While much can be said about the beauty and grace of birds of brilliant
plumage and those of soul-stirring song, there is as much to be written
concerning those noted for their sagacity and cunning. Some have
selected the parrot as the model in this particular and the choice is
not a mistake.
There is, however, a tribe which all may observe more or less, while a
story relating to their habits or pranks will ever find willing
listeners. The Crow is the best known of this genus, and grouped with
him are the chough, the raven, the rook and the jackdaw. All of these
may be tamed, and afterward may be taught to use the language of man.
The plumage of the Crow in the northern parts of the world is black, and
we are so accustomed to that color that to speak of a white or of a
spotted Crow might subject one to ridicule, yet in many parts of the
world such Crows are found. Some are gray and black, and some species
are larger than others. They are characterized by a comparatively short
tail, long wings, and a strong, rather conical beak.
Crows are distinguished from ravens by their smaller size, and by the
feathers of the neck blending with those of the body, while on the
ravens, the neck feathers are pointed and distinct. The Crow family is
widely distributed, but Crows, as properly understood, are mainly
inhabitants of the north temperate zone. They are intelligent, wary
birds (when persecuted), and are practically omnivorous, feeding upon
fish, fowl, eggs, snakes, frogs, crabs, shell-fish, grubs, fruits, seeds
and berries. The common Crow of North America is particularly abundant
in the Eastern United States, and is looked upon as the inveterate foe
of the farmer on account of the amount of injury he inflicts on growing
crops, and especially upon corn. There is, however, a credit side to the
account in the destruction of grubs; but as the Crow is by nature such a
pilferer, he must be regarded as harmful in many ways.
In the fall and winter these glossy birds assemble by thousands in great
roosts, or rookeries; one of these roosts on the Potomac above
Washington has been estimated to harbor 40,000 Crows, while others are
still larger. In the gray of the morning the birds leave in clamorous
crowds for their feeding-grounds, often many miles away, and in the
afternoon may be seen winging their way homeward in long lines, high
above the earth in fair weather, low down in foul. The eastern fish
crow, frequently found in company with the others, is a smaller bird,
and can readily be distinguished by its hoarse caw.
The Carrion Crow of Europe and Asia closely resembles the North American
Crow in form, size and habits, but is perhaps a little more destructive,
attacking and killing lambs, or even weakly sheep. The Hooded Crow,
found in northern and eastern Europe and in many parts of Asia, is gray,
with black head, throat, wings and tail. The Gray-necked Crow of India
is a small but bold and mischievous species, often stealing the very
food from the table. On the other hand, it does much good as a
scavenger, forming an able adjunct to the vultures in this respect.
An interesting story is told of a Crow of this species which had been
tamed and petted until it behaved much as would a spoiled child. “Old
Crusty,” as he was called, would actually take the food away from the
dog while he was eating, not by open encounter, for that would have
deprived him of his fun. But he would tease the poor canine until he
barked from vexation, then snatch up the prey and triumphantly bear it
off to a neighboring tree, where he ate it at his leisure, while the dog
stood looking at him and uselessly venting his rage in loud, threatening
barks.
The annual “muster” of the Crows, like that of blackbirds, is a scene
very amusing, as well as mysterious. It has been my privilege to witness
a few such gatherings, but to me there seemed more noise than meaning.
It is said by naturalists, however, that the most extraordinary meetings
of the Crows occur in northern Scotland. There they collect in great
numbers, as if they had all been summoned for the occasion; a few of the
flock sit with drooping heads, and others seem grave as judges, while
others again are exceedingly active and noisy. One authority says:
“These meetings will sometimes continue for a day or so before the
object, whatever it may be, is completed. Crows continue to arrive from
all quarters during the session. As soon as all have arrived a very
general noise ensues, and shortly after the whole fall upon one or two
individuals and put them to death. When the execution has been performed
they quietly disperse.”
The Chough is a red-legged Crow and is one of the most mischievous birds
of his genus. He carefully examines everything he finds, then carries it
away if he can. And if there be a collection of anything to which he has
access, he is sure to scatter it in all directions. Those which have
been converted into pets have proven very affectionate, but they are
easily offended and will often vent their spite in a most annoying yet
very amusing manner.
The Raven is very much like the Crow in his habits, but is more given to
fighting and to burglary than his shy cousin. He is a great tease, also,
and will often attack children and even grown up people just for fun. By
this it can be seen that the Raven is more susceptible to taming than
the Crow, while no old Crow can steal so many articles or hide them as
completely as the Raven. They are quick to make friends with dog or man,
but, like the Chough, are very troublesome foes when once offended.
The Rook is a European bird, and though the farmer recognizes in him a
destroyer of his young crops, he must admit that without the Rook he
would save little or none of his crop. Worms constitute the favorite
food of this bird, wherefore many a husbandman has learned that it is
best to endure the disadvantages of a rookery merely for the sake of his
harvests. For one queer habit of Rooks is that they will frequent the
same spot all their lives, and it is next to impossible to dislodge them
from their abode.
The Jackdaws are the boldest of the genus, and have a very remarkable
“don’t care” look. They frequent high towers, hollow trees, and even
appropriate to their own use the loftiest parts of the English castles.
They choose their mates for life, and do not live in communities. They
assemble in flocks, however, when cherries begin to ripen and will soon
rob a tree if the owner is not on guard.
