WEATHER AND CONDITION OF SNOW
Without consulting the meteorologist at Simla it is difficult to accept
assertions about the monsoon as ultimate truth. Beyond a general, rather
vague, agreement as to what should normally be expected, opinions differ
not a little as to the measure and frequency of divergences from the
norm. And individuals who observe in one locality more or less than they
hope or expect are apt to forget that their dearth or plenty may be
elsewhere compensated by capricious incidence. Nevertheless it seems
certain that this year's rainfall in North-east India was above the
normal both in amount and duration. "We had good rain," people said, and
I was tempted to reply, "We had bad snow." Travelling through India I
frequently asked questions on this point, and almost invariably heard of
an unusually bountiful rainfall, seldom of one which was merely
sufficient. Inhabitants of Darjeeling, who have observed the hills in
the changing seasons for many years, told me that it was almost unheard
of that so much snow should fall in September and lie so low. The
general tenor of such remarks may probably be applied to an area
including not only Mount Everest itself and the great peaks in its
neighbourhood, but also a considerable tract of country to the North.
The monsoon, according to Tibetan information, started perhaps a little
later than usual, but was still more late in coming to an end; the
Tibetans ordinarily lie with an object, and there could be no object in
deceiving us about the weather. It may be concluded the year was
abnormally wet, though to what extent on Everest itself can hardly be
divined.
During our outward journey through Sikkim we saw nothing of the high
peaks. It was not until the day of our march to Phari Dzong (May 28)
that we had a clear view of the snows, and we had then the good fortune
to see Chomolhari late in the morning. But Chomolhari and the range to
the North of it were less visited by clouds than the peaks further
South. Pawhunri, Kanchenjunga, Chomiomo were less often visible, and
even at this early season we began to observe the usual habit of clouds
to rise from the valleys or to form about the summits at an early hour,
to be dissipated not before evening. The weather was not necessarily bad
because the peaks were veiled. When we first saw Everest from Kampa
Dzong on June 6, it was obscured some three hours after sunrise, but the
weather seemed fine: and on two subsequent days we made the same
observation. On June 13, from the hills above Shiling, Bullock and I
were trying to make out the Everest group through glasses for about
three hours. When first we looked in that direction, it appeared that a
storm was in progress, with dark clouds drifting up from the West; but
Kanchenjunga at the same time was a glorious sight, and all the
mountains were clear before sunset. The most splendid of the distant
views was from Ponglet on June 19: we were up our hill half an hour
after sunrise and half an hour later there was nothing to be seen. There
may have been malice in the clouds that day. It was radiantly fine where
we were; but in the afternoon we came under the edge of a thunderstorm
which drenched the main body of the Expedition as they were approaching
Tingri; and there was a definite break in the weather at this time.
I suppose this break may be taken as the forerunner of the monsoon on
Mount Everest. Storms there may have been before; but, generally
speaking, it had been fine over the mountains since the beginning of
June, and though the evidence is slight enough it seems probable that
Everest received little or no snow before June 20. When first we saw it,
a few days later, from the Rongbuk Glacier, it was still comparatively
black. It appeared a rocky mass with a white arm to the right, some
permanent snow on the ledges and in the gullies of the face turned
Northwards in our direction and some snow again on the high North-east
arete; but with no pretensions to be a snow-mountain, a real sugar-cake
as it seemed afterwards to become. We were lucky in having a few fine
days at the outset of our reconnaissance. The conditions then were very
different from those which obtained later. The recent snow must have
melted quickly; we found clean ice on an East-facing slope at 21,000
feet and also at a gentler angle on one facing West. On Ri-ring the
slopes were generally covered with snow near the crest, thinly but
sufficiently, or we should never have got up; near the summit we found
ice on both sides, North and South. It is impossible to say up to what
height one might have found ice in June. Appearances suggested that on
all but the steepest slopes above 23,000 feet the surface was hard snow
rather than ice.
