1 John, 16 Henry III., 14 Edward I., and 5 Edward III.

John granted the borough to the burgesses for a fee-farm rent. The

impoverishment caused by the Scottish raids led to its seizure by Edward

II. for arrears of payment, but Edward III. restored it on the same

terms as before. Henry VIII. reduced the fee-farm rent from 20 marks to

2 marks, after an inquisition which found that Appleby was burnt by the

Scots in 1388 and that part of it still lay in ruins. The town, however,

never seems to have regained its prosperity, and 16th and 17th century

writers speak of it as a poor and insignificant village. Appleby

returned two members to parliament from 1295 until disfranchised by the

Reform Act of 1832. The market and the St Lawrence fair are held by

prescription. James I. granted an additional fair on the second Thursday

in April. In the early 18th century Appleby was celebrated for the best

corn-market in the country.

See _Victoria County History, Westmorland_; W. Hewitson, _Appleby

Charters_ (Cumberl. and Westm. Antiq. and Archaeol. Soc.,

Transactions, xi. 279-285; Kendal, 1891).

APPLETON, NATHAN (1770-1861) American merchant and politician, was born

in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the 6th of October 1779. He was

educated in the New Ipswich Academy, and in 1794 entered mercantile life

in Boston, in the employment of his brother, Samuel (1766-1853), a

successful and benevolent man of business, with whom he was in

partnership from 1800 to 1809. He co-operated with Francis C. Lowell

and others in introducing the power-loom and the manufacture of cotton

on a large scale into the United States, a factory being established at

Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1814, and another in 1822 at Lowell,

Massachusetts, of which city he was one of the founders. He was a member

of the general court of Massachusetts in 1816, 1821, 1822, 1824 and

1827, and in 1831-1833 and 1842 of the national House of

Representatives, in which he was prominent as an advocate of protective

duties. He died in Boston on the 14th of July 1861.

His son, THOMAS GOLD APPLETON (1812-1884), who graduated at Harvard in

1831, had some reputation as a writer, an artist and a patron of the

fine arts, but was better known for his witticisms, one of which, the

oft-quoted "Good Americans, when they die, go to Paris," is sometimes

attributed to Oliver Wendell Holmes. He published some poems and, in

prose, _Nile Journal_ (1876), _Syrian Sunshine_ (1877), _Windfalls_

(1878), and _Chequer-Work_ (1879).

See the memoir of Nathan Appleton by Robert C. Winthrop (Boston,

1861); and Susan Hale's _Life and Letters of Thomas Gold Appleton_

(New York, 1885).

APPLETON, a city and the county-seat of Outagamie county, Wisconsin,

U.S.A., on the lower Fox river, about 90 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890)

11,869; (1900) 15,085, of whom 3605 were foreign-born; (1910, census)

16,773. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago,

Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by steamboats on the Fox river, by

means of which it meets lake transportation at De Pere and Green Bay.

Appleton was one of the first cities in the United States to have an

electric street railway line in operation; and electric street railways

now traverse the entire Fox river valley as far as Fond du Lac on the

south and Green Bay on the north. The city is attractively laid out on

high bluffs above the river. It has several beautiful parks, two

hospitals, a number of fine churches and school buildings, and a public

library. The city is the seat of Lawrence college (changed from

university in 1908), an interdenominational (originally a Methodist

Episcopal) co-educational institution, founded in 1847 as the Lawrence

Institute of Wisconsin and named in honour of Amos Adams Lawrence

(1814-1886) of Boston, son of Amos Lawrence, and giver of $10,000 for

the founding of the Institute. The college comprises an academy, a

college of liberal arts, a school of expression, a school of commerce,

schools of music and of art, and a school of correspondence; and in

1907-1908 had 33 instructors, 575 students and a library of 24,400

volumes. The Fox river furnishes about 10,000 h.p., which is largely

utilized for the manufacture of paper (of which Appleton is one of the

largest producers in the United States), wood-pulp, sulphite fibre,

machinery, wire screens, woollen goods, knit goods, furniture, dyes and

flour. The total value of factory products in 1905 was $6,672,457, an

increase of 72.8% over the product value of 1900. Appleton was first

permanently settled in 1833, and was named in honour of Samuel Appleton

of Massachusetts, who owned part of the original town plot. It was

incorporated as a village in 1853, and received in 1857 a city charter,

which was revised in 1887 and in 1905.

APPOGGIATURA (from Ital. _appoggiare_, to lean upon), a musical term for

a melodic ornament, a grace-note prefixed to a principal note and

printed in small character. The effect is to suspend the principal note,

by taking away the time-value of the _appoggiatura_ prefixed to it.

There are two kinds, the long _appoggiatura_, now usually printed as

played, and the short, where the suspension of the principal note is

scarcely perceptible; this is often called _acciatura_, a word properly

applied to an ornament now obsolete, in which a principal note in a

melody is struck together with the note immediately below, the lower

note being at once released and the other held on.

APPOINTMENT, POWER OF, in English law, an authority reserved by or

limited to a person, to dispose, either wholly or partially, of real or

personal property, either for his own benefit or for that of others.

Thus if A settle property upon trustees to such uses as B shall by deed

or will appoint and in default of and until such appointment to the use

of C and his heirs, B, though he has no interest in the property, can at

any time appoint the property to any one he pleases, including himself,

and C's interest which has hitherto been vested in him will be divested.

In the above case A is said to be the donor, B the donee, and the

persons in whose favour the appointment is exercised are called the

appointees. Such powers are either general or limited. A general power

is one which the appointor may exercise in favour of any person he

pleases. It is obvious that such a power is very nearly equivalent to

ownership, and consequently property which is the subject of a general

power has been made to share the liabilities of ownership. By the

Judgments Act 1838 all hereditaments over which a judgment debtor has

such a power may be seized by the sheriff under a writ of _elegit_, and

by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 similar property will vest in the trustees of

a bankrupt. By the Finance Act 1894 property of which the deceased had a

general power of appointment is subject to the payment of estate duty,

even though the power has not been exercised. A limited power is one

which can only be exercised in favour of certain specified persons or

classes; such a power is frequently inserted in marriage settlements in

which after life estates to the husband and wife a power is given to

appoint among the children of the marriage. In such a case no

appointment to any one but children of the marriage is valid. Formerly

it was held that the intention of the donor of such a power was that

each of the class which are the objects of the power should take some

part of the fund, and from this arose the equitable doctrine of illusory

appointments, by which the courts of equity set aside an appointment

which was good at law on the ground that a merely nominal share had been

appointed to one of the objects. The great difficulty of deciding what

was a nominal or illusory share caused the passing of the Illusory

Appointments Act of 1830, whereby it was enacted that no appointment

should be set aside merely on the ground that a share appointed was

illusory. It was still necessary, however, that some share should be

appointed to each object, and consequently it was possible in the

popular phrase to be "cut off with a shilling," but now by the Powers

Amendment Act 1874 the appointor is no longer obliged to appoint a share

to each object of the power.

It is a general rule that every circumstance required by the instrument

creating the power to accompany the execution of it must be strictly

observed. Thus it might be required that the appointment should be by an

instrument witnessed by four witnesses, or that the consent in writing

of some third party should be signified. The general rule, however, has

been modified both by statute and by the rules of equity. By the Wills

Act 1837 a will made pursuant to the requirements of that statute shall

be a valid execution of a power of appointment by will, notwithstanding

that some additional form or solemnity shall have been required by the

instrument creating the power, and by the Wills Act 1861 a will made out

of the United Kingdom by a British subject according to the forms

required by the law of the place where the will was made shall, as

regards personal estate, be held to be well executed and admitted to

probate; consequently it has been held that an appointment made by such

a will is a valid exercise of the power. As regards appointments by deed

the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859 enacts that a deed attested by

two witnesses shall, so far as execution and attestation go, be a valid

exercise of a power to appoint by deed. The courts of equity also will

interfere in some cases of defective execution in order to carry out the

intentions of the settlor. The principle upon which the court acts is

obscure, but the rule has been thus stated:--"Whenever a man having

power over an estate, whether ownership or not, in discharge of moral or

natural relations, shows an intention to execute such power, the court

will operate upon the conscience of the heir (or of the persons entitled

in default) to make him perfect this intention." Equity, however, only

relieves against defects not of the essence of the power, such as the

absence of seal or execution by will instead of deed, but where the

defect is of the essence of the power, as where a consent is not

obtained, equity will not assist, nor will it relieve where a power to

appoint by will is purported to be exercised by deed. A power of

appointment if exercised must be exercised bona fide, otherwise it will

be void as fraudulent; thus it has been frequently decided that where a

father, having a limited power of appointment among his children,

appoints the whole fund to an infant child, who is in no need of the

appointment and who is ill, in the expectation of the death of the child

whereby the fund will come to him as next of kin, such appointment is

void as a fraud upon the power. Where an execution is partly fraudulent

and partly valid the court will, if possible, separate the two and only

revoke that which is fraudulent; if, however, the two parts are not

separable the whole is void. The same rule is applied in cases of

excessive execution where the power is exercised in favour of persons

some of whom are and some of whom are not objects of the power. The

doctrine of _Election_ (q.v.) applies to appointments under powers, but

there must be a gift of free and disposable property to the persons

entitled in default of appointment.

The appointment must in law be read into the instrument creating the

power in lieu of the power itself. Thus an appointor under a limited

power cannot appoint to any person to whom the donor could not have

appointed by reason of the rule against perpetuities, but this is not so

in the case of a general power, for there the appointor is virtually

owner of the property appointed. In applying this rule to appointments a

distinction arises between powers created by deed and will, for a deed

speaks from the date of its execution but a will from the death of the

testator, and so limitations bad when the will was made may have become

good when it comes into operation. Since the Conveyancing Act 1881 all

powers may be released by the donees thereof, unless the power is

coupled with a trust in respect of which there is a duty cast on the

donee to exercise it; and this is so even though the donee gets a

benefit by such release as one entitled in default of appointment, for

this is not a fraud upon the power. (E. S. M. B.)

APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE, a village of Appomattox county, Virginia,

U.S.A., 25 m. E. of Lynchburg, in the S. part of the state. It is served

by the Norfolk & Western railway. The village was the scene of the

surrender of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia under General

Robert E. Lee to the Federal forces under Lieutenant-General U.S. Grant

on Sunday the 9th of April 1865. The terms were: "the officers to give

their individual paroles not to take up arms against the government of

the United States until properly exchanged, and each company or

regimental commander to sign a like parole for the men of their

commands," ... neither "side arms of the officers nor their private

horses or baggage" to be surrendered; and, as many privates in the

Confederate Army owned horses and mules, all horses and mules claimed by

men in the Confederate Army to be left in their possession.

