its wide acceptance, but also because of its ability to incorporate
the elements of other religions. In a similar manner, and more
particularly, a world religion is one that includes within itself
elements representing past stages of its own development. Historically
considered, religious elements are juxtaposed in such a manner that
the religious life of the past is mirrored in the present. Hence
the religion can at no time emancipate itself from its historical
development. It is just as impossible to return to the religious
notions of earlier times as it is to transform ourselves into the
contemporaries of Charlemagne or even of Frederick the Great. The
past never returns. Nevertheless, it is universally characteristic of
mental development, particularly within the sphere of religion, that
the new not only continues to be affected by the old, but that the more
advanced stages of culture actually embody many elements of the past.
That these be permitted to exist side by side with higher conceptions,
and that there be no limiting external barriers in either direction, is
all the more demanded by world religion inasmuch as the independence of
State and society, which its very nature implies, presupposes, first of
all, the freedom of personal belief.
Inasmuch as it possesses a universal human significance, religion
cannot escape the change to which everything human is subject. This
appears most strikingly in the undeniable fact that the fundamental
idea of the two great world religions, Buddhism and Christianity,
has in both cases changed. I refer to the idea of _salvation_.
We do not, of course, mean to deny that an individual may either
permanently or temporarily return to the religious ideas of the past
with a fervour which again reinstates in him impulses that have long
since disappeared. Nevertheless, the present-day idea of salvation
is no longer identical with that which animated the primitive
Christian Church when it looked forward to the return of its Saviour.
Christianity is a religion of humanity. Precisely for this reason,
it, in every age, took up into itself the feelings and aspirations
representing the ideal spiritual forces of that age. All that was
permanent in the midst of this change was really the religious impulse
as such, the feeling that the world of sense belongs to an ideal
supersensuous order--a feeling for which world religion seeks external
corroboration in the development of religion itself. In distinction
from national religions, which sprang from an infinitely large number
of sources, a world religion requires a personal founder. To this
personality is due also the direction of the further development of the
religion. Thus, the final and most important characteristic of world
religion is the fact that it is pre-eminently an _historical_ religion.
It is historical both in that it has an historical origin, and in that
it is constantly subject to the flux of historical development.
5. WORLD HISTORY.
The meaning attached to the term 'world history' clearly shows how
firmly rooted is the anthropocentric view of the world in connection
with those matters that are of deepest concern to man. World history
is regarded as the history of mankind--indeed, in a still narrower
sense, as, in the last analysis, the mental history of mankind. If
facts of any other sort are taken into account, this is not because
they are an essential part of the subject-matter, but because they
represent external conditions of historical events. The justifiability
of this point of view may scarcely be disputed. If the purpose of all
historical knowledge is to understand the present condition of mankind
in the light of its past, and, in so far as we also attribute to this
knowledge a practical value, to indicate the probable course of the
future, then the history of mind is the immediate source of historical
knowledge. If this be true, it follows that the essential content
of history consists in those events which spring from the psychical
motives of human conduct. Moreover, it is the nexus and change of
motives underlying such conduct that lends to events the inner
continuity which is universally demanded of history.
But the very meaning which is universally associated with the term
'world history' itself includes _two_ very different conceptions. For,
even when the field of history is limited to the events connected
with mankind, as those which are of greatest importance to us, there
remains a further question. Is history to deal with the _whole_ of
mankind, or is it to be restricted merely to those peoples that have
in any way affected the course of the mental history of humanity? As
is well known, most of the works on world history have been confined
to the more restricted field. For them, world history is an account
of cultural peoples, whose activities are shown by a continuous
tradition and by existing monuments to form a relatively connected
whole. But there have also been more comprehensive works, which have
felt it necessary to include at least those cultural and semi-cultural
peoples who attained to some independent mental development, as did the
peoples of the New World prior to the time of Columbus. Back of this
uncertainty arising from the ambiguity of the concept 'mankind' lies
a deeper-going confusion due to the no less ambiguous meaning of the
concept 'history.' However much we may associate the word 'history'
primarily with the traditional limits of historical science, we may
not entirely put aside the broader meaning, according to which it
includes everything which may at all be brought into a connected order
of events. For we also speak of a history of the earth, of the solar
system, of an animal or a plant species, etc. Now, with this wider
connotation of the idea in mind, we cannot fail to recognize that the
conditions that still prevail among certain races, and that doubtless
at one time prevailed among all, are such that, while they would not
concern historical science in its more restricted and familiar sense,
they would demand consideration if the term were taken in its broader
meaning. From the latter point of view, the condition of a primitive
people of nature is no less a product of history than is the political
and cultural condition of present-day Europe. But there is nevertheless
a radical difference between the two cases. The historically
trained European understands, to a fairly great extent, the external
circumstances that have led to present conditions. He is conscious
not merely of the present but also of its preceding history, and he
therefore looks forward to the future with the expectation of further
historical changes. The man of nature knows only the present. Of the
past he possesses merely fragmentary elements, legendary in character,
and much altered by the embellishments of a myth-creating imagination;
his provision for the future scarcely extends beyond the coming day.
Hence, we should scarcely be justified in unqualifiedly calling
peoples of nature 'peoples without a history.' In the broader sense
of the term, they have a history, as well as have the solar system,
the earth, the animal, and the plant. But they lack a history in the
narrower sense, according to which historical science includes among
'historical' peoples only such as have had some special significance
in the development of mental culture. That even this limitation is
variable and uncertain need scarcely be mentioned. The past shows
us many instances in which hordes that were previously unknown, and
were thus, in the ordinary meaning of the term, peoples without a
history, suddenly stepped into the arena of the cultured world and
its history. The colonial history of the present, moreover, shows
that the characteristics and the past development of races occupying
regions of the earth newly opened to cultural peoples, have not been,
and are not, without influence upon the course of history. It should
also be remembered that between an historical tradition comprehending
the entire cultural world and recollection limited to the immediate
past, there are a great number of intermediate stages. These stages
are dependent primarily upon the forms of social organization, though
also upon other cultural factors. Peoples that have failed to advance
beyond a tribal organization may frequently have traversed wide regions
of the earth and yet have preserved at most certain legendary elements
of the history of these migrations, although retaining myths, cults,
and customs indefinitely. On the other hand, wherever a national State
has arisen, there has developed also a national tradition, intermingled
with which, of course, there have long continued to be mythological
and legendary elements. But the tradition, even in this case, relates
exclusively to the particular people who entertain it. Strange races
are as yet touched upon only in so far as they have directly affected
the interests of those who preserve the tradition. Indeed, such races
continue to have but an inconspicuous place in tradition until the
establishment of world empires and of the partly anticipatory colonial
and trade interrelation of peoples. Hence it is not until the rise of
world empires that we find the transition to world history in the sense
in which the term is most commonly employed to-day. In so far as world
history involves a transcendence of the history of a single people but
nevertheless a limitation to the circle of cultural peoples who are
more or less generally interrelated, it is a direct product of world
culture. Such a history includes all peoples who participate in world
culture and excludes all those who have no share in it.