It was on the day following our ascent of Ri-ring, July 6, that we first
experienced a real snowfall; and we woke next morning to find 3 or 4
inches covering the ground. In so far as an exact date can be ascribed
to what is hardly a single event, July 6-7 may be taken as the beginning
of the monsoon. We imagined at first that this snowfall was an important
matter, sufficient to prevent climbing at any considerable height for
several days. But from subsequent observations we came to treat such
snowfalls with a certain degree of contempt. It was more often than not
the case during the whole of July until the date of our departure that
snow fell during the day--sometimes perhaps for a comparatively short
period between noon and sunset, not seldom for many hours,
intermittently during the day from the middle of the morning, and
continuing into the night. But it was often so far as we were concerned
a harmless phenomenon. Snow was precipitated from clouds so thin that
they were easily penetrated by the sun's heat; it melted where it lay,
and the moisture so readily evaporated that the snow had hardly stopped
falling before the ground was dry. One might suppose that a few hundred
feet higher, where the snow could be seen to lie where it fell, the
effects would be more severe; but it was remarkable after half a day's
unceasing precipitation of this fine granular snow that one might go up
early next morning, perhaps to 20,000 feet, and find no more than a thin
covering of 2 or 3 inches on the stones.
In saying that this sort of weather was harmless, I am not denying that
it hindered our operations; but from the point of view merely of the
climber it was remarkably innocuous. A case in point is our ascent of
Ri-ring. As we were nearing the summit a thunderstorm gathered to the
North and dark clouds came up on every hand, threatening a violent
disturbance. I have related in an earlier chapter how we hurried down,
expecting at the least a cold unpleasant wind and some nasty snow
showers; but the air remained calm and the temperature warm and such
grains of snow as fell were hardly remarked in our flight. A more
disagreeable experience was our first journey to the col from which we
afterwards looked into the West Cwm of Everest; we reached the pass in
the teeth of a wind which drove the snow into our faces; but the weather
had no real sting, and the wind, though cold, seemed to touch us
lightly. Wind, in fact, was never an enemy to be feared during the whole
period of the monsoon, and snowstorms, though they prevented more than
one expedition, never turned us back. The delays in our reconnaissance
caused by bad weather were of course considerable; we were forced to
push our camps higher than would have otherwise been necessary, and
often found ourselves hurrying after a start before dawn in a desperate
race with the clouds to reach a view-point before the view had
disappeared. And the precipitation of snow on the glaciers forced us
invariably to wear snow-shoes on neve, and consequently limited the
numbers in our parties.
I have already alluded to a more serious snowfall which took place from
July 20 to 25. Another occurred during the first days of August and
another again on August 20 and 21, when snow came down below 16,000
feet. In September, towards the end of the monsoon, the weather was more
monotonously malicious and the snowfall tended to be heavier; I find two
heavy falls noted particularly in my diary. But on the whole it was the
habit of snow to fall lightly. It is remarkable, when one calls to mind
such a big snowfall as may occur during the climbing season in the Alps
before the weather is resolved to be fine, how little snow by comparison
fell on any one day in the region of Mount Everest. And perhaps in the
end the slopes were more laden by the smaller precipitations which
deposited a daily accretion.
We naturally sought an answer to the interminable query as to how much
melting took place at the highest altitudes. Melting of course was
always quicker on rocks. But even on the glaciers it was remarkably
rapid whenever the sun shone brightly, and we were more than once
surprised after a period of cloudy weather with constant snow showers to
find how much the snow had consolidated. It seemed to us on more than
one occasion that while snow had been falling at our camps and on the
lower peaks, Everest itself must have escaped. But, generally speaking,
after July 6 the mountain was remarkably white and became increasingly
whiter, and only at the least two perfectly fine days, which rarely came
together, made any perceptible difference. It was remarkable how little
ice was ever observable on the steep Eastern face, where one would
expect to see icicles hanging about the rocks. It is my own impression
for what it is worth, and its value I fear is small, that though snow
will melt readily enough low down, at least up to 23,000 feet during the
warmer weather even on cloudy days, at greater altitudes, perhaps above
25,000 feet, it rarely melts even in bright sunshine. In September this
year I doubt if it melted at all above 23,000 feet after the weather
cleared. At lower elevations the direction and angle of the slope made
all the difference. After one fine day the snow on a steep East slope
had solidified to a remarkable degree at about 20,000 feet; on a
North-facing slope at a similar elevation it had been quite unaffected;
on flat surfaces 1,000 feet higher a perceptible crust had formed, but
the snow remained powdery below it as on the day when it fell. After
three and four fine days the snowy surface of a glacier was absolutely
hard at about 20,000 feet and remained solid in the afternoon. Fifteen
hundred feet higher we were breaking a hard crust and sinking in a foot
or more. This condition may have been partly due to the local behaviour
of clouds, which were apt to cling about a ridge overlooking the glacier
and cast a shadow on this part of it. But higher, on more open ground,
we met the same condition; and again the slopes facing North preserved a
powdery snow which never changed before it was blown down in avalanches.