APPONYI, ALBERT, COUNT (1846- ), Hungarian statesman, the most

distinguished member of an ancient noble family, dating back to the 13th

century, and son of the chancellor Gyorgy Apponyi (1808-1899) and the

accomplished and saintly Countess Julia Sztaray, was born at Pesth on

the 29th of May 1846. Educated at the Jesuit seminary at Kalksburg and

at the universities of Vienna and Pesth, a long foreign tour completed

his curriculum, and at Paris he made the acquaintance of Montalembert, a

kindred spirit, whose influence on the young Apponyi was permanent. He

entered parliament in 1872 as a liberal Catholic, attaching himself at

first to the Deak party; but the feudal and ultramontane traditions of

his family circle profoundly modified, though they could never destroy,

his popular ideals. On the break up of the Deak party he attached

himself to the conservative group which followed Baron Pal Senynyey

(1824-1888) and eventually became its leader. Until 1905 Count Albert

was constantly in opposition, but in May of that year he consented to

take office in the second Wekerle ministry. A lofty and magnetic orator,

his speeches were published at Budapest in 1896; and he is the author of

an interesting dissertation, _Esthetics and Politics, the Artist and the

Statesman_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1895).

APPORTIONMENT (Fr. _apportionement;_ Med. Lat. _apportionamentum;_

derived from Lat. portio, share), distribution or allotment in proper

shares; a term used in law in a variety of senses, (1) Sometimes it is

employed roughly and with no technical meaning to indicate the

distribution of a benefit (e.g. salvage or damages under the Fatal

Accidents Act 1846, S 2), or liability (e.g. general average

contributions, or tithe rent-charge), or the incidence of a duty (e.g.

obligations as to the maintenance of highways). (2) In its strict legal

interpretation apportionment falls into two classes, "apportionment in

respect of estate" and "apportionment in respect of time."

1. _Apportionment in respect of Estate_ may result either from the act

of the parties or from the operation of law. Where a lessee is evicted

from, or surrenders or forfeits possession of part of the property

leased to him, he becomes liable at common law to pay only a rent

apportioned to the value of the interest which he still retains. So

where the person entitled to the reversion of an estate assigns part of

it, the right to an apportioned part of the rent incident to the whole

reversion passes to his assignee. The lessee is not bound, however, by

an apportionment of rent made upon the grant of part of the reversion

unless it is made either with his consent or by the verdict of a jury.

The assignee of the reversion of part of demised premises could not, at

common law, re-enter for breach of a condition, inasmuch as a condition

of re-entry in a lease could not at common law be apportioned. But this

has now been altered by statute both in England (Law of Property

Amendment Act 1859, S 3; Conveyancing Act 1881, S 12) and in many of the

British colonies (e.g. Ontario, Rev. Stats., 1897, c. 170, S 9;

Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, S 9). In the cases just mentioned there is

apportionment in respect of estate by act of the parties.

_Apportionment by operation of law_ may be brought about where by act

of law a lease becomes inoperative as regards its subject-matter, or

by the "act of God" (as, for instance, where part of an estate is

submerged by the encroachments of the sea). To the same category

belongs the apportionment of rent which takes place under various

statutes (e.g. the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1845, S 119, when

land is required for public purposes; the Agricultural Holdings Act

1883, S 41, in the case of a tenant from year to year receiving notice

to quit part of a holding; and the Irish Land Act 1903, S 61,

apportionment of quit and crown rents).

_2. Apportionment in respect of Time._--At common law, there was no

apportionment of rent in respect of time. Such apportionment was,

however, in ceftain cases allowed in England by the Distress for Rent

Act 1737, and the Apportionment Act 1834, and is now allowed generally

under the Apportionment Act 1870. Under that statute (S 2) all rents,

annuities, dividends and other periodical payments in the nature of

income are to be considered as accruing from day to day and to be

apportionable in respect of time accordingly. It is provided, however,

that the apportioned part of such rents, &c., shall only be payable or

recoverable in the case of a continuing payment, when the entire portion

of which it forms part itself becomes payable, and, in the case of a

payment determined by re-entry, death or otherwise, only when the next

entire portion would have been payable if it had not so determined (S

3). Persons entitled to apportioned parts of rent have the same remedies

for recovering them when payable as they would have had in respect of

the entire rent; but a lessee is not to be liable for any apportioned

part specifically. The rent is recoverable by the heir or other person

who would, but for the apportionment, be entitled to the entire rent,

and he holds it subject to distribution (S 4). The Apportionment Act

1870 extends to payments not made under any instrument in writing (S 2),

but not to annual sums made payable in policies of insurance (S 6).

Apportionment under the act can be excluded by express stipulation.

The apportionment created by this statute is "apportionment in respect

of time." The cases to which it applies are mainly cases of either (A)

apportionment of rent due under leases where at a time between the dates

fixed for payment the lessor or lessee dies, or some other alteration in

the position of parties occurs; or (B) apportionment of income between

the representatives of a limited owner and the remainder-man when the

limited interest determines at a time between the date when such income

became due.

(A) With regard to the former of these classes, it may be noticed that

although apportioned rent becomes payable only when the whole rent is

due, the landlord, in the case of the bankruptcy of an ordinary

tenant, may prove for a proportionate part of the rent up to the date

of the receiving order (Bankruptcy Act 1883, Sched. ii. r. 19); and

that a similar rule holds good in the winding up of a company (_in re

South Kensington Co-operative Stores_, 1881, 17 Ch.D. 161); and

further that the act of 1870 applies to the liability to pay, as well

as to the right to receive, rent (_in re Wilson_, 1893, 62 L.J.Q.B.

628, 632). Accordingly where an assignment of a lease is made between

two half-yearly rent-days, the assignee is not liable to pay the full

amount of the half-year's rent falling due on the rent-day next after

the date of the assignment, but only an apportioned part of that

half-year's rent, computed from the last mentioned date (_Glass_ v.

_Patterson_, 1902, 2 Ir.R. 660).

(B) With regard to the apportionment of income, the only points

requiring notice here are that all dividends payable by public

companies are apportionable, whether paid at fixed periods or not,

unless the payment is, in effect, a payment of capital (S 5).

The Apportionment Act 1870 extends to Scotland and Ireland. It has been

followed in many of the British colonies (e.g. Ontario, Rev. Stats.,

1897, c. 170, SS 4-8; New Zealand, No. 4 of 1886; Tasmania, No. 8 of

1871; Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, SS 9-12). Similar legislation has been

adopted in many of the states of the American Union, where, as in

England, rent was not, at common law, apportionable as to time (Kent,

_Comm_. iii. 469-472).

An _equitable apportionment_, apart from statute law, arises where

property is bequeathed on trust to pay the income to a tenant for life

and the reversion to others, and the realization of the property in the

form of a fund capable of producing income is postponed for the benefit

of the estate. In such cases there is an ultimate apportionment between

the persons entitled to the income and those entitled to the capital of

the accumulations for the period of such postponement. The rule followed

is this: the proceeds, when realized, are apportionable between capital

and income by ascertaining the sum which, put out and accumulated at 3%

_per annum_ from the day of the testator's death (with yearly rents and

deducting income tax) would have produced at the day of receipt the sum

actually received. The sum so ascertained should be treated as capital

and the residue as income. (_In re Earl of Chesterfield's Trusts_, 1883,

24 Ch.D. 643; _In re Goodenough_, 1895, 2 Ch. 537; _Rowlls_ v. _Bebb_,

1900, 2 Ch. 107.)

In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Stroud, _Jud.

Dict._ (2nd ed., London, 1903), s.v. "Apportion"; Bouvier, _Law Dict._

(London and Boston, 1897), s.v. "Apportionment"; _Ruling Cases_

(London, 1895), tit. "Apportionment"; Fawcett, _Landlord and Tenant_

(London, 1905), pp. 238 et seq.; Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_ (3rd ed.,

London, 1901), pp. 112 et seq. (A. W. R.)

APPORTIONMENT BILL, an act passed by the Congress of the United States

after each decennial census to determine the number of members which

each state shall send to the House of Representatives. The ratio of

representation fixed by the original constitution was 1 to 30,000 of the

free population, and the number of the members of the first House was

65. As the House would, at this ratio, have become unmanageably large,

the ratio, which is first settled by Congress before apportionment, has

been raised after each census, as will be seen from the accompanying

table.

+-----------------+-------------------+------+---------+-----------+

| | Census | Apportionment | Whole |

| Under +------+------------+------+---------+ Number of |

| | Year | Population | Year | Ratio | Represe- |

| | | | | | ntatives |

+-----------------+------+------------+------+---------+-----------+

| Constitution | .. | .. | 1789 | 30,000 | 65 |

| First Census | 1790 | 3,929,214 | 1793 | 33,000 | 105 |

| Second Census | 1800 | 5,308,483 | 1803 | 33,000 | 141 |

| Third Census | 1810 | 7,239,881 | 1813 | 35,000 | 181 |

| Fourth Census | 1820 | 9,633,822 | 1823 | 40,000 | 213 |

| Fifth Census | 1830 | 12,866,020 | 1833 | 47,700 | 240 |

| Sixth Census | 1840 | 17,069,453 | 1843 | 70,680 | 223 |

| Seventh Census | 1850 | 23,191,876 | 1853 | 93,423 | 234 |

| Eighth Census | 1860 | 31,443,321 | 1863 | 127,381 | 241 |

| Ninth Census | 1870 | 38,558,371 | 1873 | 131,425 | 292 |

| Tenth Census | 1880 | 50,155,783 | 1883 | 151,911 | 325 |

| Eleventh Census | 1890 | 62,622,250 | 1893 | 173,901 | 356 |

| Twelfth Census | 1900 | 75,568,686 | 1903 | 194,182 | 386 |

+-----------------+------+------------+------+---------+-----------+

The same term is applied to the acts passed by the state legislatures

for correcting and redistributing the representation of the counties.

Such acts are usually passed at decennial intervals, more often after

the federal census, but the dates may vary in different states. The

state representatives are usually apportioned among the several counties

according to population and not by geographical position. The electoral

districts so formed are expected to be equal in proportion to the number

of inhabitants; but this method has led to much abuse in the past,

through the making of unequal districts for partisan purposes. (See

GERRYMANDER.)

If a state has received an increase in the number of its representatives

and its legislature does not pass an apportionment bill before the next

congressional election, the votes of the whole state elect the

additional members on a general ticket and they are called

"congressmen-at-large."

APPRAISER (from Lat. _appretiare_, to value), one who sets a value upon

property, real or personal. In England the business of an appraiser is

usually combined with that of an auctioneer, while the word itself has

given place, to a great extent, to that of "valuer." (See the articles

AUCTIONS AND AUCTIONEERS, and VALUATION AND VALUERS.)

In the United States appraiser is a term often used to describe a person

specially appointed by a judicial or quasi-judicial authority to put a

valuation on property, e.g. on the items of an inventory of the estate

of a deceased person or on land taken for public purposes by the right

of eminent domain. Appraisers of imported goods and boards of general

appraisers have extensive functions in administering the customs laws of

the United States. Merchant appraisers are sometimes appointed

temporarily under the revenue laws to value where there is no resident

appraiser without holding the office of appraiser (U.S. Rev. Stats. S

2609).