Considered from a psychological point of view, the different meanings
of the concept 'history' in its relation to the various stages of
mental culture, clearly show a fluctuation between _two_ ideas which,
though opposite, nevertheless mutually imply each other. On the one
hand, there is the purely objective conception of history. History, in
this case, is regarded as a course of events of such a nature that the
specific occurrences may be brought by an external observer into an
orderly sequence of conditions and results. On the other hand, history
has been conceived as a course of events, which not only exhibits an
orderly sequence from an objective point of view, but which is also
_subjectively experienced_ as a nexus by the individuals concerned. In
the one case, history is a reconstruction, on the basis of external
observation, of the inner connection of phenomena; in the other, it is
the conscious experience of the latter connection. Mankind exemplifies
all possible transitional stages between these two extremes--history
as merely objectively given, and as experienced both objectively and
subjectively. Indeed, it is even true to say that, as a matter of fact,
none but such transitional stages actually occur. Even the horizon
of primitive man includes a narrow circle of consciously experienced
history. On the other hand, man is ever far from attaining to a
self-conscious grasp of his own history in its entirety. Thus, that
which is in a high degree characteristic of world religion is true
also of world history. Within the conscious horizon of each individual
very different levels of historical consciousness are represented,
even in the case of the cultural peoples who participate more or less
actively in the course of world history. Here, as in world religion, we
find that what was developed in a sequence during the course of ages
continues to remain, at any rate roughly speaking, in juxtaposition.
Moreover, even apart from this, we never survey more than a segment
of the entire nexus of historical factors. One of the most important
tasks of the historian consists in tracing the chain of events back to
motives which are, in part, inaccessible to superficial observation,
and, in part, indeed, remain of a problematical nature even when we
believe that, through inference, we have gained an approximately true
conception of them. Nevertheless, it is not necessary that immediate
knowledge be complete in order that there may be a consciously
experienced nexus of events such as is demanded for the content of
history proper. It is merely necessary that some interconnection be
actually experienced and that its relations be directly apprehended.
This knowledge, moreover, must possess sufficient power to influence
decisively the actual course of events.
This narrower conception of history brings historical events into
relation with the human _will_. The will is really a phase of
conscious experience. It is necessary, however, to single it out for
special discussion, because of the fact that popular opinion either
regards it as the exclusive factor in history or else stresses it
so one-sidedly that the causal view, required in principle even
for individual consciousness, threatens to vanish entirely from
the conception of historical life. Naturally, the will does not
become an influence definitely affecting the course of events until
individuals have become consciously aware of the interconnectedness
of historical life. Whenever, therefore, an exaggerated importance
is attached to the function of volition, the conscious intervention
of individual personalities in the course of events readily comes to
appear as the decisive feature that distinguishes the historical from
the prehistorical stages of human development. But this is erroneous
in both its implications. Even the life of primitive peoples of
nature is not entirely unaffected by individual personalities, whose
influence may be more or less permanently operative even after they
themselves have been forgotten. On the other hand, the will acts of
individuals constitute but one factor among the many which determine
historical life. Moreover, inasmuch as every particular volition
is conditioned by motives inherent in the general constitution of
individual consciousness, it is subject to the same psychical causality
that dominates human consciousness in general. The criterion for
differentiating historic from prehistoric existence, therefore, is
not the influence of a personal will upon the life of the group, but
rather the fact that the conscious experience of historical continuity
includes a recognition of the effect of individual personalities upon
the destinies of peoples. The advance to such an insight is inaugurated
by world empires, in which the vicissitudes of peoples first begin to
form a unified history; it reaches its completion in world culture,
which creates a common mental heritage for mankind, and thus engenders
the consciousness of a universal community.
Of the various elements of world culture that give impetus to this
development, the _world religions_ occupy the foremost place. In extent
and permanence they surpass not only the world empires but also all
other forms of material and spiritual interchange between peoples.
However much the traditions associated with world religions may be
interwoven with mythological and legendary elements, they nevertheless
constitute a bond whose primary effect is to arouse among peoples
who may otherwise be widely different in culture and history, the
idea of a universal human community. The peoples of Eastern Asia,
for example, though exhibiting marked political differences, were
united by Buddhism into a community of religious thought, in which
they became conscious that, in spite of differences of race and of
history, they possessed a similar religious and ethical temper. If we
compare the Brahmanic doctrines with the sayings of such teachers as
Confucius and Lao-tsze, we are struck particularly by the similarity
of ethical trend as well as by the divergence of this trend from that
of Occidental thought. In its idea of a community of faith, Islamism
likewise brought the consciousness of unity to numerous peoples of
barbaric culture--to a more limited extent than Buddhism, it is true,
but for this reason all the more forcefully. Of Christianity, it is
even more true that, from the very beginning, it took as its guiding
principle the belief that in the eyes of God there is no distinction
either of race or of class and occupation. Hence it has regarded
missionary activity among heathen peoples as a task whose purpose it
is finally to unite the whole of mankind beneath the cross of Christ.
Thus, world religion destroyed the barriers erected by the preceding
national religions, and took as its aim the unification of men and
races into an all-embracing community. To the adherent of a national
religion, the race that believed in a different god was strange and
hostile; both characteristics, strangeness and hostility, were included
by the Greek in the term 'barbarian.' The Christian speaks of heathen
who have not as yet beheld the light of pure truth, but for him there
are no barbarians. The god to whom the Christian prays likewise rules
the heathen world, and to the heathen, also, the gospel is preached.
True, we find a recurring limitation in that it is only the Christian
who is a brother to Christians. Nevertheless, it is prophesied of the
heathen that they will at one time be received into the brotherhood of
the disciples of Christ. At the end of time, there is to be but _one_
shepherd and _one_ flock upon earth. Thus, in the missionary activity
which the Christian recognizes as his calling, the assertion, All men
are brothers, is based on the two ideas, All Christians are brothers,
and All men are destined to become Christians.
It was on the basis of the Christian tradition that science first
attempted to treat history, not as the history of a single people or,
at best, as a number of histories of successive or contemporaneous
races and States, but as true world history. At the outset, world
history was objective in character. The underlying thought was that the
whole of mankind was controlled by a single idea which governed all
events, and that the task of humanity consisted in carrying this idea
into realization. Augustine's _Civitas Dei_ was the first attempt at a
world history based on the idea of the religious vocation of mankind.
