CHAPTER XIV

UNITY OF UNIVERSE

ART. 123. _The Universe._--In the preceding chapters we have endeavoured

to deal with some of the principal phenomena that help to give a

mechanical conception to the entire Universe.

It now remains for us to show, in this last chapter, how, underlying all

the physical structure of the Universe, there is one fundamental and

primordial medium, in which all the forms of matter and motion find

their ultimate unity.

The Universe literally means one ultimate whole, though that whole may

be compounded of many parts, the very essence of the term embodying the

idea of a complete unity which runs throughout its whole physical

structure.

Apart from some such hypothesis as will be suggested in this chapter,

that ultimate unity is incapable of a physical or mechanical conception.

In Art. 29 we learned that the Universe was composed of two classes of

things, matter and motion, while in Art. 30 we learned that the sum

total of matter according to the law of the conservation of matter ever

remains the same; while further, in Art. 53, according to the law of the

conservation of energy, the sum total of energy ever remains the same.

We have also learned that the two are indissolubly united, so that

wherever we found matter, whether that matter was in its atomic,

molecular, planetary or stellar form, there, as its necessary complement

and counterpart, was the ever-present and unceasing motion, in one or

other of its many forms. Thus, throughout the entire Universe, we find

the same two essentials ever working in unison and harmony.

Nowhere in the realm of infinite space is there such a phenomenon as

rest or absolute death. The ideal that seems to be the key of the

Universe, is that continuity of motion which science teaches us is so

inseparably connected with all matter. Grouped, however, here and there

throughout the Universe are modifications of this aetherial matter,

termed molecules, satellites, planets, suns, or stars, which

modifications are, however, not so real and abiding as the

electro-magnetic Aether from which they receive their physical origin.

The physical character of the universe is progressive. Even in its

ultimate unity there is no such thing as stagnation or standing still;

for, while in some parts of the Universe new stars and suns and planets,

yea, even new systems are being evolved out of the primordial Aether, in

other parts of the Universe old stars and suns, with all their attendant

planets and satellites, are passing on towards that final end, when they

themselves will be again resolved into the original form of matter from

which they were first made. This assertion is in perfect harmony not

only with science, but also with revelation. For even revelation teaches

us that all the stars shall grow old as doth a garment, and as a vesture

shall they be folded up (Heb. i. 11), and that (out of their ruins) a

new heaven and a new earth shall be created and the former shall not be

remembered (Isaiah lxv. 17).

Thus amid all the modifications of that which is the real physical basis

of all matter, we find indissolubly associated with each and all of the

varied forms and modifications certain motions which are analogous to

each other. In the aetherial atom itself, so infinitesimal in its

proportions that even our imagination is almost strained in our attempt

to conceive it, yet even here we have rotation and translation in an

orbit, such rotation and translation being due to the motions of the

electro-magnetic Aether. Then in the gaseous forms of matter into which

these atoms may be condensed, we find the same two essentials, of matter

and motion, of rotation and translation in an orbit, always working

harmoniously together, through the motions of the selfsame Aether, which

gives rise to the attraction and repulsions of the atoms.

Then following the principle into the planetary world, and taking the

planet Saturn with its ring of satellites as an example, we find again

the same two factors ever working in unison and in harmony, with their

incessant rotation and translation in an orbit, forming a complete and

perfect unity in themselves, such unity being due to the pressures and

tensions of the Aether combined with its rotatory character. Then going

a step further, we find a number of planets, with or without satellites,

all rotating around one central body, that rotation and translation

again being due to the motions of the rotating electro-magnetic Aether,

combined with its pressures and tensions.

For millions of years, so far as we can tell, this solar system of ours

has been moving through space as one complete unit.

Then out in stellar space there are millions of such systems, each

distinct and perfect in themselves, each of which is made up of exactly

similar parts to our solar system, these innumerable systems being

doubtless joined together by the same electro-magnetic Aether, forming

one larger and grander unity, known as a constellation. Then these

constellations, increasing in their number, are again joined together,

and form a still larger unity called a Galaxy; and galaxy being joined

to galaxy, constellations to constellations, we get such an ocean of

suns and stars like that known as the Milky Way, the ultimate whole

revealing in all its beauty and harmony the unison of the two

essentials of matter and motion. It may even be that all the oceans of

suns and stars, that exist in far-off space, are joined together by one

common bond, the universal electro-magnetic Aether by its two

complementary motions, the centripetal and the centrifugal, the whole

forming one ultimate unity which we call the Universe, having for its

centre one common point or central orb, which indeed forms the centre of

gravity of the entire Universe.