APPREHENSION (Lat. _ad_, to; _prehendere_, to seize), in psychology, a

term applied to a mode of consciousness in which nothing is affirmed or

denied of the object in question, but the mind is merely aware of

("seizes") it. "Judgment" (says Reid, ed. Hamilton, i. p. 414) "is an

act of the mind specifically different from simple apprehension or the

bare conception of a thing"; and again, "Simple apprehension or

conception can neither be true nor false." This distinction provides for

the large class of mental acts in which we are simply aware of or "take

in" a number of familiar objects, about which we in general make no

judgment unless our attention is suddenly called by a new feature. Or

again two alternatives may be apprehended without any resultant judgment

as to their respective merits. Similarly G.F. Stout points out that

while we have a very vivid idea of a character or an incident in a work

of fiction, we can hardly be said in any real sense to have any belief

or to make any judgment as to its existence or truth. With this mental

state may be compared the purely aesthetic contemplation of music,

wherein apart from, say, a false note, the faculty of judgment is for

the time inoperative. To these examples may be added the fact that one

can fully understand an argument in all its bearings without in any way

judging its validity.

Without going into the question fully, it may be pointed out that the

distinction between judgment and apprehension is relative. In every kind

of thought there is judgment of some sort in a greater or less degree of

prominence. Judgment and thought are in fact psychologically

distinguishable merely as different, though correlative, activities of

consciousness. Professor Stout further investigates the phenomena of

apprehension, and comes to the conclusion that "it is possible to

distinguish and identify a whole without apprehending any of its

constituent details." On the other hand, if the attention focuses

itself for a time on the apprehended object, there is an expectation

that such details will as it were emerge into consciousness. Hence he

describes such apprehension as "implicit," and in so far as the implicit

apprehension determines the order of such emergence he describes it as

"schematic." A good example of this process is the use of formulae in

calculations; ordinarily the formula is used without question; if

attention is fixed upon it, the steps by which it is shown to be

universally applicable emerge and the "schema" is complete in detail.

With this result may be compared Kant's theory of apprehension as a

synthetic act (the "synthesis of apprehension") by which the sensory

elements of a perception are subjected to the formal conditions of time

and space.

See G.F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_ (London, 1896); F. Brentano,

_Psychologie_ (bk. ii. ch. vii.), and _Vom Ursprung sittlicher

Erkenntnis_; B. Titchener, _Outlines of Psychology_ (New York, 1902),

and text-books of psychology. Also PSYCHOLOGY.

APPRENTICESHIP (from Fr. _apprendre_, to learn), a contract whereby one

person, called the master, binds himself to teach, and another, called

the apprentice, undertakes to learn, some trade or profession, the

apprentice serving his master for a certain time.

Roman law is silent on the subject on this contract, nor does it seem to

have had any connexion with the division of the Roman citizens into

tribes or colleges. So far as can be seen it arose in the middle ages,

and formed an integral part of the system of trade gilds and

corporations by which skilled labourers of all kinds sought protection

against the feudal lords, and the maintenance of those exclusive

privileges with which in the interests of the public they were favoured.

In those times it was believed that neither arts nor sciences would

flourish unless such only were allowed to practise them as had given

proofs of reasonable proficiency and were formed into bodies corporate,

with certain powers of self-government and the exclusive monopoly of

their respective arts within certain localities; and the medieval

_universitas_ (corporation)--whether of smiths and tailors or of

scholars--included both such as were entitled to practise and teach and

such as were in course of learning. The former were the masters, the

latter the apprentices. Hence the term _apprentice_ was applied

indifferently to such as were being taught a trade or a learned

profession, and even to undergraduates or scholars who were qualifying

themselves for the degree of doctor or master in the liberal arts. When

barristers were first appointed by Edward I. of England they were styled

_apprenticii ad legem_--the serjeants-at-law being _servientes ad

legem_; and these two terms corresponded respectively to the trade names

of apprentices and journeymen. During the middle ages the term of

apprenticeship was seven years, and this period was thought no more than

sufficient to instruct the learner in his profession, craft or mystery

under a properly qualified master, teacher or doctor--for these names

were synonymous--and to reimburse the latter by service for the training

received. After this the apprentice became himself a master and a member

of the corporation, with full rights to practise the business and to

teach others in his turn; so also it would seem that undergraduates had

to pass through a curriculum of seven years before they could attain the

degree of doctor or master in the liberal arts. On the continent of

Europe these rules were observed with considerable rigour, both in the

learned professions and in those which we now designate as trades. In

England they made their way more slowly and did not receive much

countenance, there being always a jealousy of anything savouring of

interference with the freedom of trade. Nevertheless the formation of

gilds and companies of tradesmen in England dates probably from the 12th

century, and the institution of apprenticeships cannot be of much later

date. In 1388 and 1405 it is noticed in acts of parliament. By various

subsequent statutes provisions were made for the regulation of the

institution, and from them it appears that seven years was its ordinary

and normal term in the absence of special arrangement. By a statute of

1562 this was made the law of the land, and it was enacted that no

person should exercise any "trade or mystery" without having served a

seven years' apprenticeship. In no place did the apprentices become so

formidable by their numbers and organization as in London. During the

Great Rebellion they took an active part as a political body, and were

conspicuous after the Restoration by being frequently engaged in

tumults. It was probably owing to this circumstance, quite as much as to

economic considerations of freedom of trade, that the act of Elizabeth

never found much favour with the courts of law. Soon after the Great

Rebellion we find the apprentice laws strongly reprobated by the judges,

who endeavoured, on the theory that the act of Elizabeth could apply to

no trades which were not in existence at its date, to limit its

operation as far as possible. Such limitation of the act gave rise to

many absurd anomalies and inconsistencies, e.g. that a coachmaker could

not make his own wheels but must buy them of a wheelwright, while the

latter might make both wheels and coaches, because coach-making was not

a trade in England when the act of Elizabeth was passed. For the like

reason the great textile and metal manufactures which arose at

Manchester and Birmingham were held exempt from the operation of the

statute. Concurrently with the dislike to the apprentice laws which such

anomalies generated, the doctrines of Adam Smith, that all monopolies or

restrictions on the freedom of trade were injurious to the public

interest, had gradually been making their way, and notwithstanding much

opposition an act was passed in 1814 by which the statute of Elizabeth,

in so far as it enacts that no person shall engage in any trade without

a seven years' apprenticeship, was wholly repealed. The effect of this

act was to give every person the fullest right to exercise any

occupation or calling of a mechanical or trading kind for which he

deemed himself qualified.

Apprenticeship, therefore, which was formerly a compulsory, now became a

voluntary contract. In the case of the learned professions the

principles and theories which gave birth to corporations with

monopolies, and required apprenticeship or its equivalents,

have--contrary to what has taken place in trade--been not only

maintained but intensified; that is to say, not only have such bodies

retained and even extended in some cases their exclusive privileges, but

in general no one is allowed to practise in such professions unless his

capabilities have been tested and approved by public authority. Thus no

man is allowed to practise law or medicine in any of their branches who

has not undergone the appropriate training by attendance at a university

or by apprenticeship--sometimes by both combined--and passed certain

examinations. Entrance to the church is guarded by similar checks. In

such instances the old principle--now generally abandoned in trade--of

granting a monopoly to those possessing a certain standard of

qualification is maintained in greater vigour than ever.

In some kinds of manufacture the old conditions have been modified by

the subdivisions of labour or by the introduction of machinery, which

have reduced the amount of skill which formerly was requisite, and thus

they have passed out of the category of the higher skilled handicrafts,

as only a very slight or short training is necessary to make an

efficient worker; but a large number of the higher skilled trades remain

which require a long period of training at the bench, and a careful

inquiry into this subject has shown that in nearly all of such trades

there is a scarcity of skilled workers, which is due to the falling off

in the number of apprenticeships. Many persons qualified to form an

opinion deplore that something in the nature of the old standard of

qualification is not still applied to those trades, and consider that

the only method of restoring a high standard of skill is by

apprenticeship. The decay of apprenticeship in these trades is due, not

to any inherent defect in the system, nor to its having been superseded

by any other form of technical education, but to difficulties,

especially in London and some other large towns, which place it beyond

the reach of that class of persons who have the greatest need of it.

Among these difficulties are:--first, insufficient organization, and

secondly, want of funds to pay premiums where such are required. These

difficulties are accentuated in London and some other large towns, but

in many other districts apprenticeship is actively proceeded with.

Efforts are being made, notably by the National Institution of

Apprenticeship, to meet these difficulties. The Charity Commissioners in

their report for 1905 recognized the value of this institution, and

stated that they would in future enable the trustees of charity

endowments for apprenticeship to avail themselves of the practical

co-operation of the institution. The modern trade unions, on the other

hand, have done nothing to assist in restoring apprenticeship to its

proper place; on the contrary, they have hampered it by restrictions

which they have imposed, limiting the number of apprentices who may be

taken. The result of fewer apprentices has been not only to lower the

standard of skill in the higher trades, but to reduce the productive

capacity of the artisans. The altered conditions now attending

apprenticeship are, mainly, that the apprentice does not live with the

master, and that the term is generally five years instead of a longer

period; but the principle remains precisely the same, and the fact that

it is applied more and more largely in Austria, Germany and other

countries is an evidence of its necessity.

The contract of apprenticeship is generally created by indenture, but

any writing properly expressed and attested will do. The full

consideration must be set out, and the instrument, whether a premium is

paid or not, must be duly stamped, except in the case of parish

apprentices and apprentices to the sea service (see SEAMEN, LAWS

RELATING TO). Where a charity or institution intervenes, it retains

control over the indentures until the end of the term of apprenticeship,

when the indenture should be cancelled and given up to the apprentice.

Any one who is capable of making a contract can take an apprentice, and

the law does not limit the number which may be taken by any master. Any

person of legal capacity can bind himself as an apprentice, provided he

is over seven years of age, though, as he is by the common law exempt

from all liability _ex contractu_, it is usual for the apprentice's

relations or friends to become bound for his service and good conduct

during the period of his apprenticeship. The consent of the apprentice,

however, must be expressed by his executing the indenture. No child

under nine can be bound as a parish apprentice. The master must teach

the apprentice the agreed trade or trades; should the master exercise

two trades (which he has agreed to teach) and give up one, it would be

good ground for dissolving the contract by the apprentice. An apprentice

is not bound to work on Sundays, but he may be required to work on bank

holidays. He cannot become a volunteer (soldier) without his master's

consent. It is usual in the indenture to state whether the apprentice is

to be paid wages or otherwise. If the contract is to pay wages, no

deduction can be made owing to illness or accident, unless it has been

so provided for in the indentures. Nor is the apprentice liable for

breakages or similar faults. The master has been supposed to have a

right to administer moderate corporal punishment, though he may not

delegate it. But this right is really obsolete. According to old custom

a master provided proper food for his apprentices, and medical

attendance when required; but the modern practice is for apprentices to

reside with their parents or friends who maintain them. A master cannot

assign indentures without the approval of the apprentice or such parties

as are named in the contract for this purpose, even if he should

transfer his business. The contract of apprenticeship may be dissolved

by (1) efflux of time; (2) by death (if the master dies, some part of

the premium is usually returnable, but if the apprentice dies no part is

returnable); (3) by consent; (4) in case of grave misconduct; (5) under

the Bankruptcy Act 1883, providing for discharge of the indentures of

apprenticeship and for payment on account of premium. Disputes between

master and apprentice, in cases where no premium has been paid, or where

the premium does not exceed L25, are dealt with by courts of summary

jurisdiction. Apprentices bound according to the "custom of London," who

are infants above the age of fourteen years and under twenty-one and

unmarried, are responsible upon covenants contained in indentures

executed by them just as if they were of full age. The term of

apprenticeship is usually not less than four years. Apprentices by the

custom of London in agreements made at the Guildhall are subject to the

jurisdiction of the chamberlain of London.