That this exposition is limited to the legendary history of the
Israelitic people, supplemented by the history of Jesus as transmitted
in the Gospels, and by the Apocalyptic prophecies of a future world,
should not cause surprise. The limitation is due to the fact that the
idea of humanity is considered solely from the religious point of
view. The Church, as the institution about which religion centres, is
glorified by Augustine's work as the divine State. The adoption of this
religious viewpoint causes the history of mankind to appear as record,
not of human experiences that come as a result of human striving and
activity, but of events that are from the very beginning divinely
foreordained.
Nevertheless, Augustine's remarkable work long continued to determine
the general direction of conceptions relating to the history of
mankind. Up to the eighteenth century, _religious_ development was
regarded as establishing the only connection between the various
periods of history. The sole exception to this occurred in the case of
Giambattista Vico. In his _New Science_ (1725), Vico sought to combine
the development of language and of jurisprudence with that of religion.
True, the question regarding the origin of the State and the causes
of changes in constitutions had concerned men from the time of the
early Sophists on. Particularly during the Hellenistic period and at
the time of the Renaissance, such inquiries were of focal interest, as
a result of the great political changes that were then taking place.
Yet, whenever the underlying laws of such changes were sought, it was
the _single_ State that formed the basis of investigation; by comparing
its vicissitudes with those of other States, the attempt was made
to arrive at a general law along some such line as the Aristotelian
classification of States into monarchies, aristocracies, democracies,
etc. There was hardly ever a suggestion that the historical sequence
of civilizations and of States was a connected process intelligible
in causal or teleological terms. Religion alone was conceived as a
phenomenon which was, on the one hand, independent of the limits of a
single people, and yet, on the other, subject, in its development, to
law. The idea that Christianity was destined to be a world religion,
together with the fact that it had originated historically and had
spread widely, did not admit of any other interpretation. Within this
Christian circle of ideas, moreover, the historical development and
growth of religion were, quite naturally, brought into connection with
the world beyond, in which the development was thought to await its
completion. The religious philosophy of history thus terminated in a
prophecy whose culmination was the final triumph of Christianity. The
Age of Enlightenment, after effecting a unification of Christianity
with the religion of reason, again made the world of historical
experience the scene of triumph. This triumph was held to consist in
the ultimate development of Christianity into a religion of reason--a
conception in which the idea of the destiny of Christianity to become
a world religion undergoes a philosophical transformation which recurs
even in the writings of Kant.
Apart from this transformation, which was only partially complete
even in the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of religious development
that grew up in connection with Christian thought involves _two_
presuppositions. The first of these is that the pathway of mankind
was _determined by God_, and not voluntarily chosen by man himself.
It is not to religious thought that the characteristic features of
the development must be ascribed. The development, moreover, is not
immanent in religion; it is the result of external causes. The second
presupposition is that this development follows a preconceived _plan_;
it embodies a purpose--indeed, it expresses purpose in the very highest
degree precisely because it proceeds from the will of God. Even the
co-operation of individuals in the fulfilment of this plan is but the
result of divine predetermination, or happens because God has made
known His purposes to these individuals. Thus, this course of thought
leads with inner necessity to the conception of _revelation_. This
conception combines two essentially irreconcilable ideas, offsetting
each by the other. The religious destiny of man is thought to lie
outside his own control: it is imposed upon him from without, and is
communicated to him in the form of an illumination which he receives
from the supersensuous world. Thus, religious development itself
becomes a supersensuous process, which falls beyond the possibilities
of the ordinary means of human knowledge. As its goal lies in the
supersensuous, so also is the development itself a supersensuous
process that extends over into the world of sense.
But at this point the religious view of world history necessarily came
into sharp conflict with the philosophical view, though the latter had
in certain respects appropriated the idea, developed by the former, of
a teleological direction of human destinies. The philosopher, always
trusting the guidance of his own reason, might admit both a goal and
a plan, but that these should be inaccessible to the _lux naturalis_,
as the philosophy of the Enlightenment called rational knowledge in
distinction from _lux supranaturalis_, or revelation, he could not
concede. The logical outcome of this course of thought was an auxiliary
concept which appeared to surmount the difficulty, and also possessed
the happy characteristic of leaving every one free to retain, along
with the natural light, as much or as little of the supernatural
thought of an earlier period as he might deem wise. This auxiliary
concept was that of _education_--a conception that would readily
suggest itself to an age vitally interested in pedagogical questions.
The thought here involved represents merely a special application to
this particular instance of the idea that the world is governed by a
personal deity. Thus it came about that, from the time of Locke and
Leibniz down to that of Lessing and Herder, the favourite conception of
history was that of an education of mankind. But it is significant that
the very work whose title incorporates this idea, Lessing's _Education
of the Human Race_, really ends by displacing it. True, as a result
of Biblical tradition, the idea of education is here brought into
connection with the thought that the Jewish race is the chosen people
of God. Freed from this connection, however, and applied to mankind
in general, the idea of education, in Lessing's work, becomes that of
_self-education_, or, what is the same thing, that of a _development_
determined by the general laws of mental life. Hence conditions were
ripe for the further advance made by Herder, in his _Ideas on the
Philosophy of the History of Mankind_. Though frequently lapsing,
in his discussions of details, into the transcendent teleology of
the preceding period, Herder nevertheless did away in principle with
the restriction of the history of mankind to religious development,
substituting for the latter the development to humanity.
Thus was determined the programme which historical science, at about
the same time, accepted as its own--the programme of a universal
history, whose task did not consist in presenting a loosely connected
series of the histories of separate States, but in describing the
common participation of peoples and States in the development of
a universal culture. Furthermore, the way was cleared for the
philosophical position that history is not, as was once thought, the
expression of a predetermined plan whose purpose is that of a divine
education, but that it is the result of laws immanent in historical
life itself. Though variously expressed and partly obscured by
surviving ideas of the preceding period, this is the fundamental
conviction common to the nineteenth-century philosophers of history.
It received its most complete expression in the writings of Hegel,
not merely in his _Lectures on the Philosophy of History_, but in
his entire philosophy, which reflects throughout a broad historical
outlook. History had by this time come to be regarded as a strictly
self-dependent development of ideas in which each advance proceeds
with rigid logical necessity from that which went before. In other
words, it was thought of as a development of reason in time, or, in
the phraseology of a religious world-view, as the living development
of God himself. God is no longer conceived as a transmundane being who
guides the destinies of mankind according to a preconceived plan. On
the contrary, He is represented as immanent in the world. His innermost
nature is described as the world-reason, and this is said to be
unfolded particularly in the history of mankind.