Thus the key to the physical conception of the Universe is to be found,

and alone found, in that beauty of order, and harmony of motion, which

are so inseparably associated with the varied forms of matter,

graduating through a series of units or atoms, each with its dual nature

complete in itself, through a series of minor entities termed elements,

which in their aggregations form meteorites, satellites, planets, suns

and stars, and systems of stars and oceans of suns and stars, until all

are united into one ultimate unity where all are blended into one

complete and perfect whole; the whole of the universal fabric being held

together in its mechanical order and beauty by the electro-magnetic

Aether. Then in the very centre of the Universe there dwells that

Supreme Being whom we call God, who is at once the one real fountain and

source of all the light and life of the Universe itself. For it is His

universal Spirit that moulds and fashions the plastic matter into the

many forms which it assumes, and uses the various modes of motion, as

heat, light, electricity and magnetism, as instruments to build up and

erect in all their beauty and harmony the innumerable systems that flood

immensity and space.

For if there be a centre of gravity to an atomic system, and a centre of

gravity to a planetary system, and a centre of gravity to a solar

system, then there is also a centre of gravity to a group of systems,

even to a constellation, or a galaxy; otherwise our philosophy relative

to the centres of gravity of masses fails in its application to wider

phenomena of an exactly similar kind.

Thus, if there is a centre of gravity to a galaxy, even to the Milky Way

itself, then, going one step further, with a faith that laughs at

scientific data and leaps beyond the narrow bounds of pure reasoning, we

affirm that there must even be a centre of gravity to the entire

Universe. Now let me ask the reader, What can be more fitting, more

appropriate, more reasonable than to infer that the centre of gravity of

the Universe is to be found in that celestial orb or orbs where the

throne of God exists and endures, and where ultimately there will be

congregated together in perfect felicity the spirits of just men made

perfect, not only from our insignificant planet, but all the spirits of

all beings from all the planets which in their almost infinite number

are circled round their central suns by the electro-magnetic Aether? It

is there, in these bright orbs, with their vision and powers

spiritualized, quickened and intensified, that all perfected spirits

shall look out into space, with increasing wonder, upon the birth and

decay of worlds, the evolution and devolution of planets and systems and

constellations, and shall watch the continuation and working out of that

grand and glorious plan, which alone finds its perfection and its

ultimate fulfilment in the wisdom, and power, and glory of the Eternal

Spirit of the Living God.

To see if this conception of the Universe is borne out by scientific

data, we will now address ourselves more particularly to those

fundamental truths which underlie the unity of the Universe.

ART. 124. _The Unity of the Universe._--The Unity of the Universe is a

dream which has passed before the imagination of many philosophers in

by-gone times, and has been a fruitful source of speculation to

old-world, as well as more modern philosophers. The researches of such

living scientists as Sir William Crookes, Professor J. J. Thomson and

others, have, however, made this dream come within the range of

practical research and direct experiment. Professor J. J. Thomson

believes that it is possible to break off from an atom, a part which is

only 1/1000 part of the whole, and these infinitesimal parts he has

called corpuscles, which he considers are the carriers of the electric

current.

If, therefore, it can be philosophically proved that the hypothesis of

an atomic, gravitating, and condensing Aether can satisfactorily account

for the physical existence of all atoms, and therefore of all matter,

the dream of old-world philosophers will be helped on its way to a

successful realization.

We have already suggested, that nebulae are formed out of the

condensation of the electro-magnetic Aether that fills the Universe; and

as that nebula, according to the Nebular Hypothesis, ultimately resolves

itself into a sun, or planet, or satellite, as the case may be, it

follows that the condensation of this electro-magnetic Aether forms the

basis of all the various elements, as Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen and the

other seventy elements of which those bodies are composed. Thus the

conclusion that we are compelled to come to in regard to the ultimate

nature of matter, in its primordial condition, is, that all matter which

exists in its varied forms throughout the entire Universe finds its

physical origin and source in the universal electro-magnetic Aether,

which is itself atomic, and possesses all the essential properties of

matter.