Parish apprentices are those bound out by guardians of the poor in

England. By the Poor Relief Act 1601, overseers of the poor were

empowered, with the consent of two justices, to put out poor children as

apprentices "where they shall be convenient." Owing to the

disinclination to receive such apprentices it became necessary to make

the reception compulsory (1696), but this compulsion to receive them was

abolished in 1844. Many statutes have been passed from time to time

regulating the apprenticing of parish children, but it is now under the

control of the Local Government Board, which issues rules specifying

fully the manner in which such children are to be bound, assigned and

maintained.

AUTHORITIES.--See E. Austin, _Law Relating to Apprentices_ (1890);

Addison, _On Contracts_ (1905). For the state of apprenticeship in

European countries, and, more particularly in France, see

_Apprentissage, enquete et documents_ (Paris, 1904, Conseil Superieur

du Travail, Ministere du Commerce, de l'Industrie, des Postes et des

Telegraphes, session de 1902). See also the literature issued by the

National Institution of Apprenticeship, London. (J. S. B.)

APPROPRIATION (from Lat. _appropriare_, to set aside), the act of

setting apart and applying to a particular use to the exclusion of all

other. In ecclesiastical law, appropriation is the perpetual annexation

of an ecclesiastical benefice to the use of some spiritual corporation,

either aggregate or sole. In the middle ages in England the custom grew

up of the monasteries reserving to their own use the greater part of the

tithes of their appropriated benefices, leaving only a small portion to

their vicars in the parishes. On the dissolution of the monasteries

these "great tithes" were often granted, with the monastic lands, to

laymen, whose successors, known as "lay impropriators" or "lay rectors,"

still hold them, the system being known as _impropriation_.

Appropriation may be severed and the church become disappropriate, by

the presentation of a clerk, properly instituted and inducted, or by the

dissolution of the corporation possessing the benefice.

In the law of debtor and creditor, appropriation of payments is the

application of a particular payment for the purpose of paying a

particular debt. When a creditor has two debts due to him from the same

debtor on distinct accounts, the general law as to the appropriation of

payments made by the debtor is that the debtor is entitled to apply the

payments to such account as he thinks fit; _solvitur in modum

solventis_. In default of appropriation by the debtor the creditor is

entitled to determine the application of the sums paid, and may

appropriate them even to the discharge of debts barred by the Statute of

Limitations. In default of appropriation by either debtor or creditor,

the law implies an appropriation of the earlier payments to the earlier

debts.

In constitutional law, appropriation is the assignment of money for a

special purpose. In the United Kingdom an Appropriation Bill is a bill

passed at the end of each session of parliament, enumerating the money

grants made during the session, and appropriating the various sums, as

voted by committee of supply, to the various purposes for which it is to

be applied. The United States constitution (art. I. S 9) says: "No money

shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations

made by law." Bills for appropriating money originate in the House of

Representatives, but may be amended in the Senate.

APPURTENANCES (from late Lat. _appertinentia_, from _appertinere_, to

appertain), a legal term for what belongs to and goes with something

else, the accessories or things usually conjoined with the substantive

matter in question.

APRAKSIN, THEDOR MATVYEEVICH (1671-1728), Russian soldier, began life as

one of the pages of Tsar Theodore III., after whose death he served the

little tsar Peter in the same capacity. The playfellowship of the two

lads resulted in a lifelong friendship. In his twenty-first year

Apraksin was appointed governor of Archangel, then the most important

commercially of all the Russian provinces, and built ships capable of

weathering storms, to the great delight of the tsar. He won his

colonelcy at the siege of Azov (1696). In 1700 he was appointed chief of

the admiralty, in which post (from 1700 to 1706) his unusual technical

ability was of great service. While Peter was combating Charles XII.,

Apraksin was constructing fleets, building fortresses and havens

(Taganrog). In 1707 he was transferred to Moscow. In 1708 he was

appointed commander-in-chief in Ingria, to defend the new capital

against the Swedes, whom he utterly routed, besides capturing Viborg in

Carelia. He held the chief command in the Black Sea during the campaign

of the Pruth (1711), and in 1713 materially assisted the conquest of

Finland by his operations from the side of the sea. In 1710-1720 he

personally conducted the descents upon Sweden, ravaging that country

mercilessly, and thus extorting the peace of Nystad, whereby she

surrendered the best part of her Baltic provinces to Russia. For these

great services he was made a senator and admiral-general of the empire.

His last expedition was to Reval in 1726, to cover the town from an

anticipated attack by the English government, with whom the relations of

Russia at the beginning of the reign of Catharine I. were strained

almost to breaking-point. Though frequently threatened with terrible

penalties by Peter the Great for his incurable vice of peculation,

Apraksin, nevertheless, contrived to save his head, though not his

pocket, chiefly through the mediation of the good-natured empress,

Catharine, who remained his friend to the last, and whom he assisted to

place on the throne on the death of Peter. Apraksin was the most genial

and kind-hearted of all Peter's pupils. He is said to have never made an

enemy. He died on the 10th of November 1728.

See R. Nisbet Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897).

(R. N. B.)

APRICOT (from the Lat. _praecox_, or _praecoquus_, ripened early,

_coquere_, to cook, or ripen; the English form, formerly "apricock" and

"abrecox," comes through the Fr. _abricot_, from the Span.

_albaricoque_, which was an adaptation of the Arabic _al-burquk_, itself

a rendering of the late Gr. [Greek: prekokkia] or [Greek: praikokion],

adapted from the Latin; the derivation from _in aprico cactus_ is a mere

guess), the fruit of _Prunus armeniaca_, also called _Armeniaca

vulgaris_. Under the former name it is regarded as a species of the

genus to which the plums belong, the latter establishes it as a distinct

genus of the natural order _Rosaceae_. The apricot is, like the plum, a

stone fruit, cultivated generally throughout temperate regions, and used

chiefly in the form of preserves and in tarts. The tree has long been

cultivated in _Armenia_ (hence the name _Armeniaca_); it is a native of

north China and other parts of temperate Asia. It flowers very early in

the season, and is a hardy tree, but the fruit will scarcely ripen in

Britain unless the tree is trained against a wall. A great number of

varieties of the apricot, as of most cultivated fruits, are

distinguished by cultivators. The kernels of several varieties are

edible, and in Egypt those of the Musch-Musch variety form a

considerable article of commerce. The French liqueur _Eau de noyaux_ is

prepared from bitter apricot kernels. Large quantities of fruit are

imported from France into the United Kingdom.

The apricot is propagated by budding on the mussel or common plum stock.

The tree succeeds in good well-drained loamy soil, rather light than

heavy. It is usually grown as a wall tree, the east and west aspects

being preferred to the south, which induces mealiness in the fruit,

though in Scotland the best aspects are necessary. The most usual and

best mode of training is the fan method. The fruit is produced on shoots

of the preceding year, and on small close spurs formed on the

two-year-old wood. The trees should be planted about 20 ft. apart. The

summer pruning should begin early in June, at which period all the

irregular foreright and useless shoots are pinched off; and, shortly

afterwards, those which remain are fastened to the wall. At the winter

pruning all branches not duly furnished with spurs and fruit buds are

removed. The young bearing shoots are moderately pruned at the points,

care being, however, taken to leave a terminal shoot or leader to each

branch. The most common error in the pruning of apricots is laying in

the bearing shoots too thickly; the branches naturally diverge in fan

training, and when they extend so as to be about 15 in. apart, a fresh

branch should be laid in, to be again subdivided as required. The

blossoms of the apricot open early in spring, but are more hardy than

those of the peach; the same means of protection when necessary may be

employed for both. If the fruit sets too numerously, it is thinned out

in June and in the beginning of July, the later thinnings being used for

tarts. In the south of England, where the soil is suitable, the hardier

sorts of apricot, as the Breda and Brussels, bear well as standard trees

in favourable seasons. In such cases the trees may be planted from 20 to

25 ft. apart.

The ripening of the fruit of the apricot is accelerated by culture under

glass, the trees being either planted out like peaches or grown in pots

on the orchard-house system. They must be very gently excited, since

they naturally bloom when the spring temperature is comparatively low.

At first a maximum of 40 deg. only must be permitted; after two or three

weeks it may be raised to 45 deg., and later on to 50 deg. and 55 deg.,

and thus continued till the trees are in flower, air being freely

admitted, and the minimum or night temperature ranging from 40 deg. to

45 deg. After the fruit is set the temperature should be gradually

raised, being kept higher in clear weather than in dull. When the fruit

has stoned, the temperature may be raised to 60 deg. or 65 deg. by day

and 60 deg. by night; and for ripening off it may be allowed to reach 70

deg. or 80 deg. by sun heat.

The Moorpark is one of the best and most useful sorts in cultivation,

and should be planted for all general purposes; the Peach is a very

similar variety, not quite identical; and the Hemskerk is also similar,

but hardier. The Large Early, which ripens in the end of July and

beginning of August, and the Kaisha, a sweet-kernelled variety, which

ripens in the middle of August, are also to be recommended. For standard

trees in favourable localities the Breda and Brussels may be added.

APRIES ([Greek: Apries]), the name by which Herodotus (ii. 161) and

Diodorus (i. 68) designate _Uehabre'_, [Greek: Onaphres]

(Pharaoh-Hophra), the fourth king (counting from Psammetichus I.) of the

twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He reigned from 589 to 570 B.C. See EGYPT

and AMASIS.

APRIL, the second month of the ancient Roman, and the fourth of the

modern calendar, containing thirty days. The derivation of the name is

uncertain. The traditional etymology from Lat. _aperire_, "to open," in

allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to "open,"

is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of [Greek: anoixis]

(opening) for spring. This seems very possible, though, as all the Roman

months were named in honour of divinities, and as April was sacred to

Venus, the _Festum Veneris et Fortunae Virilis_ being held on the first

day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month

Aphrilis, from her Greek name Aphrodite. Jacob Grimm suggests the name

of a hypothetical god or hero, _Aper_ or _Aprus_. On the fourth and the

five following days, games (_Ludi Megalenses_) were celebrated in honour

of Cybele; on the fifth there was the _Festum Fortunae Publicae_; on the

tenth (?) games in the circus, and on the nineteenth equestrian combats,

in honour of Ceres; on the twenty-first--which was regarded as the

birthday of Rome--the _Vinalia urbana_, when the wine of the previous

autumn was first tasted; on the twenty-fifth, the _Robigalia_, for the

averting of mildew; and on the twenty-eighth and four following days,

the riotous _Floralia_. The Anglo-Saxons called April _Oster-monath_ or

_Eostur-monath_, the period sacred to _Eostre_ or _Ostara_, the pagan

Saxon goddess of spring, from whose name is derived the modern Easter.