However superior this conception may be to the preceding
semi-mythological and semi-rationalistic theory of a divine education,
it is clearly apparent that it was the outcome of a continuous
development, characterized, we may doubtless say, by strict logical
necessity. Antecedent to it were, first, the conception that this world
is a preparation for the kingdom of God, and, later, the thought that
life is an education in accordance with a predetermined plan. That the
Hegelian conception is the result of such a development is evident from
the very fact that it continues to regard the destinies of mankind as
guided by a plan. This plan has, from stage to stage, merely passed
from transcendence to immanence, inasmuch as it is finally thought to
be present to the mind of the philosopher who interprets the meaning
of history. Hence this later philosophy of history resembles the
earlier in still another respect. Ultimately, both are more concerned
with the future than with the past, thus being at once history and
prophecy. Even at the later period, the central question to whose
answer everything else is preparatory concerns the final goal toward
which mankind is striving. Hence it is that the philosophers of this
age are led time and again to divide the total life of humanity into
periods inclusive of past, present, and future, precisely as did
the world-plan of Augustine, whose basal conception was the idea of
redemption. Since these periods are not derived from the progress of
events, but are for the most part imposed upon it in conformity to the
dictates of logic, the course of history is mapped out by reference to
logical categories. Each of the great cultural peoples is portrayed as
representing a specific idea, and, disregarding everything that might
disturb their sequence, these ideas are arranged in a logical series.
Thus, Hegel begins his reconstruction of history with an account of
the Chinese as the people who possessed the earliest civilization. He
does so, however, not because Chinese culture was as a matter of fact
the earliest, but because it has apparently been more stable than other
cultures, as well as more closely bound up with rigid external forms.
Correspondingly, all succeeding stages of history are arranged by
Hegel according to the principle, on the one hand, of a progress from
bondage to spiritual freedom, and, on the other, of a transition from
finite limitation to a striving for the infinite. This philosophy of
history should not be criticized for its lack of knowledge concerning
the beginnings of culture. Its fundamental error lies in the fact
that, in tracing the development of mankind, it is guided, not by the
rich concrete actuality of events but by a logical schematism which is
in large measure imposed upon history, and only to a far less degree
abstracted from it. That which was once a plan prescribed by God for
mankind here at length becomes a plan elaborated by philosophers.
Without question, therefore, a philosophy of history must henceforth
adopt a different course. True, it cannot dispense with principles that
are in a certain sense external to history itself. Yet the function of
such a philosophy would appear to consist in considering historical
life from the point of view of the purposes that come to realization
within it, and of the values that are created on the various levels of
historical culture. Such a teleology of history--indeed, in the last
analysis, every teleology--must be preceded by a causal investigation,
which begins, here as everywhere, by entirely ignoring purposes and
values. Now, history is really an account of mental life. As such,
it gives consideration to physical factors only in so far as they
furnish the indispensable basis of mind. Hence the direct approach to a
philosophy of history which aims, not to acquire a knowledge of reality
from _a priori_ concepts but, conversely, to derive ideas from reality,
is a _psychological account of the development of mankind_. Although
the concrete significance of the particular, as such, precludes the
historian from disregarding it, everything that is merely particular
should be ignored by one who is giving a psychological account of
events. The aim, in this latter case, should be that of discovering
the determining motives of historical life and its changes, and
of interpreting these by reference to the universal laws of mind.
Supplementing this aim should be the endeavour to gain, so far as
possible, an insight into the laws that are immanent in history itself.
Our first three chapters have attempted to give an account of the
development of folk consciousness during the periods that, for the most
part, preceded self-conscious historical life. But neither this account
nor the bare outline which our final chapter gives of the beginnings of
the development to humanity must pretend to be a substitute for, or in
any way to represent, a philosophy of history. The difference between
an investigation such as ours and a philosophy of history is precisely
the same as that which distinguishes a psychological description of
mental life in general from a philosophical interpretation. But, if
anywhere, it is especially in the field of history that a psychological
analysis, concerned primarily to understand life in its actual
occurrence, must precede questions regarding the meaning of events and
the value which individual historical characters possess as respects
both themselves and their permanent influence. In other words, we
may henceforth demand that any philosophy of history which seeks to
contribute to our understanding of the questions just mentioned, should
be based on a psychological account of the development of mankind.
The point that we would emphasize is not that the philosophy of history
has failed, in the past centuries, to find a satisfactory solution of
its problem, and that its failure was inevitable. To the historical
mind there is a far more important consideration. This consists in the
fact that, when freed from its original mythological and teleological
connections, the general conception of a history of mankind developed
during these centuries has given clear definition to the idea of
humanity in its most universal form. Humanity, it has been shown,
includes within itself all antecedent social phenomena--peoples and
States, religion and culture. This entire social complex has been
subsumed under the principle that law is immanent in all history.
INDEX
_Prepared by Dr. Alma de Vries Schaub on the basis of the German Index
compiled by Dr. Hans Lindau._
Abraham, 45, 154, 355, 361, 384, 435;
and Isaac, 435
Adornment, 21, 86, 100, 105, 110, 120, 131, 449 ff.
Adventure, Märchen of, 279 f., 395
Æsculapius, 439
Agamy, 36, 169, 181
Age,
of the development to humanity, 470 ff.;
of heroes and gods, 281 ff.;
of personalities, 320;
of primitive man, 11 ff.;
the totemic, 116 ff.
Age-groups, 41, 51, 131
Agricultural ceremonies, 135
Agriculture, 126 f., 140, 486;
Animals in, 120 f., 124
Alexandrianism, 490
Allegories, 421 ff.
Amulets, 86, 227 ff., 292, 439, 451
Anabaptists, 444
Ancestor,
Animal, 117, 132 f., 204, 230 ff.;
Demon, 467;
Human, 204, 214, 230 ff.;
Totem, 186
Ancestor cults, 205, 230 ff.
Ancestor theory, 361 f.
Ancestor worship, 117, 186 f., 204, 214, 410, 480
Ancestral spirits, 419
Animals,
Breeding of, 120, 289 ff., 420;
Domestic, 120, 289 ff., 420;
Sacred, 121;
Soul, 83, 190 ff., 214, 368, 412 f.;
Totem, 117 ff., 131 ff., 143, 188 ff., 193, 200, 260, 412 f.;
Transformations into, 133, 272 ff., 412 f.
Animal cult, 117, 136
Animal dance, 464
Animal fable, 272
Animal mask, 95, 105, 135
Animal names, 187 f.
Animal sacrifice, 210 f., 433 f.
Animal totem, 117, 138 f., 186, 214
Animism, 139, 193, 204 f.
Anthropology, Prehistoric, 14 f.
Anthropophagy, 31, 209 f.
Arbitrator, 331
Architecture, 261, 451 ff.
Art, 94 ff., 104, 256 ff., 322, 448 ff., 490;
Formative, 100 ff., 256 f.;
Imitative, 107 f.;
Memorial, 23 f., 107 f.;
Miniature, 453;
Musical, 262 ff., 456 ff.