With the conception of the Aether as advanced in this work, this

hypothesis is perfectly philosophical and logical. For the conception is

simple, in that it supposes one form of matter to spring out of another

form, that is, from an aetherial form to gaseous, in a similar manner to

that in which a gaseous form changes into a liquid form, that is, by

condensation, or a closer drawing together of the aetherial elastic

envelopes that surround each atom; each particular gas, as Hydrogen,

Nitrogen, or Oxygen, representing different quantities of aetherial

condensations, as will be seen in the next article.

The aetherial constitution of matter has received recognition from the

hands of such scientists as Lord Kelvin and Dr. Larmor. The latter, in

his _Aether and Matter_, writes on the subject as follows (page 7):

"Matter must be constituted of isolated portions, each of which is of

necessity a permanent nucleus or singularity in and belonging to the

Aether, of some such type as is represented for example by a minute

vortex ring in a perfect fluid, or a centre of permanent strain in a

rotational elastic medium." And again on the same page he adds: "It is

incumbent on us to recognize an aetherial substratum of matter, in so

far as this proves conducive to simplicity and logical consistency in

our scheme of physical relations, and helpful towards the discovery of

hitherto unnoticed ones."

Dr. Larmor, as has already been pointed out in Art. 44, speaks of his

aetherial atoms as electrons, which are of two kinds, negative and

positive, and of these he states (page 97): "Each electron has an

effective mass of aetherial origin, which forms part, and may be the

whole of the mass of the matter to which it is attached."

Here, then, we have definite statements as to the hypothesis of all

matter having a definite aetherial origin. If, therefore, it can be

proved experimentally that matter does possess this aetherial basis,

then the hypothesis will pass out of the region of speculation into the

region of fact and science.

The question, therefore, suggests itself to our mind, as to whether

among all the experiments that have ever been performed by any

scientist, there are any which will conclusively confirm and establish

the hypothesis as to the aetherial origin of all matter. In my opinion

there are such experiments, which have been given to the world by such

eminent scientists as Faraday and Sir Humphry Davy. Before, however, the

value of their experiments can be rightly understood and valued, we

shall have to ask ourselves another question, and that is, "What is the

relation of Aether to electricity?" Upon the correct answer to this

question depends the application of Faraday's experiments to the

hypothesis of the aetherial constitution of all matter, and therefore of

the great underlying principle of the unity of the Universe.

Is there any relation therefore between Aether and electricity? If so,

what is that relation, and to what extent does it hold good? Professor

Lodge, in his preface to _Modern Views of Electricity_, asks a similar

question. "Electricity," he states, "has been thought to be a form of

energy, it has been shown to be a form of Aether. There remains the

question, What is Aether?"

While again he writes: "A rough and crude statement adopted for popular

use is that electricity and Aether are identical. But that is not all

that has to be said, for there are two opposite kinds of electricities,

and there are not two Aethers. But there may be two aspects of one

Aether, just as there are two sides to a sheet of paper."

That there is a definite relation between Aether and electricity is as

certain as there is a definite relation between electricity and light.

In order to find out how far the relationship and identity between

Aether and electricity extend we will review our conception of the

Aether as given in Chapter IV. According to the conception advanced in

that chapter, on the hypothesis that Aether was matter, we

philosophically came to the conclusion that Aether was atomic, and

therefore gravitative. Because it was gravitative, it possessed density,

and varying degrees of density; and having mass, it possesses the

property of inertia the same as any other matter; and was also elastic.

We have now to add to these properties that of compressibility, which

property we have ascribed to it from philosophical considerations when

dealing with comets, and nebulae, and the origin of planets and

satellites. Now, if there is any identity between Aether and

electricity, then it follows that that identity will be more or less

manifested, as we find electricity possessing more or less of the

properties which have been ascribed to the electro-magnetic Aether. For,

if we find two apparently different substances, or entities, possessing

exactly the same properties, and occupying the same space at one and the

same time, then the only logical conclusion that we can come to is, that

these two apparently different substances are not two substances, but

one.