St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve,

with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die

within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the

twenty-fourth. In China the symbolical ploughing of the earth by the

emperor and princes of the blood takes place in their third month, which

frequently corresponds to our April; and in Japan the feast of Dolls is

celebrated in the same month. The "days of April" (_journees d'avril_)

is a name appropriated in French history to a series of insurrections at

Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in

1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial

known as the _proces d'avril_.

See Chambers's _Book of Days_; Grimm's _Geschichte der deutschen

Sprache_. Cap. "Monate"; also APRIL-FOOLS' DAY.

APRIL-FOOLS' DAY, or ALL-FOOLS' DAY, the name given to the 1st of April

in allusion to the custom of playing practical jokes on friends and

neighbours on that day, or sending them on fools' errands. The origin of

this custom has been much disputed, and many ludicrous solutions have

been suggested, e.g. that it is a farcical commemoration of Christ being

sent from Annas to Caiaphas, from Caiaphas to Pilate, from Pilate to

Herod, and from Herod back again to Pilate, the crucifixion having taken

place about the 1st of April. What seems certain is that it is in some

way or other a relic of those once universal festivities held at the

vernal equinox, which, beginning on old New Year's day, the 25th of

March, ended on the 1st of April. This view gains support from the fact

that the exact counterpart of April-fooling is found to have been an

immemorial custom in India. The festival of the spring equinox is there

termed the feast of Huli, the last day of which is the 31st of March,

upon which the chief amusement is the befooling of people by sending

them on fruitless errands. It has been plausibly suggested that Europe

derived its April-fooling from the French. They were the first nation to

adopt the reformed calendar, Charles IX. in 1564 decreeing that the year

should begin with the 1st of January. Thus the New Year's gifts and

visits of felicitation which had been the feature of the 1st of April

became associated with the first day of January, and those who disliked

the change were fair butts for those wits who amused themselves by

sending mock presents and paying calls of pretended ceremony on the 1st

of April. Though the 1st of April appears to have been anciently

observed in Great Britain as a general festival, it was apparently not

until the beginning of the 18th century that the making of April-fools

was a common custom. In Scotland the custom was known as "hunting the

gowk," i.e. the cuckoo, and April-fools were "April-gowks," the cuckoo

being there, as it is in most lands, a term of contempt. In France the

person befooled is known as _poisson d'avril_. This has been explained

from the association of ideas arising from the fact that in April the

sun quits the zodiacal sign of the fish. A far more natural explanation

would seem to be that the April fish would be a young fish and therefore

easily caught.

A PRIORI (Lat. a, from, _prior, prius_, that which is before, precedes),

(1) a phrase used popularly of a judgment based on general

considerations in the absence of particular evidence; (2) a logical term

first used, apparently, by Albert of Saxony (14th century), though the

theory which it denotes is as old as Aristotle. In the order of human

knowledge the particular facts of experience come first and are the

basis of generalized laws or causes (the Scholastic _notiora nobis_);

but in the order of nature the latter rank first as the self-existent,

fundamental truths of existence (_notiora naturae_). Thus to Aristotle

the _a priori_ argument is from law or cause to effect, as opposed to

what we call _a posteriori_ (_posterior_, subsequent, derived), from

effect to cause. Since Kant the two phrases have become purely

adjectival (instead of adverbial) with a technical controversial sense,

closely allied to the Aristotelian, in relation to knowledge and

judgments generally. _A priori_ is applied to judgments which are

regarded as independent of experience, and belonging to the essence of

thought; _a posteriori_ to those which are derived from particular

observations. The distinction is analogous to that between analysis and

synthesis, deduction and induction (but there may be a synthesis of _a

priori_ judgments, cf. Kant's "Synthetic Judgment _a priori_"). Round

this distinction a rather barren controversy has raged, and almost all

modern philosophers have labelled themselves either "Intuitionalist" (_a

priori_) or "Empiricist" (_a posteriori_) according to the view they

take of knowledge. In fact, however, the rival schools are generally

arguing at cross purposes; there is a knowledge based on particulars,

and also a knowledge of laws or causes. But the two work in different

spheres, and are complementary. The observation of isolated particulars

gives not necessity, but merely strong probability; necessity is purely

intellectual or "transcendental." If the empiricist denies the

intellectual element in scientific knowledge, he must not claim absolute

validity for his conclusions; but he may hold against the intuitionalist

that absolute laws are impossible to the human intellect. On the other

hand, pure _a priori_ knowledge can be nothing more than form without

content (e.g. formal logic, the laws of thought). The simple fact at the

bottom of the controversy is that in all empirical knowledge there is an

intellectual element, without which there is no correlation of empirical

data, and every judgment, however simple, postulates a correlation of

some sort if only that between the predicate and its contradictory.

APRON (a corruption arising from a wrong division of "a napron" into "an

apron," from the Fr. _naperon, napperon_, a diminutive of _nappe_, Lat.

_mappa_, a napkin), an article of costume used to protect the front of

the clothes. It forms part of the ceremonial dress of Freemasons. The

"apron" worn by church dignitaries is a shortened cassock (q.v.). The

word has many technical uses, as for the protecting slope in front of

the sill of dock-gates, or at the foot of weirs.

APSARAS, in Hindu mythology, a female spirit of the clouds and waters.

In the Rig-Veda there is one Apsaras, wife of Gandharva; in the later

scriptures there are many Apsaras who act as the handmaidens of Indra

and dance before his throne. They are able to change their form, and

specially rule over the fortunes of gaming. One of their duties is to

guide to paradise the heroes who fall in battle, whose wives they then

become. They are distinguished as _daivika_ ("divine") or _laukika_

("worldly").

APSE (Gr. [Greek: apsis], a fastening, especially the felloe of a wheel;

Lat. _absis_), in architecture, a semicircular recess covered with a

hemispherical vault. The term is applied also to the termination to the

choir, transept or aisle of any church which is either semicircular or

polygonal in plan, whether vaulted or covered with a timber roof; a

church is said to be "apsidal" when it terminates in an apse.

The earliest example of an apse is found in the temple of Mars Ultor at

Rome (2 B.C.), and it formed afterwards the favourite feature

terminating the rear of any temple, and one which gave importance to the

statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated. Its use by the

Romans was not confined to the temples, as it is found in the palaces on

the Palatine Hill, the great Thermae (Baths) and other monuments. In the

civil basilicas the apse was screened off by columns, and constituted

the court of justice. In the Ulpian (Trajan's) Basilica the apses at

each end were of such great dimensions as to come better under the

definition of hemicycles (q.v.). In these apses the floor was raised,

and had an altar placed in the centre of its chord, where sacrifices

were made prior to the sittings. The only other two Roman basilicas in

which the semicircular apse can still be traced are that commenced by

Maxentius and completed by Constantine at Rome and the basilica at Trier

(Treves).

In the earliest Christian basilica, St Peter's at Rome, built 330 A.D.,

the apse, 57 ft. in diameter, raised above the confessio or crypt, was

placed at the west end of the church. This orientation was originally

followed in the churches of St Paul and St Lawrence (S. Lorenzo fuori le

Mura), both outside the walls of Rome, and is found in most of the

churches at Rome. On the other hand, in the Byzantine church, the apse

was built at the east end of the church.

During the reign of Justin the Second (A.D. 565-574), owing to a change

in the liturgy, two more apses were added, one on each side of the

central apse. These in the Greek Church were provided not to hold altars

but for ceremonial purposes. One of the earliest examples is found in

the church of St Nicholas at Myra of the 6th century, and the basilica

erected in the great court of the temple at Baalbek shows the triple

apse. The earliest example in Rome is found in the church of Sta Maria

in Cosmedin (772-795), built probably by Greek craftsmen, who had been

exiled by the Iconoclasts. Other triapsal choirs are found in the

cathedral of Parenzo (542 A.D.), in St Mark's, Venice, in Sta Fosca and

the Duomo at Torcello, and in numerous examples throughout Italy and

Germany. In central Syria there is one example only, at Kalat Seman,

where the side apses were a later addition.

There is one important distinction to be drawn between the Byzantine and

the Latin apses; they are both semicircular internally, but externally

the former are nearly always polygonal. It follows, therefore, that in

those churches in Italy where the apse is polygonal externally, it is a

sign of direct Byzantine influence. This is found in St Mark's, Venice;

Sta Fosca, Torcello; Murano; nearly all the churches at Ravenna; and in

the Crusaders' churches throughout Syria.

In the Coptic church in Egypt we find other characteristics; in the

churches of the Red and White Monasteries, attributed to St Helena, an

unusual depth is given to the apse, in the walls of which niches are

sunk; in the church of St John at Antinoe there are no fewer than seven.

Similar niches are found in the apses of St Mark's, Venice, built in

A.D. 828, it is said in imitation of St Mark's in Alexandria, to receive

the relics of St Mark brought over from there.

[Illustration: Apse of the White Monastery.]

In a large number of the apses in the Coptic churches the seats round

the apse with the bishop's throne in the centre are still preserved; of

these the best examples are at Abu Sargah, Al 'Adra and Abu-s-Sifain.

Unfortunately there are no remains of the fittings in the tribunes of

the ancient Roman basilicas, but those in St Peter's at Rome, which were

probably copied from them, are recorded in drawings, there being two or

three rows of stone seats with the papal throne in the centre. It is

possible also that some may still exist in the other early Christian

basilicas at Rome, but there have been so many changes that it is not

possible to trace them. In the cathedral of Parenzo in Istria (A.D.

532-535), the hemicycle of marble seats for the clergy with the

episcopal chair in the centre still exists. A similar arrangement is

found in the apse of the church of the 6th century attached to the

church of St Helena in the island of Paros, where there are eight steep

grades of semicircular stone seats with the bishop's chair in the

centre. The aspect of the interior of this apse has in consequence very

much the appearance of a Roman theatre. A third example, better known,

exists at Torcello, with six concentric seats rising one above the

other, and in the centre the episcopal chair with a flight of thirteen

steps down in front of it.

In the basilica at Bethlehem, the east end of which was reconstructed

probably in the 5th century, apses of similar dimensions to the eastern

apse were built at the north and south end of the transept. The same

disposition is found in the Coptic churches of the Red and White

Monasteries just referred to, in the church of St Elias at Salonica (c.