Aristotle, 12 f., 19, 350, 504, 517
Asceticism, 198
Augustine, 516, 521
Aversion, 194
Awe, 194
_Bachofen, J.,_, 34 ff.
Baptism, 444 f.
Barter, 168;
Secret, 10, 21, 31 ff., 55, 120;
Marriage by, 157
Beyond, Belief in a, 394 ff., 412, 420 f., 423 ff., 431, 495, 502
Blessedness, 396, 403 f., 406
Blood,
Relation of soul to, 191, 206 ff., 213;
Taboo of, 200, 210
Blood-magic, 191
Blood-relationship, 208 f.
Blood-revenge, 163, 314, 333, 339 ff., 344 ff.
Blowpipe, 100 f., 104
Boat, 129
Boomerang, 27 f., 125, 177
Bow and arrow, 16, 26 ff., 33, 49, 112, 124
Breath, Relation of soul to, 192 f., 205 ff., 212 f., 242
_Bücher, Karl_, 267
Buddha, 381 f., 425 f., 498 f., 504, 507
Buddhism, 10, 478, 496 ff., 515
Bull-roarer, 99 f., 181, 266
Burial, 216 ff., 397
Bush soul, 232
Capture, Marriage by, 154 ff., 163, 168
Castle, 324 f., 327, 452
Castration, 290 f., 294 f.
Cattle-raising, 120, 124, 137 f.
Causality, 92 f.
Cave, 22 ff., 106, 108
Celestial cults, 251
Celestial märchen, 275 f.
Celestial mythology, 76, 80, 91, 130 f., 134 ff., 140, 189,
220, 246, 258, 355 ff., 419
Celestial phenomena, 304 ff.
Ceramics, 30, 80, 135, 259 f.
Ceremonies,
Intichiuma, 185 f., 188 f., 244 ff.;
Sanctification, 442 ff.;
Vegetation, 135 f., 189, 249, 418 ff
Chaos, 388, 390, 392
Chief wife, 45f., 168 ff., 316
Chieftain, 121, 134, 195, 233
Chieftainship, 119, 125, 233, 314, 332
Christianity, 10, 478, 496 ff., 515 f.
Church and State, 491 f.
Churingas, 177, 181, 185, 190, 204, 221, 224 ff.
Circumcision, 445
Cities, Foundation of, 311, 323 f.
Clan names, 141 ff.
Classes, Differentiation of, 125, 311, 316 ff.
Club, Men's, 41, 47, 119, 131, 173 f., 255, 312, 409
Coat of arms, 143, 232
Colonization, 300 f.
Common property, 248, 317 ff.
Community labour, 136, 247 f.
Compurgator, 335
Conception totemism, 176, 180 ff., 189 f., 191, 193
Conjuration, 269, 427 f.
Conscience, 329, 431
Consecration gift, 438 ff.
Constitution, 349 ff.
Contract, Marriage by, 158 f.
Cord magic, 86 f., 202, 415, 440
Corporeal soul, 82, 191 f., 205 ff., 211 ff., 216, 221 f., 406
Corroboree, 184, 464
Cosmogony, 370, 385 ff., 393, 404
Cosmopolitanism, 489
Counter-gods, 370
Counter-magic, 84, 105, 201, 203, 444 f.
Counting, Systems of, 304 ff.
Couvade, 198
Creation-myths, 388 ff.
Cremation, 218 ff., 397
Crouching graves, 218
Cults,
Ancestor, 117, 204f., 230 ff.;
Celestial, 251 f.;
of the dead, 452;
Deity, 205, 325, 414 ff., 424 ff.;
Demon, 249 ff.;
Hero, 204;
Magic, 416 f.;
Mystery, 420 ff., 502;
of saints, 178 f.;
of the soil, 245 ff.;
Soul, 421 f., 502;
Totemic, 236 ff.;
Vegetation, 135, 243 ff., 250 f., 294, 418 ff.
Cult associations, 119, 136, 143, 161, 179 f., 255
Cult ceremonies, 90
Cult practices, 426 ff.
Cult songs, 96, 267 ff., 461
Custom, 350
Dance, 90, 95 f., 104, 249, 262 ff., 449, 457;
Ceremonial, 264;
Ecstatic, 249, 264, 418, 423
Dance-song, 95 f.
Dead,
Disposal of the, 81, 215 ff., 234 f., 238 f., 397, 405;
Realm of the, 398 ff.;
Sacrifice to the, 238 ff., 253 f., 433 f.
Deaf and dumb, The, 59 f.
Death, 81 f., 494
Debt, 343
Degeneration theory, 225, 353
Deity cult, 205, 325, 414 ff., 424 ff.
Deity saga, 384 f.
Demon battles, 370, 404 f.
Demon cult, 249 ff.
Demons, 75 ff., 81 ff., 105, 196, 201, 203, 217 f., 221 f.,
224, 236, 263 f., 284 f., 351 ff., 361 ff., 387 ff., 418 ff.;
and the epic, 458 f.;
and heroes, 283 ff., 369, 372 f., 454;
Vegetation, 441
Destiny, 366
Development, Theory of, 353 ff.
Devourment, Märchen of, 276 ff.
Differentiation of classes, 125, 311, 316 ff.;
of vocations, 311, 321 ff.
Digging-stick, 26, 100, 120, 124, 126 f.
Dionysian mysteries, 447
Discoveries, Geographical, 492
Divination, 441 f.
Divine State, 329, 373, 388, 411, 416, 494
Dog, 22 f., 124, 290
Domestic animals, Breeding of, 120 f., 289 ff.
Drama, 9, 462 ff., 490
Dreams, 189 f., 193, 205 f., 401, 407
Dress, 21;
Origin of, 85 ff., 120, 126, 131, 133, 449
Duel, 336
Dwelling, 21 ff., 106
Dwarf peoples, 19, 77 f., 115, 353
Eclipse of the sun, 81
Ecstasy, 249, 397, 423 f., 434
Education and history, 519
Elysium, 403 f.
Emotion, 81, 92 f., 105, 114, 264, 268, 356, 367 ff., 423, 466, 468 f.;
as related to magic, 93
Endogamy, 118, 149, 151, 166
Enlightenment, 11, 470, 517
Epic, 9, 280, 450, 457 ff.
Ethnology, 5 f., 122
Eunuchs, 294
Evil magic, 274
Exogamy, 46, 118, 144 ff., 163 ff., 183, 196, 289 f.
Family, 12f., 34 ff., 235, 311 ff.;
Joint, 153, 312 ff.;
The original, 12;
Single, 313, 315
Father-right, 36, 314
Fear, 81, 92, 194, 200, 224, 370, 400
Fetish, 186 f., 214, 220 ff., 352 f., 439, 454
Fetishism, 139, 186 f., 204, 352
Fire, 30 f., 124;
Acquisition of, 30 ff;
Kindling of, 49, 292;
Lustration by, 201 f., 218 ff., 243, 338, 407, 443 f., 446;
Solstice, 202;
Trial by, 243, 338
First-fruits, Sacrifice of, 440 f.