Perhaps the most convincing phenomena were the powdery snow high up on
the Eastern slopes under the North col and the snow on the Western
slopes at a similar elevation under Lhakpa La, which was hardly more
solid, while 1,000 feet lower we found excellent snow. It is difficult
to resist the conclusion that altitude is a determining factor in the
sun's power of melting. It is possible that a line might always be drawn
on any given day above which the temperature of the air is too cold for
snow to melt where it has fallen on snow, and another to meet the case
where it covers rocks. From our all too limited observations in June I
should judge that in the middle of summer such imaginary lines would be
above the height of Everest, but in other and cooler seasons we should
quickly find them lower and a long way below the summit.
In close connection with the snow's melting we had to consider the
possibility of avalanches. Our observations on this head were so meagre
that I can only make with the greatest diffidence a few statements about
them. It is astonishing to reflect how seldom we either saw or heard an
avalanche, or even noticed the debris of one under steep slopes which
had been laden with snow. Only on two occasions, I believe, were we
confronted in practice with the question as to whether a slope could
safely be crossed. The first was on August 7 in ascending the peak
Carpo-ri, of which I have previously made mention. The heavy snowfall at
the beginning of the month had ceased during the night August 4-5; the
following days had been warm but cloudy, and on both there had been
prolonged snow showers of the lighter sort in the afternoon and evening.
On the night of August 6 we had hard frost at 17,500 feet, and there was
a considerable sprinkling of fresh snow on the stones of the moraine.
Between the col and the summit we met some very steep snow slopes on the
South side: we carried no clinometer and I shall not venture to estimate
their angles of inclination. It was on this occasion, as I have
narrated, that in crossing a shallow scoop I was very much afraid of an
avalanche, but was able to choose a safe line where we were protected
and helped by an island of rocks. The snow here was inclined to be
powdery; but it had solidified in some degree and, where we had to tread
it, adhered sufficiently to the slope so as to give one a distinct
confidence that it would not slide off wherever it might be crossed.
Above this place we were able to avoid danger by following an edge where
the snow was not so deep; but here again I noticed with surprise the
adhesion between new snow and old. The ice below was not solid and
smooth, but frothy and rough, and easily penetrated by a strong blow of
the axe; it seemed to have been formed very quickly. The snow showed no
inclination to slide off, though it was not of the substance in which a
secure step could be made: and I concluded that the process of
assimilation between the old surface and the new snow must proceed very
rapidly whenever the temperature was warm enough. On the final slope,
which was even steeper, more snow was lying--it was a more powdery
substance: I was able again to escape danger on an edge dividing two
faces; but it was surprising that no avalanche had already taken place
and that the snow contrived to stay where it was.
The other occasion when we had to face and determine the possibility of
an avalanche was in traversing the slopes to the North Col. Here our
feet undoubtedly found a solid bed to tread upon, but the substance
above it was dubiously loose. It was my conviction at the time that with
axes well driven in above us we were perfectly safe here. But on the way
down we observed a space of 5 yards or so where the surface snow had
slid away below our tracks. The disquieting thoughts that necessarily
followed this discovery left and still leave me in some doubt as to how
great a risk, if any, we were actually taking. But it is natural to
suppose that at a higher elevation or in a cooler season, because the
snow adheres less rapidly to the slopes on which it lies, an avalanche
of new snow is more likely to occur.
TEMPERATURE
Before attempting to draw conclusions as to the relative chances of
finding favourable conditions between one month and another, a few words
must be said about temperature.