1012), the cathedral of Echmiadzin in Armenia, at Vatopedi, Mt. Athos,

and some other Byzantine churches. An early example in France exists in

the church of Germigny-des-Pres on the Loire (806; rebuilt 1868), where

the three apses are horseshoe on plan, and the same is found in the

church at Oberzell in the island of Reichenau, Lake of Constance, except

that the eastern apse there is square. Small examples also are found at

Querqueville and at St Wandrille near Caudebec, both in Normandy, but

the finest development takes place in the church of St Maria im Capitol

at Cologne, where the aisles are carried round both the northern and

southern apses. The same feature exists in the cathedral of Tournai in

Belgium and the churches at Cambrai, Soissons and Valenciennes (the last

destroyed at the Revolution) in France, and also in the cathedrals of

Como and of Pisa in Italy. Without aisles, there are examples in the

churches of the Apostles and of St Martin at Cologne; St Quirinus at

Neuss; at Roermond; St Cross, Breslau; the cathedral of Bonn; and, at a

later date, in the Marienkirche at Trier; S. Elizabeth at Marburg; the

church of Sta Maria-del-Fiore at Florence; and the cathedral of Parma.

In consequence of a change made in the orientation of apses in the 6th

or 7th century, others were subsequently added at the west end of

existing churches, and this is considered to have been the case at

Canterbury; but in the German churches sometimes apses were built from

the first at both ends, such as are shown on the manuscript plan of St

Gall, of the 9th century. Western apses exist at Gernrode; Drubeck;

Huyseburg; the Obermunster of Regensburg; St Godehard in Hildesheim; the

cathedrals of Worms and Trier; the Abbey church of Laach; the Minster at

Bonn; and in St Pietro-in-Grado near Pisa.

The triapsal churches, to which we have referred, are those in which the

side apses form the termination of the side aisles; but where there are

transepts, the aisles are sometimes not continued beyond them, and the

expansion of the transept to north and south gives more ample space for

apses; of these there are many examples, as in the Abbey church of Laach

in Germany; at Romsey; Christchurch, Hants; Gloucester, Ely, Norwich and

Canterbury cathedrals, in England; and at St Georges de Boscherville in

France; sometimes there being space for two apses on each side.

In the beginning of the 13th century in France, the apses became

radiating chapels outside the choir aisle, henceforth known as the

chevet. These radiating chapels would seem to have been suggested in

Norwich and Canterbury cathedrals, but the feature is essentially a

French one and in England is found only in Westminster Abbey, into which

it was introduced by Henry III., to whom the chevets of Amiens, Beauvais

and Reims were probably well known. (R. P. S.)

APSE and APSIDES, in mechanics, either of the two points of an orbit

which are nearest to and farthest from the centre of motion. They are

called the lower or nearer, and the higher or more distant apsides

respectively. The "line of apsides" is that which joins them, forming

the major axis of the orbit.

APSINES of Gadara, a Greek rhetorician, who flourished during the 3rd

century A.D. After studying at Smyrna, he taught at Athens, and gained

such a reputation that he was raised to the consulship by the emperor

Maximinus (235-238). He was the friend of Philostratus, the author of

the _Lives of the Sophists_, who speaks of his wonderful memory and

accuracy. Two rhetorical treatises by him are extant: [Greek: technae

raetorikae], a handbook of rhetoric greatly interpolated, a considerable

portion being taken from the _Rhetoric_ of Longinus; and a smaller work,

[Greek: perhi eschaematismenon problaematon], on Propositions maintained

figuratively.

Editions by Bake, 1849; Spengel-Hammer in _Rhetores Graeci_, ii.

(1894): see also Hammer, _De Apsine Rhetore_ (1876); Volkmann,

_Rhetorik der Griechen und Romer_ (1885).

APT, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Vaucluse, on

the left bank of the Coulon, 41 m. E. of Avignon by rail. Pop. (1906)

4990. The town was formerly surrounded by massive ancient walls, but

these have now been for the most part replaced by boulevards; many of

its streets are narrow and irregular. The chief object of interest is

the church of Sainte-Anne (once the cathedral), the building of which

was begun about the year 1056 on the site of a much older edifice, but

not completed until the latter half of the 17th century. Many Roman

remains have been found in and near the town. A fine bridge, the Pont

Julien, spanning the Coulon below the town, dates from the 2nd or 3rd

century. A tribunal of first instance and a communal college are the

chief public institutions. The chief manufactures are silk,

confectionery and earthenware; and there is besides a considerable trade

in fruit, grain and cattle. Apt was at one time the chief town of the

Vulgientes, a Gallic tribe; it was destroyed by the Romans about 125

B.C. and restored by Julius Caesar, who conferred upon it the title

_Apta Julia_; it was much injured by the Lombards and the Saracens, but

its fortifications were rebuilt by the counts of Provence. The

bishopric, founded in the 3rd century, was suppressed in 1790.

APTERA (Greek for "wingless"), a term in zoological classification

applied by Linnaeus to various groups of wingless arthropods, including

some of the insects, the centipedes, the millipedes, the Arachnida

(scorpions, spiders, &c.) and the Crustacea. In modern zoology the term

has become restricted to the lowest order of the class Hexapoda or true

insects. This order includes the bristle-tails and the springtails.

[Illustration: From _Knowledge_

FIG. 1.--A typical Thysanuran (_Machilus maritima_). Female, ventral

view.

ii.-x., Appendages on 2nd to 10th abdominal segments. The eversible

sacs on the abdominal segments are shown, some protruded and some

retracted.

Ovp, Ovipositor.

Mn, Mandible, and Mxl, maxillula, dissected out of head.]

Many wingless insects--such as lice, fleas and certain earwigs and

cockroaches--are placed in various orders together with winged insects

to which they show evident relationships. In such cases the absence of

wings must be regarded as secondary--due to a parasitic or other special

manner of life. But the bristle-tails and springtails, which form the

modern order Aptera, are all without any trace of wings, and, on account

of several remarkable archaic characters which they exhibit, there is

reason for believing that they are primitively wingless--that they

represent an early offshoot which sprang from the ancestral stock of the

Hexapoda before organs of flight had been acquired by the class.

_Characters._--In addition to the complete absence of wings and of

metamorphosis, the Aptera are characterized by peculiar elongate

mandibles (figs. 1, Mn.; 2, 4), with toothed apex and sub-apical

grinding surface, like those of certain Crustacea; by the presence

between the mandibles and maxillae of a pair of appendages (superlinguae

or maxillulae), fig. 1, Mxl., which are absent or vestigial in all other

insects; and, in most genera, by the presence in the adult of abdominal

appendages used for locomotion, these latter varying in number from one

to nine pairs. Among peculiarities of the internal organs the segmental

arrangement of the ovaries in most members of the order is noteworthy.

Many Aptera are covered with flattened scales like those of moths.

_Classification._--The Aptera are divided into two divergent sub-orders,

the _Thysanura_ (q.v.) or bristle-tails, and the _Collembola_ or

springtails.

_Thysanura._--The bristle-tails have an abdomen of eleven segments, the

tenth usually carrying a pair of long many-jointed tail-feelers (cerci,

fig. 1, x.); sometimes a median, jointed tail-appendage is also present.

To these feelers the popular name is due. There may also be abdominal

appendages--in the form of simple unjointed stylets (fig. 1, ii.-ix.),

accompanied by paired eversible sacs, probably respiratory in

function--on eight (or fewer) other abdominal segments. The head of a

bristle-tail carries a pair of compound eyes and a pair of elongate

many-jointed feelers.

The air-tube system is developed in varying degree in different

bristle-tails, the number of pairs of spiracles being three

(_Campodea_), nine (_Machilis_), ten (_Lepisma_), or eleven (_Japyx_).

Four families of Thysanura are usually recognized. In the _Machilidae_

and _Lepismidae_ (these two families are known as the Ectotrophi) the

maxillae are like those of typical biting insects, and there is a median

tail-bristle in addition to the paired cerci; while in the _Campodeidae_

and _Japygidae_ (which form the group Entotrophi) the jaws are

apparently sunk in the head, through a deep inpushing at the mouth, and

there is no median tail-bristle. The cerci in _Japyx_ are not, as usual,

jointed feelers, but strong, curved appendages forming a forceps as in

earwigs.

[Illustration: From Carpenter, _Proc. R. Dub. Soc._, vol. xi.

FIG. 2.--Structure of Collembola.

1. _Isotoma hibernica_. Side view.

2. " Ocelli and post-antennal organ of right side.

3. " Tip of terminal antennal segment with antennal

organ.

4. " Mandible.

5. " Tip of left dens with mucro. Outer view.

6. " Hind-foot with claws. X 240.

7. _Entomobrya anomala_. Catch.]

_Collembola._--In springtails, or _Collembola_, the jaws are sunk into

the head, as in the entotrophous Thysanura; the head carries a pair of

feelers with not more than six (usually four) segments, and there are

eight (or fewer) distinct simple eyes on each side of the head (fig. 2,

1, 2). These are in some genera like the single elements (_ommatidia_)

of a compound insect eye, in others like simple ocelli. The abdomen

consists of six segments only. The first of these usually carries a

ventral tube, furnished with paired eversible sacs which assist the

insects in walking on smooth surfaces, and perhaps serve also as organs

for breathing. From the researches of V. Willem it appears that the

viscid fluid which causes the adherence of the ventral tube is secreted

by a pair of glands in the head whose ducts open into a superficial

groove leading from the second maxillae backward to the tube on the

first abdominal segment. The third abdominal segment usually carries a

pair of short appendages whose basal segments are fused together; this

is the "catch" (fig. 2, 7), whose function is to hold in place the

"spring," which is formed by the fourth pair of abdominal

appendages--also with fused basal segments. In most Collembola the

spring appears to belong to the fifth abdominal somite, but Willem, by

study of the muscles, has shown that it really belongs to the fourth.

The fused basal segments of the appendages form the "manubrium" of the

spring, which carries the two "dentes" (usually elongate and flexible),

each with a "mucro" at its tip (fig. 2, 5). The fifth abdominal segment

is the genital, and the sixth the anal somite.

The spring serves the Collembola which possess it as an efficient

leaping-organ (see SPRINGTAIL). But in some genera it is greatly reduced

and in many quite vestigial.

Most springtails are without air-tubes, and breathe through the general

cuticle of the body. But in one family (_Sminthuridae_) a spiracle,

opening on either side between the head and the prothorax, leads to a

branching system of air-tubes. The _Sminthuridae_ are further

characterized by the globular abdomen, which shows but little external

trace of segmentation, and by the well-developed spring.

In the _Entomobryidae_ the body is elongate and clearly segmented, but

the dorsal region (tergum) of the prothorax is much reduced and the head

downwardly directed; the spring is well developed. In the _Achorutidae_

the head is forwardly directed, the tergum of the prothorax conspicuous,

and the spring small or vestigial.

In many genera of springtails a curious post-antennal organ, consisting

of sensory structures (often complex in form) surrounded by a firm ring,

is to be noticed on the cuticle of the head between the eyes and the

feelers. It may be of use as an organ of smell. Other sensory organs

occur on the third and fourth antennal segments in the _Achorutidae_ and

_Entomobryidae_ (fig. 2, 3).