Flood, Universal, 391 ff.
Flood saga, 391 ff.
Flute, 97, 266
Folk psychology,
History of, 1 ff.;
Methods of, 6 f.;
Problem of, 3 f.;
relation to ethnology, 5 f.;
relation to general psychology, 3;
relation to philosophy of history, 522 f.
Food,
of primitive man, 24 ff.;
Prohibitions on, 199 f.
Forest-dwellers, 19, 122, 395
Formative art, 99 ff., 256 f.
Fortitude, 242 f., 247
Foundation of cities, 311, 323 ff.
_Frazer, J. G.,_, 38, 152, 189 f.
Fusion, Racial, 111, 288 f.
Gathering of food, 24 f., 124, 140, 144
Genetic psychology, 4
Gesture language, 58 ff., 69
Gestures,
Graphic, 62 f,;
Pointing, 61 f.;
Significant, 63
Gift, 432ff.;
Consecration, 438f.;
Marriage by, 158, 163f.;
Votive, 438 f.
Gift theory of sacrifice, 240, 432 ff.
_Gillen, Messrs. Spencer and_, 18, 38, 188
Gods,
Abode of, 364, 366;
Age of heroes and, 8 f., 121, 235 f., 281 ff.;
Battles of, 370, 388 f., 404 f.;
Belief in, 285 f.;
Characteristics of, 282 ff., 362 ff.;
Cult of, 205, 325, 414 ff., 424 ff.;
Decline of, 365;
and demons, 366 f., 369, 459;
Development of, 362 ff.;
Images of, 223 f., 247, 450, 453f.;
Judgment of, 337;
of the moment, 362 ff.;
Origin of, 350 ff., 364 ff., 369;
Particular, 362 ff.;
Perfection of, 364 f.;
Personality of, 236, 366 ff.;
of the present, 234;
Saga of, 228, 374 f., 384 f.;
Superpersonal, 390, 467, 504 ff.
God-man, 506 f.
Greek language and culture, 488 ff.
_Grimm, Jacob_, 459
Graves, Crouching, 218
Group-marriage, 38, 41 f., 44 f., 48, 168 ff., 316
Guardian animal, 190, 232
Guardian deity, 325, 501
Guardian spirits, 178, 369
Guide, 407 f.
Guilt, 203, 253, 430
Gynocracy, 35 f.
Hades, 398, 401, 404
Hammurabi, Code of, 330, 338, 343, 347, 411
Harvest, Sacrifices in connection with, 440 f.
Heart and soul, 207
Heaven, 395, 404
Heavens,
Mythology of the, 76, 80, 91 f., 130 f., 134 f., 140, 189,
220, 246, 258, 355 f., 419;
Phenomena of the, 304 ff.
_Hegel_, 520 f.
Helios, 358 f.
Hercules, 376 f., 382, 407
Herd, 52, 121
_Herder_, 52, 470, 472, 519
Hermes, 407 f.
Hero, 9, 281 ff,;
Cult of the, 204;
and demon, 283 ff., 369, 372 f., 454;
and god, 282 ff., 364, 369 ff., 454
Hero saga, 228, 356, 374 ff.
Heroic age, 281 ff.
Heroic song, 9
_Hillebrand, Karl_, 1
Historical consciousness, 478
Historical religion, 509
History, 510 ff.;
and saga, 377 ff.
_Hobbes, Thomas_, 11 f., 34, 36, 111
Hoe, 120, 126 f., 134
Hoe-culture, 134, 138, 246, 248, 250, 289
Horde, 52, 120, 145, 180, 237, 302, 471, 511
Horse, 293
Hospitality, 341
Hostage, 343
_Howitt, A. W._, 18, 37f., 142, 188
Human nature, 471 f., 475
Humanity, 9, 470 ff.;
Ideal of, 410
Hunting, 24 f., 140, 144;
Use of dog in, 22 f.
Hut,
Conical, 261, 451;
Pole, 261;
Spherical, 261
Hymns, 385, 393, 430, 461, 465
Ideals, Religious, 410
Ideas,
of a beyond, 393 ff., 420, 423 ff., 431, 495;
Concrete, 72;
Mythological, 74
Idols, 131
Images, Divine, 223 f., 447, 450, 453 f.
Imitation of animals, 95
Immortality, Belief in, 233, 394 ff., 412, 420 f., 423 ff.,
431, 495, 502
Imprisonment, 342 ff.
Individual rulership, 287, 313
Individualism, 489, 492
Infanticide, 43 f., 175, 237
Infinitude, 505 f.
Instruments,
of concussion, 265;
Musical, 97 ff., 265 f., 457, 468;
Stringed, 97 f., 266;
Wind, 265 f.
Initiation ceremonies, 202, 241 ff., 247
Intelligence of primitive man, 109 ff.
Intichiuma ceremonies, 185 f., 188 f., 244 ff.
Islamism, 10, 316, 497
Javelin, 124 f.
Joint family, 153, 312 ff.
Jordan festival, 203, 446
Judaism, 497
Judge, 331 ff., 347;
Appointed, 331;
in the underworld, 403
Judgment of the gods, 337
Judicial functions, Division of, 348 f.
Justice, Administration of, 331 ff.
_Jus primæ noctis_, 46, 168
_Jus talionis_, 345 ff.
_Kant_, 470, 517
_Kern, H._, 55
Kidneys, as vehicles of the soul, 209, 211 f., 221, 434 f., 445
Kiss, 242
_Klaatsch, Hermann_, 15
Knife, 131, 449
_Kollman, Julius_, 77
Labour,
Community, 136, 247 f.;
Degradation of, 321 f.;
Division of, 49 f., 300;
Equalization of, 322 f.
Landscape painting, 456
_Lang, Andrew_, 153, 187
Language, 53 ff., 137;
Gesture, 58 ff., 69
Lawgivers, 307 f.
_Lazarus and Steinthal, Messrs._, 2
Legal system, 327 ff.
Legends, 381 ff., 421 f.;
Mura-mura, 231;
of redemption, 382 f.;
Religious, 381;
of saints, 381 ff., 464
_Lessing_, 414, 519
Lie, 63, 114
_Lippert, Julius_, 205, 231
Liturgy, 463, 465 ff.
Loin cord, 85 ff.
Lustration, 201 ff., 219 f., 252 f., 338, 407, 412, 443 ff.
Magic,
Belief in, 75 ff., 81, 84 ff., 92, 94 f., 105, 376 f., 434 ff.;
Cord, 86 f., 202, 415, 440;
Evil, 274;
Imitative, 354;
Protective, 85, 449
Magic staff, 335 f.