An amusing story is told of a tame Jackdaw. While pilfering one day he
found a half-glass of whisky which had been left upon a table, and on
tasting it, he liked it so much that he drank a quantity. In a few
moments symptoms of intoxication began to appear; his wings dropped and
his eyes were half-closed. He staggered towards the edge of the table,
probably intending to fly to the floor, but he had either lost the power
of his wings or he was afraid to trust them. He stood, seemingly
meditating what he should do, all the while reeling like a drunken man
about to lose his balance. Presently his eyes were shut and he fell over
on his back with his legs in the air, exhibiting every sign of death.
An attempt was made to put some water down his throat, but he could not
swallow it. He was then rolled in a piece of flannel, laid in a box and
locked away in a closet. All the family, with whom he was a great pet,
never expected to see him on his legs again. Next morning about six
o’clock the door was opened, with the expectation of finding Jackie
dead, but he had freed himself from the flannel and as soon as the door
was open he flew out and hurried away to a basin-shaped stone, out of
which the fowls drank, and copiously allayed his thirst. He repeated
this several times that day and was none the worse for his exploit, but,
with more forbearance than those who are endowed with reason, he never
again would touch whisky.
Claudia May Ferrin.
COCOA.
(_Theobroma cacao_, L.)
The wretch shall feel
The giddy motion of the whirling mill,
In fumes of burning chocolate shall glow,
And tremble at the sea that froths below!
—Pope, “Rape of the Lock,” ii, 135.
The cocoa-yielding plant is a tree varying from fifteen to forty feet in
height. The main stem or trunk is much twisted and knotty, from which
the branches stand out almost horizontally. The bark is thick, rough and
of a cinnamon brown color. The leaves are alternate, large, smooth,
entire, and of a deep green color. Flowers occur singly, more usually in
clusters, from those parts of the branches and trunk formerly
corresponding to the axils of leaves. Calyx deeply five-cleft, pale red.
Petals pink. Fruit solitary or several together, pendulous, large,
pear-shaped; each pericarp enclosing numerous brown seeds about the size
of a hickory nut or almond, from which the chocolate and cocoa are made.
The chocolate tree is a native of Mexico, Central America, Brazil and
other South American countries. It is now extensively cultivated in most
tropical countries of both hemispheres. The West Indian islands have
numerous large plantations. It is also found in botanic gardens and
greenhouses. There are several cultivation varieties.
The cocoa or cacao yielding plant must not be confounded with the
coco-nut palm or the coca-yielding plant which has already been
described.
The natives of Mexico used cocoa before the discovery of America by
Columbus. The Toltecs cultivated the plant centuries before they were
finally conquered by the more powerful and more progressive Aztecs in
1325. Cortez and Fernandez in their letters to Charles V. of Spain
referred to the cultivation of cocoa by the Mexicans who used the seeds
not only as a food but also as a medium of barter and exchange. It was
apparently the only medium accepted in the payment of provincial taxes.
Humboldt states that cocoa was similarly employed in Costa Rica and
other Central American countries.
In remote times cocoa was somewhat differently prepared from what it is
at the present time. The roasted and hulled seeds were coarsely
pulverized in a stone mortar, strongly spiced by means of vanilla and
other spices, boiled in water and when cold stirred to a frothy
semi-liquid in cold water and eaten cold. The word chocolate is said to
be derived from the Aztec _chocolatl_ (_choca_, frothy and _atl_,
water). Through Cortez and others who lauded very highly the value of
cocoa as a nourishing food for those going on long journeys, it soon
became widely known. In 1520 considerable quantities of it, pressed into
cakes, were shipped to Spain. Remarkable as it may seem, it is stated
that the Brazilians learned the use of cocoa from the Spaniards. The
noted Italian traveler Carletti (1597-1606) introduced the use and
preparation of cocoa into his native city, Florence. Not all Europeans
gave favorable reports concerning the use of cocoa. Clusius stated that
it was more suited to hogs than human beings. Acosta stated that the
drink had “a nauseous aspect and caused heart troubles.” Cocoa was
introduced into France about 1615, England about 1667, Germany about
1679. Somewhat later chocolate houses were established in various cities
of Europe. William Homburg, a chemist, of Paris, extracted the fat from
cocoa as early as 1695, and Quelus (1719) recommended its use as a salve
and as an article of diet.
[Illustration: COCOA FRUIT.
Fruit and seeds.
FROM KŒHLER’S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN.]
The fruit of the wild growing plants is small and the seeds exceedingly
bitter, hence the cultivated cocoa is preferred. The seeds are prepared
in two ways, fermented and unfermented. In the former the seeds are
placed in heaps in holes in the earth, in boxes or barrels, covered with
leaves. In the course of four or five days they begin to “sweat” or
undergo a mild form of fermentation. During this time the seeds must be
stirred about occasionally. At the close of the sweating process most of
the bitterness is gone and they have lost about one-half in weight.
Afterwards the seeds are rapidly dried in the sun or in ovens. The fully
dried seeds have a rich brown color. The following are the more
important market varieties of fermented cocoa:
1. Mexican or Soconusco Cocoa.—Seeds rather small, delicate flavor and
of a golden yellow color. Since Mexico does not produce sufficient cocoa
for home consumption this variety is rarely exported. This and the
following varieties are said to be derived from Theobroma bicolor, Th.
angustifolium and Th. ovalifolium.