_Distribution and Habits._--The Aptera are probably the most widely

distributed of all insects. Among the bristle-tails we find the genus

_Machilis_, represented in Europe (including the Faeroe Islands) and in

Chile; while _Campodea_ lives high on the mountains and in the deepest

caves. The springtails have even a wider distribution. The genus

_Isotoma_, for example, has some of its numerous species in regions so

remote as Alaska, Franz Josef Land, the Sandwich Islands, the South

Orkneys, Graham Land, Kerguelen and South Victoria Land. As it is

unlikely that these delicate insects could be transported across

sea-channels, their wide and discontinuous range suggests both their

great antiquity and the former existence of continental tracts over

which they may have travelled to their present stations.

Springtails and bristle-tails live in damp concealed places--under

stones or tree-bark, in moss, and in the decaying vegetable or animal

matter which serves as food for most of them. Some species, however, eat

fresh plant-tissues. A species of bristle-tail (_Machilis maritima_) and

quite a number of springtails haunt the sea-coast at or below high-water

mark. In such localities many thousands of individuals may sometimes be

found associated together. The insect fauna of limestone caves both in

Europe and North America is largely composed of Aptera, especially

Collembola.

_Geological History._--A supposed Thysanuran from the Silurian of New

Brunswick has been described by G.F. Matthew, and another genus from the

French Carboniferous by C. Brongniart. Not till the Tertiary do we find

remains of Aptera in any quantity, species both of living and extinct

genera being represented in the amber.

_Development._--The embryonic development of several genera of Aptera,

which has been carefully studied, will be more suitably described in

comparison with that of other insects than here (see HEXAPODA).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The modern study of the Aptera may be said to date from

the classical memoirs of T. Tullberg, "Sveriges Podurider," in _Kongl.

Svensk Vetensk. Akad. Handl._ x., 1872, and Sir J. Lubbock (Lord

Avebury), "Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura," _Ray Society_,

1873. In these, full references to the older literature will be found.

Subsequently our knowledge of the Thysanura has been markedly advanced

by J.T. Oudemans, _Bijdrage tot de Kennis den Thysanura en Collembola_

(Amsterdam, 1888); B. Grassi, who published between 1885 and 1889 a

series of memoirs entitled "I progenitori dei Miriapodi e degli

Insetti," in the _Atti Accad. di Scienz. Nat. Catania_, and the

_Memor. R. Accad. dei Lincei_; and V. Willem, whose "Recherches sur

les Collemboles et les Thysanoures," in _Mem. Cour. Acad. Roy.

Belgique_, lviii., 1900, are indispensable to the student. In addition

to this work of Willem, valuable anatomical papers on Collembola have

been published by H.J. Hansen (_Zool. Anz._ xvi., 1893), J.W. Folsom

(_Bull. Mus. Comp. Anat. Harv._ xxxv., 1899), C. Borner (_Zool. Anz._

xxiii., 1900), and K. Absolon (_Zool. Anz._ xxiii. and xxiv., 1900,

1901), the two latter writers having paid especial attention to the

peculiar post-antennal and antennal sense-organs of springtails.

Absolon has also written on the Collembola of caves. These writers,

with H. Schott, C. Schaffer and others, have published many systematic

papers on Collembola, as has F. Silvestri on Thysanura. British

species are mentioned in Lubbock's monograph; for recent additions see

G.H. Carpenter and W. Evans (_Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edinb._ xiv., 1899,

and xv., 1903). (G. H. C.)

APTERAL (from the Gr. [Greek: apteros], wingless, [Greek: a-], privative

and [Greek: pteros], a wing), an architectural term applied to

amphiprostyle temples which have no columns on the sides; in the Ionic

temple on the Acropolis at Athens known as Nike Apteros, the adjective

is used, not as applying to the goddess of victory but to the absence of

any peristyle on the sides.

APTIAN (Fr. _Aptien_, from Apt in Vaucluse, France), in geology, the

term introduced in 1843 by A. d'Orbigny (_Pal. France Cret._ ii.) for

the upper stage of the Lower Cretaceous rocks. In England it comprises

the Lower Greensand and part of the Speeton beds; in France it is

divided into two sub-stages, the lower, "Bedoulian," of Bedoule in

Provence, with _Hoplites deshayesei_ and _Ancyloceras Matheroni_; and an

upper, "Gargasian," from Gargas near Apt, with _Hoplites furcatus_

(_Dufrenoyi_) and _Phylloceras Guettardi_. To this stage belong the

_Toucasia_ limestone and _Orbitolina_ marls of Spain; the

_Schrattenkalk_ (part) of the Alpine and Carpathian regions; and the

_Terebrirostra_ limestone of the same area. Parts of the Flysch of the

eastern Alps, the Biancone of Lombardy, and _argile scagliose_ of

Emilia, are of Aptian age; so also are the "Trinity Beds" of North

America. Deposits of bauxite occur in the Aptian hippurite limestone at

Les Baux near Aries, and in the Pyrenees. The Aptian rocks are generally

clays, marls and green glauconitic sands with occasional limestones.

(See GREENSAND and CRETACEOUS.)

APULEIUS, LUCIUS, Platonic philosopher and rhetorician, was born at

Madaura in Numidia about A.D. 125. As the son of one of the principal

officials, he received an excellent education, first at Carthage and

subsequently at Athens. After leaving Athens he undertook a long course

of travel, especially in the East, principally with the view of

obtaining initiation into religious mysteries. Having practised for some

time as an advocate at Rome, he returned to Africa. On a journey to

Alexandria he fell sick at Oea (Tripoli), where he made the acquaintance

of a rich widow, Aemilia Pudentilla, whom he subsequently married. The

members of her family disapproved of the marriage, and indicted Apuleius

on a charge of having gained her affections by magical arts. He easily

established his innocence, and his spirited, highly entertaining, but

inordinately long defence (_Apologia_ or _De Magia_) before the

proconsul Claudius Maximus is our principal authority for his biography.

From allusions in his subsequent writings, and the mention of him by St.

Augustine, we gather that the remainder of his prosperous life was

devoted to literature and philosophy. At Carthage he was elected

provincial priest of the imperial cult, in which capacity he occupied a

prominent position in the provincial council, had the duty of collecting

and managing the funds for the temples of the cult, and the

superintendence of the games in the amphitheatre. He lectured on

philosophy and rhetoric, like the Greek sophists, apparently with

success, since statues were erected in his honour at Carthage and

elsewhere. The year of his death is not known.

The work on which the fame of Apuleius principally rests has little

claim to originality. The _Metamorphoses_ or _Golden Ass_ (the latter

title seems not to be the author's own, but to have been bestowed in

compliment, just as the _Libri Rerum Quotidianarum_ of Gaius were called

_Aurei_) was founded on a narrative in the _Metamorphoses_ of Lucius of

Patrae, a work extant in the time of Photius. From Photius's account

(impugned, however, by Wieland and Courier), this book would seem to

have consisted of a collection of marvellous stories, related in an

inartistic fashion, and in perfect good faith. The literary capabilities

of this particular narrative attracted the attention of Apuleius's

contemporary, Lucian, who proceeded to work it up in his own manner,

adhering, as Photius seems to indicate, very closely to the original,

but giving it a comic and satiric turn. Apuleius followed this

rifacimento, making it, however, the groundwork of an elaborate romance,

interspersed with numerous episodes, of which the beautiful story of

Cupid and Psyche is the most celebrated, and altering the _denouement_

to suit the religious revival of which he was an apostle.

The adventures of the youthful hero in the form of an ass are much the

same in both romances, but in Apuleius he is restored to human shape by

the aid of Isis, into whose mysteries he is initiated, and finally

becomes her priestess. The book is a remarkable illustration of the

contemporary reaction against a period of scepticism, of the general

appetite for miracle and magic, and of the influx of oriental and

Egyptian ideas into the old theology. It is also composed with a

well-marked literary aim, defined by Kretzschmann as the emulation of

the Greek sophists, and the transplantation of their _tours de force_

into the Latin language. Nothing, indeed, is more characteristic of

Apuleius than his versatility, unless it be his ostentation and

self-confidence in the display of it. The dignified, the ludicrous, the

voluptuous, the horrible, succeed each other with bewildering rapidity;

fancy and feeling are everywhere apparent, but not less so affectation,

meretricious ornament, and that effort to say everything finely which

prevents anything being said well. The Latinity has a strong African

colouring, and is crammed with obsolete words, agreeably to the taste of

the time. When these defects are mitigated or overlooked, the _Golden

Ass_ will be pronounced a most successful work, invaluable as an

illustration of ancient manners, and full of entertainment from

beginning to end. The most famous and poetically beautiful portion is

the episode of Cupid and Psyche, adapted from a popular legend of which

traces are found in most fairy mythologies, which explains the seeming

incongruity of its being placed in the mouth of an old hag. The

allegorical purport he has infused into it is his own, and entirely in

the spirit of the Platonic philosophy. Don Quixote's adventure with the

wine-skins, and Gil Blas's captivity among the robbers, are palpably

borrowed from Apuleius; and several of the humorous episodes, probably

current as popular stories long before his time, reappear in Boccaccio.

Of Apuleius's other writings, the _Apology_ has been already mentioned.

The _Florida_ (probably meaning simply "anthology," without any

reference to style) consists of a collection of excerpts from his

declamations, ingenious but highly affected, and in general perfect

examples of the sophistical art of saying nothing with emphasis. They

deal with the most varied subjects, and are intended to exemplify the

author's versatility. The pleasing little tract _On the God of Socrates_

expounds the Platonic doctrine of beneficent daemons, an intermediate

class between gods and men. Two books on Plato (_De Platone et Ejus

Dogmate_) treat of his life, and his physical and ethical philosophy; a

third, treating of logic, is generally considered spurious. The _De

Mundo_ is an adaptation of the [Greek: Peri kosmou] wrongly attributed

to Aristotle. Apuleius informs us that he had also composed numerous

poems in almost all possible styles, and several works on natural

history, some in Greek. In the preparation of these he seems to have

attended more closely to actual anatomical research than was customary

with ancient naturalists. Some other works--dealing with theology, the

properties of herbs, medical remedies and physiognomy, are wrongly

attributed to him.

The character of Apuleius, as delineated by himself, is attractive; he

appears vehement and passionate, but devoid of rancour; enterprising,

munificent, genial and an enthusiast for the beautiful and good. His

vanity and love of display are conspicuous, but are extenuated by a

genuine thirst for knowledge and a surprising versatility of

attainments. He prided himself on his proficiency in both Greek and

Latin. His place in letters is accidentally more important than his

genius strictly entitles him to hold. He is the only extant example in

Latin literature of an accomplished sophist in the good sense of the

term. The loss of other ancient romances has secured him a peculiar

influence on modern fiction; while his chronological position in a

transitional period renders him at once the evening star of the

Platonic, and the morning star of the Neo-Platonic philosophy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Complete works: Editio princeps, ed. Andreas (1469);

Oudendorp (1786-1823); Hildebrand (1842); Helm (1905 et seq.); P.