Magic test, 337 f.
Magical offering, 440
Magical transference, 201 ff.
Magician, 84 f., 330, 378
_Man, E.H._, 79
Mankind and human nature, 471 f., 475
_Mannhardt, W._., 249, 292, 441
Märchen, 270 ff.;
of adventure, 279 f., 395;
Celestial, 275 f., 395;
of devourment, 277 ff.
Märchen-cycle, 380
Märchen-hero, 356, 375 ff., 387, 459
Märchen-myth, 270 ff., 387 ff., 413, 458 f.
Mark community, 309 f.
Market, 327, 463
Marriage, 12, 34 ff., 89;
by barter, 157;
of brother and sister, 118, 148 ff.;
by capture, 153 ff., 163, 167 f.;
by contract, 158 f.;
by gift, 158 f.;
Group, 38, 41 f., 44 f., 48, 168 ff., 316;
Modes of contracting, 155 ff., 172 f.;
Pirrauru, 168 ff.;
by purchase, 158 f.;
Single, 51
Mask, 95, 105, 135, 262 ff.
Maternal descent, 35 ff., 47, 146 ff., 165, 173 f., 196 f., 314
Maternal rule, 35, 314
_Martin, Rudolf_, 50
_McLennan, J. F._, 145, 153
Meal-times of primitive man, 24
Medicine-men, 83 f., 89, 105, 180, 223, 233, 254 f., 330, 341, 409
Memorial art, 24, 107
Men's club, 41, 47, 119, 131, 173 f., 255 f., 312, 409
Metempsychosis, 412 ff.
Migrations, 111, 287 f.;
Folk, 126 ff., 164, 288 f.;
Tribal, 120, 138, 191, 488
Military organization, 310
Milk industry, 137 f., 289, 296 f.
Mimic play, 459, 462, 490
Monogamy, 34, 36, 43, 46 ff., 89, 114, 167, 169 ff., 311 ff.
Monotheism, 77, 225, 231, 353 ff.
Monumental edifices, 452, 490
Morality, Primitive, 114 f.
_Morgan, Lewes_, 38, 152
Mother-right, 34 ff., 314
_Müller, Max_, 225
Mummy, 207
Mura-mura legends, 176 f., 231
Murder, 339 f., 346
Music, 95 ff., 264 ff., 449, 456 f., 464, 466 ff.;
Absolute, 468
Musical instruments, 97 ff., 265 f., 457, 468
Mystery cults, 420 ff., 502
Myth, 75 f., 375 f., 384 ff., 413 ff.;
Celestial, 76, 80, 91, 130 f., 134 ff., 140, 189, 220, 246,
258, 355 ff., 419;
Cosmogonic, 385 ff., 404;
and cult, 414 ff.;
Märchen-, 270 ff., 387 ff., 413, 458f.;
Theogonic, 384 ff.;
of the underworld, 397 ff.;
of world destruction, 391 f.
Mythical hero, 379
Mythology, Nature, 76
Narrative, 270 ff.
Nature, Man of, 11 ff.
Nature-demons, 370
Nature-mythology, 76
Neanderthal skull, 14 f.
Nirvana, 499
Nomads, 120, 138, 419
Novel, Short, 464
Numbers,
Sacred, 305, 407;
Social organization and, 304 ff.
Oath, 335 f.
Offering, 432 ff.
Oracle, 442
Ordeal, 336 f.
Orders, 255
Organization,
Military, 310;
Political, 302 ff.;
Tribal, 117 ff., 132, 140 ff., 152
Ornamentation, 100 ff.
Other-world ideas, 394 ff., 410, 420 ff., 431, 495, 502
Painting, 106 ff., 456, 468
Palace, Royal, 452, 454, 481
_Pasha, Emin_, 114
Passion plays, 463, 465
Particular gods, 362 f.
Paternal descent, 37, 146 ff., 173 f., 196 f., 314
Paternal rule, 35, 314
Patriarchal family, 313
Patriarchal period, 35 f.
Penal law, 338 ff.
Penitential psalm, 430 f.
Personalities, Age of, 320
Personality, 489, 505
Phallus cult, 212
Philology, 2, 53, 490
Philosophy, 354, 496, 504, 518;
of history, 519 ff.
Pirrauru marriage, 168 ff.
Plant totem, 134, 176, 184, 188 ff., 192, 199, 214, 245
Platform disposal of the dead, 216, 405
Plough, 134, 138, 248, 289 ff., 298
Poison,
Arrow, 26;
Plant, 25 f.
Poetry, 267 ff., 457
Pole-houses, 261
Political organization, 302 ff.
Polyandry, 42 ff., 167, 171 f., 313
Polygamy, 41 f., 47, 166 ff., 312
Polygyny, 42 ff., 139, 167, 170 ff., 312, 315 f.
Polytheism, 80, 355, 357, 371
Pottery, 30, 80, 135, 259 f.
Praise, Hymns of, 430
Prayer, 427 ff.;
Penitential, 430 f.;
of petition, 427 f., 439;
of thanksgiving, 429 f., 439
Prehistory, 13 f., 451
_Preusz, K. Th._, 242, 435, 464
Priesthood, 321, 330, 332
Priests' Code, 200, 210, 329, 345, 432
Primitive man, Discovery of, 11 ff.
Property, 47, 114, 120, 138, 173 f., 195 f.;
Common, 248, 317 ff.;
Private, 298, 300, 317 ff.
Prophetic signs, 442
Promiscuity, 36, 38, 169, 181
Prohibition of certain foods, 199 f.
Protection, Right to, 340 ff.
Protective magic, 85
Psyche, 205 f., 212 ff., 217, 220, 241, 405
Punishment, 338, 342, 404, 406 f., 431;
and sacrifice, 433
Puppet show, 464 f.
Purgatory, 407 f., 412
Purification, 201 f., 219 f., 499;
Rites of, 201, 443 f.
_Cf._ Lustration.
Pygmies, 19, 77 ff., 115, 353
Rain-magic, 253, 268
Rain priests, 249, 263, 268
Rattle, 100, 266
_Ratzel, Friedrich_, 5
Realm of the dead, 396 f., 400
Reconciliation, 432
Redemption, 410, 447, 495 f.;
Legends of, 381;
Religions of, 496
Reformation, 492
Refrain, 96 f., 104
Relationship, Malayan system of, 38 ff.
Religion, Origin of, 75 ff., 282 ff.
Religious ideals, 410
Renaissance, 455 f., 491 f., 517
Retribution, Idea of, 401, 408, 411, 413
Revelation, 518
Rhythm, 103 f., 268 f.
Rights, Equality of, 320
Rings, Exchange of, 87
Root languages, 68 f.