So far as the temperature of the air was concerned, we experienced no
severe cold and suffered no hardships from first to last. I do not mean
to affirm that it was always warm. We welcomed frost at nights as one
does in the Alps. One night so early as July 18, in a camp above 19,000
feet, was exceptionally cold. At our two last camps in September the
thermometer went down to two or three degrees below zero (Fahr.) and the
wind at the final camp made it more difficult to keep warm; with as
little protection as the coolies had, I should no doubt have shivered in
my tent. The air also seemed very cold before sunrise on September 20,
though we were walking fast; but it did not bite the tip of my nose or
ears or cause any disagreeable result. In general it may be said that
there could be no difficulty in providing equipment against any cold we
encountered. Heat was a much more dangerous enemy, as I indicated in
describing our first ascent to Lhakpa La. Personally I never felt the
sun's power on my head, but I felt it on my back so early as 8 a.m. as a
definite attack on my energy and vital power, and more than once, though
the sun was not shining, in crossing a glacier late in the day I was
reduced from a state of alert activity to one of heavy lassitude.
The temperature of the snow is another consideration of very great
importance. Even in July I felt the snow to be cold in the middle of the
day towards the summit of Ri-ring, and when wearing snow-shoes in fresh
snow under 20,000 feet coolies and all felt the cold in their feet.
Later I apprehended a real danger from this source. The coolies were
encouraged to anoint their feet with whale oil, and we avoided accident
and even complaint: but I always admired their resistance to cold.
Personally, though I am not particularly a cold-footed person, I took
the precaution of wearing two pairs of long socks which were both new
and thick, and a third from which, unfortunately, the toes had to be
amputated owing to the timid miscalculation of my bootmaker: this
equipment sufficed and I found my feet perfectly warm, while one of my
companions was obliged to pull off a boot in order to restore
circulation, and the other went on with numb feet and barely escaped
frost-bite. And I must again emphasise the fact that this was on an
Eastern slope well warmed by the sun in the middle of the morning and at
an altitude no higher than about 22,500 feet. It may readily be
concluded that forethought and care are in no respect more necessary
than in guarding against frozen feet among a large party at the highest
altitudes. And the difficulty of guarding against this danger might well
determine the limits at either end of the warmest weather within which
an assault should be launched on Everest itself or any one of the
half-dozen or so highest peaks.
THE BEST SEASON FOR CLIMBING
It will hardly be doubtful from the whole tendency of my preceding
remarks about weather and conditions that my opinion inclines
decisively to the earlier rather than the later season as offering the
best chances of climbing Mount Everest. We cannot of course assume that
because September was a bad month this year it will always be a bad
month. But supposing the monsoon were to end punctually and a fair spell
to have set in by the first day of September--even then it appears to me
improbable that the fresh snow fallen during the monsoon would
sufficiently melt near the top of the mountain two and a half months
after midsummer. As to the prospects of wind, we can only be content
with the statement that in this particular year the wind after the end
of the monsoon would alone have defeated even the most determined
attempt to reach the summit. A wind strong enough to blow up the snow
must always, I believe, prevent an ascent. A superman might perhaps be
found, but never a party of men whose endurance at high altitudes would
warrant the risk of exhaustion in struggling for long hours against such
adverse circumstances. For the earlier season it may be said again, as a
simple observation upon which little enough can be built, that the
appearance of the clouds before the monsoon did not suggest wind, but
rather a calm air on the summit. What precisely the conditions may be,
for instance, in May and June, 1922, or what we ought normally to
expect, cannot be determined with certainty. Will the whole of the snow
fallen during the monsoon of 1921 have melted before the next monsoon,
and if so by what date? Will the amount of snow on the mountain be the
same in June, 1922, as twelve months before? Or will black and white
appear in altered proportions? And if the snow has melted, where will
ice be found? It might well be that under the North Col all the steeper
slopes will have lost their snow. And what of the final arete? One
conjecture seems as good as another, and the experience of more
travelled mountaineers will suggest the most probable answer to these
questions with an instinct less fallible than mine. Nevertheless, I
think it may be said that the chances are all in favour of the earlier
season. We know, for instance, about this year that snow must have
melted since the last monsoon and actually was melting fast in June, but
the summer's snow does not always melt before the winter--not this year,
for instance: the chances, therefore, of finding it melted in June are
better than those of finding it melted in September. It may be contended
that it might then have melted too much so that a party would find ice
where they would wish to find snow. But one must prefer the lesser of
two evils. Ice is far from an insuperable obstacle on Mount Everest;
almost anywhere above Chang La crampons would overcome it: but powdery
snow, in case the snow has melted too little, is a deadly handicap.
Finally, the earlier is the warmer season with less danger to vulnerable
feet and requiring a lighter equipment.