Thomas (vol. iii. 1908). _Metamorphoses_, Eyssenhardt (1869), van der

Vliet (1897). _Psyche et Cupido_, Jahn-Michaelis (1883); Beck (1902).

_Apologia_, I. Casaubon (1594); Kruger (1864); (with the _Florida_),

van der Vliet (1900). _Florida_, Kruger (1883). _De Deo Socratis_,

Buckley (1844), Lutjohann (1878). _De Platone et ejus Dogmate_,

Goldbacher (1876) (including _De Mundo_ and _De Deo Socratis_). For

the relation between Lucian's [Greek: Ovos] and the _Metamorphoses_ of

Apuleius, see Rohde, _Uber Lucians Schrift [Greek: Loukios]_ (1869),

and Burger, _De Lucio Patrensi_ (1887). On the style of Apuleius

consult Kretzschmann, _De Latinitate L. Apulei_ (1865), and Koziol,

_Der Stil des A._ (1872). There is a complete English translation of

the works of Apuleius in Bohn's Classical Library. The translations

and imitations of the _Golden Ass_ in modern languages are numerous:

in English, by Adlington, 1566 and later eds. (reissued in the Tudor

translations and Temple Classics), Taylor (1822) (including the

philosophical works), Head (1851). Of the Cupid and Psyche episode

there are recent translations by Robert Bridges (1895) (in verse),

Stuttaford (1903); and it is beautifully introduced by Walter Pater

into his _Marius the Epicurean_. This episode has afforded the subject

of a drama to Thomas Heywood, and of narrative poems to Shakerley

Marmion, Mrs. Tighe, and William Morris (in the _Earthly Paradise_).

APULIA (sometimes APPULIA in manuscripts but never in inscriptions), the

district inhabited in ancient times by the Apuli. Strictly a Samnite

tribe (see SAMNITES) settled round Mount Garganus on the east coast of

Italy (Strabo vi. 3. 11), the Apuli mingled with the Iapygian tribes of

that part of the coast (Dauni, Peucetii, Poediculi) who, like the

Messapii, had come from Illyria, so that the name Apulia reached down to

the border of the ancient Calabria. Almost the only monument of Samnite

speech from the district is the famous _Tabula Bantina_ from Bantia, a

small city just inside the Peucetian part of Apulia, on the Lucanian

border. This inscription is one of the latest and in some ways the most

important monument of Oscan, though showing what appear to be some

southern peculiarities (see OSCA LINGUA). Its date is almost certainly

between 118 and 90 B.C., and it shows that Latin had not even then

spread over the district (cf. LUCANIA). Far older than this are some

coins from Ausculum and Teate (later known as Teanum Apulum), of which

the earliest belong to the 4th century B.C. Roman or Latin colonies were

few, Luceria (planted 314 B.C.) in the north and Brundisium (soon after

268) being the chief. (See R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, xxviii.-xxx.

pp. 15 f.; and Mommsen's introduction to the opening sections of

_C.I.L._ ix.) (R. S. C.)

The wars of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. brought a great part of the

pastures of the Apulian plain into the hands of the Roman state, and a

tax was paid on every head of cattle and every sheep, at first to the

tax farmer and later to the imperial procurator. It was under the Romans

that the system of migration for the flocks reached its full

development, and the practice is still continued; the sheep-tracks

(_tratturi_), 350 ft. wide, leading from the mountains of the Abruzzi to

the plain of Apulia date in the main at least from the Roman period, and

are mentioned in inscriptions. The plain, however, which once served as

winter grazing ground for a million sheep, now gives pasture to about

one-half of that number.[1] The shepherds, who were slaves, often gave

considerable trouble; we hear that some 7000 of them, who had made the

whole country unsafe, were condemned to death in 185 B.C. (Livy xxxix.

29). Sheep-farming on a large scale was no doubt detrimental to the

interests of the towns. We hear of repeated risings, for the last time

in the Social War. Even in the 4th century B.C. the then chief town of

Apulia, Teate or Teanum Apulum (see above), suffered in this way.

Luceria subsequently took its place, largely owing to its military

importance; but under the Empire it was succeeded by Canusium.

The road system of Apulia, which touched all the important towns,

consisted of three main lines, the Via Appia (see APPIA, VIA), the Via

Traiana, and the coast road, running more or less parallel in an

east-south-east direction. The first (the southernmost), coming east

from Beneventum, entered Apulia at the Pons Aufidi, and ran through

Venusia to Tarentum, and thence, turning north-east, to Brundusium. The

second, coming north-east from Beneventum, turned east at Aecae, and ran

through Herdoniae, Canusium, Butuntum, Barium and Gnathia (Gnatia) to

Brundusium. There was also a short cut from Butuntum to Gnathia through

Caelia, keeping inland. The third parallel line ran to the north of the

Via Traiana, in continuation of the road along the north-east coast of

Picenum and Samnium; it entered Apulia near Larinum (whence a branch ran

south to Bovianum Undecimanorum), and thence, keeping in the plain to

the south of the Mons Garganus, rejoined the coast at Sipontum, where it

received a branch road from the Via Traiana at Aecae, passing through

Luceria and Arpi. It then passed through Barduli (where it was joined by

a road from Canusium by way of Cannae) to Barium, where it joined the

Via Traiana. From Barium a road probably ran direct to Caelia, and

thence south-south-east to join the Via Appia some 25 m. north-west of

Tarentum.

Barium was an important harbour, though less so than Brundusium and

Tarentum, which, however, belonged to Calabria in the Roman sense.

Apulia, with Calabria, formed the second region of Augustus, though we

once find Calabria treated as a part of the third region, Lucania

(_C.I.L._ ix. 2213). The Hannibalic and later wars had, Strabo tells us,

destroyed the former prosperity of the country; in imperial times we

hear little or nothing of it. Both were governed by a _corrector_ from

the time of Constantine onwards, but in 668 the Lombards conquered

Calabria and Apulia, and it was then that the former name was

transferred to Bruttium, the meaning of the latter being extended to

include Calabria also. In the 10th century the greater part of this

territory was recovered by the Byzantine emperors, whose governor was

called [Greek: Katapanos], a name which, under the corrupt form

Capitanata, belonged to the province of Foggia till 1861. It was

conquered by the Normans under William Bras-de-fer, who took the title

of _comes Apuliae_ in 1042; it was raised to a dukedom with Calabria by

Robert Guiscard in 1059, and united to the Sicilian monarchy in 1127.

Many of the important towns possess fine Romanesque cathedrals,

constructed under the Normans and the Hohenstaufen rulers. It shared the

subsequent fate of Sicily, becoming a part of the kingdom of the Two

Sicilies in 1734, and being united with Italy in 1861.

Modern Apulia.

Modern Apulia comprises the three provinces of Foggia, Bari and Lecce

(the latter corresponding roughly with the ancient Calabria, which,

however, extended somewhat farther north inland), and is often known as

Le Puglie; it stretches from Monte Gargano to the south-east extremity

of Italy, with an area of 7376 sq. m.; it is bounded on the north and

east by the Adriatic, on the south-east by the Gulf of Taranto, on the

south by Basilicata and on the west by Campania and the Abruzzi. The

three provinces correspond to the three natural divisions into which it

falls. That of Foggia, though it has mountains on the west and

south-west boundary, and the Monte Gargano at its north-east extremity,

is in the main a great plain called the Tavoliere (chessboard) di

Puglia, with considerable lagoons on its north and east coast. That of

Bari, east-south-east of Foggia and divided from it by the Ofanto

(Aufidus), the only considerable river of Apulia, 104 m. long, is a

hilly district with a coast strip along which are the majority of the

towns--the lack of villages is especially noticeable; in the

_circondario_ of Barletta, the north-east portion of the province, there

are only eleven communes, with a total population of 335,934. That of

Lecce, to the east-south-east again, is a low flat limestone terrace.

The industries of Apulia are mainly pastoral or agricultural. Besides

sheep, a considerable number of horses, cattle and swine are bred; while

despite the lack of water, which is the great need of modern Apulia (in

1906 arrangements were made for a great aqueduct, to supply the three

provinces from the headwaters of the Sele), cultivation is actively

carried on, especially in the province of Bari, where grain, wine,

olives, almonds, lemons, oranges, tobacco, &c., are produced in

abundance, and the export of olive oil is attaining considerable

importance. The salt works of Margherita di Savoia produce large

quantities of salt, and nitre is extracted near Molfetta.

Railway communications are fairly good, the main line from Bologna to

Brindisi passing through the whole length of Apulia, by way of Foggia

and Bari, and having branches from Foggia (the main railway centre of

Apulia) to Benevento and Caserta, to Manfredonia, to Lucera and to

Rocchetta S. Antonio (and thence to either Avellino, Potenza or Gioia

del Colle), from Ofantino to Margherita di Savoia, from Barletta to

Spinazzola (between Rocchetta S. Antonio and Gioia del Colle), from Bari

to Putignano, and via Gioia del Colle to Taranto, and from Brindisi to

Taranto, and to Lecce and Otranto; besides which, there is a steam

tramway from Barletta to Bari via Andria.

The most important harbours of Apulia are Brindisi, Bari, Taranto,

Barletta, Molfetta and Gallipoli. The export of olive oil to foreign

countries from the province of Lecce in 1905 amounted to 1048 tons, as

against 3395 in 1901; but that to home ports increased from 7077 to 9025

tons in the same period. The production of wine was 358,953 tons in 1905

as against 203,995 tons in 1901 (an exceptionally bad year) and 284,156

tons in 1902. Of this 211,872 tons were forwarded by rail and sea, in

the proportion of five to two respectively, the rest being used for home

consumption and as a reserve. The cultivation of oriental tobacco is

extending in the province (see _Consular Report_, No. 3672, July 1906).

The population of the province of Foggia was 425,450 (1901) as against

322,755 in 1871, the chief towns being Foggia (53,151), Cerignola

(34,195), S. Severo (30,040), Monte S. Angelo (21,870), S. Marco in

Lamis (17,309), Lucera (17,515); that of Bari, 827,698 (1901) as against

604,540 in 1871, the chief towns being Bari (77,478), Andria (49,569),

Barletta (42,022), Corato (41,573), Molfetta (40,135), Trani (31,800),

Bisceglie (30,885), Bitonto (30,617), Canosa (24,169), Ruvo (23,776),

Terlizzi (23,232), Altamura(22,729), Monopoli (22,545), Gioia del Colle

(21,721); that of Lecce, 706,520 (1901) as against 493,594 in 1871, the

chief towns being Taranto (60,733), Lecce (32,687), Brindisi (25,317),

Martina Franca (25,007), Ostuni (22,997), Francavilla Fontana (20,422),

Ceglie Messapica (16,867), Nardo (14,387), Galatina (14,071), Gallipoli

(13,552), Manduria (13,113). (T. As.)