_Roskoff, G.G._, 75
_Rousseau, J.J._, 12
Rulership, Individual, 287, 313
Sacredness, 195 f., 199
Sacrifice, 253 f., 295 f., 427, 431 ff.;
Animal, 210 f., 433 f.;
to the dead, 238 ff., 253 f., 433 f.;
Human, 210, 433 ff., 440, 447;
of reconciliation, 432
Sacrificial animal, 210 f.
Sacrificial feast, 446 f.
Saga,
Deity, 384 f.;
Flood, 391 ff.;
Hero, 228, 356, 374 ff.
Saints,
Legends of, 381 ff., 464;
Worship of, 178 f.
Sanctification, 427;
Ceremonies of, 442
Sanctuary, 341 f.
_Sarasin, F. and P._, 19, 49, 75, 90
Satisfaction of wants, 448 f.
Satyric play, 464
Scapegoat, 203
Scarab, 229
_Schmalz, E._, 60
_Schmidt, Wilhelm_, 78 f., 114, 353
_Schultze, Leonard_, 88
_Schweinfurth, Georg_, 18 f., 77
Science, 449, 489 f.
_Scott, W. R._, 60
Sculpture, 261, 453 ff., 490
Secret barter, 10, 21, 31 ff., 55, 120
Secret societies, 254 ff.
Secondary wives, 45, 168 ff., 316
Self-education, 519
Self-mutilation, 294 f., 434
Sex totemism, 119, 176, 182 f., 186 f., 190, 193
Sexual organs and the soul, 211, 434, 445
Shadow soul, 192 f., 205 f.
Shamans, 84
Shame, Feeling of, 88
Shield, 125, 131
Sickness, 81, 83 ff., 90, 494;
Demons of, 82 f., 105, 236
Sin offering, 432 f.
Single marriage, 51
Skull, 217;
Neanderthal, 14 f.
Slave, 154, 156
Slavery, 139
Smoke, 220
Snake society, 256, 269
Social psychology, 4
Society, Primitive, 50 ff.
Soil, Cults of the, 245 ff.
Solstice festivals, 420
Solstice fire, 202
Song, 95 ff., 104, 267 ff., 449, 458, 460 ff.;
of praise, 430;
Work, 268 f., 461
Soul,
Breath, 192 f., 205 ff., 212 f., 242 f.;
Corporeal, 82, 191 f., 205 ff., 211 ff.; 216, 221 f., 406;
Ideas of the, 190 ff., 394 ff.;
and kidneys, 209, 211 f.;
Shadow, 192 f., 205 f.;
Vehicles of the, 207 ff., 211 f., 221, 434 f., 445
Soul animals, 83, 190 ff., 214, 368, 412 f.
Soul belief, 204 ff.
Soul cults, 421 f., 502
Souls,
Exchange of, 242;
Transmigration of, 412 ff.
Sound and meaning, 65 ff.
Spear, 125
Speech, 496 f.
_Spencer and Gillen, Messrs._, 18, 38, 188
_Spencer, Herbert_, 187, 205, 231
Spirit villages, 396
Sprinkling, 203, 445 f.
State, 8 f., 119, 285 f., 287, 303, 472 ff.;
Church and, 491 f.;
Divine, 329, 373, 388, 411, 416, 494;
Forms of the, 349, 517
_Steinen, Karl von den_, 102
_Steinthal, H._, 2, 68
Stipulation, 334
Stringed instruments, 97 f., 266
_Stuhlmann, Franz_, 114
Substitute, 435
Sun, Eclipse of the, 81
Sweat-lodges, 252
Sword, 131, 299
Symbolism, 334, 422, 447
Symmetry, 103 f.
Taboo, 131 f., 193 ff., 203, 219, 341;
on foods, 199 f.;
on relations by marriage, 196 ff.
Talisman, 89, 104, 227 ff.
Tattooing, 21, 87, 131, 135, 255, 257 ff., 451
Teleology, 522
Temple, 195, 324 f., 450, 452 f., 465, 467, 481
Theft, 114;
of women, 46
Theogony, 384 ff., 417
Thinking, Primitive, 68 ff.
Tippamalku, 168 ff.
Torture, 344
Totem, 8, 116 ff., 203 f., 412 f.;
Inanimate, 177, 185 ff.
Totem animal, 117 ff., 131 ff., 143, 188 ff., 193, 200, 260, 412 f.
Totem friendships, 162 ff.
Totem poles, 143 f., 232 ff.
Totemism, 116 ff.;
Animal, 117 ff., 131 ff., 138 f., 175 ff., 193, 214, 245, 412 f.;
Conception, 176, 180 ff., 189 f., 191, 193;
Individual, 119, 175, 178 ff., 187, 189 f.;
Plant, 134, 176, 184, 188 ff., 192, 199, 214, 245;
Sex, 119, 176, 180, 182 f., 186 f., 190, 193;
Tribal, 177 ff., 187
Trade, 121, 300 f., 452
Transference, Magical, 201 ff.
Transformation into animals, 133, 272 ff., 412 f.
Transmigration of souls, 412 ff.
Tribal division, 117 f., 141, 143, 159 ff.
Tribal migrations, 120, 138, 191, 488
Tribal organization, 117 ff., 132, 140 ff. 152
Tribal warfare, 119 f., 123, 125
_Tylor, Edward_, 205
Underworld, 397 ff., 402 ff.
Unity of the world, 483
Universalism, 492
_Usener, Hermann_, 361 f.
Vegetation ceremonies, 135 f., 189, 249, 418 ff.
Vegetation cults, 135, 243 ft, 250 f., 294, 418 ff.
Vegetation demons, 441
Vessels, 30, 49
_Vico, G._, 516
Vision, 407, 442
Vocations, Differentiation of, 311, 321 ff.
Votive offering, 438
Wagon, 292 ff.
Wants,
Freedom from, 110, 114;
Satisfaction of, 448 f.
Warfare, 33, 111, 209;
of the gods, 370, 388 f., 404 f.
Water,
Lustration by, 201 ff., 219 f., 252 f., 338, 443 ff.;
Trial by, 338
Weapons, 26 ff., 120, 124 f., 131, 133, 299
Week, 305
_Wergild_, 163, 339
_Westermann, D._, 58, 68
Wheel, 291 f.
Wife,
Chief, 45 f., 168 ff., 316;
Secondary, 45, 168 ff., 316
Wind instruments, 265 f.
Witchcraft, 338
Work-songs, 268 f., 461
World, Unity of the, 483
World culture, 477, 484 ff., 512
World destruction, Myths of, 391 f.
World empires, 476, 478 ff., 484 ff., 493, 512
World history, 474 f., 478, 509 ff.
World language, 487, 493
World religions, 10, 477, 491, 494 ff.
Writing, 486 f.