We have already proved that they both occupy exactly the same space,

that is, they occupy the planetary and interstellar regions of space,

and fill indeed the entire Universe. The electro-magnetic theory of

Light (Art. 78) indisputably proves this. We will therefore find out if

electricity possesses the properties which have already been ascribed to

the Aether. The first property, and indeed the fundamental property, of

Aether is that it is atomic, and upon the atomicity of the medium

depends the whole of the theory as worked out in relation to heat,

light, electricity and so-called gravitational phenomena. Is there

anything about electricity that can suggest the hypothesis that

electricity is atomic? The answer is unquestionably in the affirmative.

Many of the greatest scientists of the past and present century have

believed and worked at the hypothesis of the atomic character of

electricity, and none more so than Dr. Larmor in his _Aether and Matter_

and Professor J. J. Thomson.

Now what is Dr. Larmor's opinion as to the atomicity of electricity?

These are some of his statements quoted in the work. In the very first

words of his preface he writes:[45] "The following essay was originally

undertaken mainly as a contribution towards the development of the

standpoint which considers electricity, as well as the matter, to be

constituted on an atomic basis." He continues: "Since Faraday's work on

Electrolysis, the notion of the atomic constitution of electrification

in its electro-chemical aspect has never been entirely absent." While

later on he adds: "Thus, for example, the present view of the atomic

character of electricity, which is at length coming within the scope of

direct experiment, has been in evidence with gradually increasing

precision ever since theoretical formulations were attempted on the

subject."

We are, however, possibly indebted to Professor J. J. Thomson for the

most direct experimental evidence as to the atomic nature of

electricity, for, as is well known to scientists, he has discovered what

he termed corpuscles, in association with electricity, which he makes

the carriers of the charges involved in electrical phenomena.

Here, then, we have one proof of the identity that exists between Aether

and electricity, in that while they both fill the same space, they are

both equally atomic; Dr. Larmor's ultimate atom, as we have already

seen, being known as positive and negative electrons. Aether, we also

learned, was gravitative (Art. 45), but we have since learned that

gravitation is itself an electrical phenomenon, in that both the

centripetal and centrifugal forces are due to the repulsions and

attractions or pressure and tension of this electro-magnetic Aether.

So that when we affirm that Aether is gravitative, we do but affirm it

is subject to the laws of electricity, which govern all electrical

phenomena, and therefore we might just as truly affirm that electricity

is gravitative, because such an affirmation is simply another way of

saying that electricity gives rise to the attractions and repulsions

incidental to, and associated with, all electrical phenomena. Here,

again, we have further evidence of the identity that exists between

Aether and electricity.

Then we learned that Aether possessed density, and also different

degrees of density, and the question arises as to whether there is

anything corresponding to this property in electricity. As a matter of

fact, this very property of density is itself recognized and known to

all scientists by the term Electric Density, the electric density being

always proportionate to the charge of electricity on a given area.

We learned also in Art. 79 that aetherial density and electrical density

were identical in relation to solar and planetary space; so that,

wherever there was the denser Aether, there was also the denser

electricity, the density of the one increasing or decreasing exactly in

the same ratio as the other increased or decreased. From aetherial and

electrical density, therefore, we have another proof of the close

identity that exists between Aether and electricity.

Again, we learned (Art. 48) that Aether possessed inertia. Here at

least, it may be thought, we shall find the first point of difference

between the two entities. Surely such an intangible, aetherial

manifestation as electricity cannot possess inertia. Let us see what

Professor Lodge has to say on the subject. In the chapter on electrical

inertia he writes (p. 89, par. 365 of _Modern Views of Electricity_): "A

current does not start instantaneously: it takes a certain time, often

very short, to rise to its full strength; and when started it tends to

persist, so that if its circuit be suddenly broken, it refuses to stop

quite suddenly, and bursts through the introduced insulating partition

with violence and heat. It is this ram or impetus of the electric

current which causes the spark seen on breaking a circuit; and the more

sudden the breakage, the more violent is the spark apt to be. We shall

understand them better directly; meanwhile they appear to be direct

consequences of the inertia of electricity; and certainly if electricity

were a fluid possessing inertia it would behave to a superficial

observer just in this way."

From these statements we learn then that electricity does possess

inertia, although there are other phenomena of electricity that would

destroy the hypothesis. But undoubtedly an electric current possesses

momentum, and it is philosophically impossible to associate momentum

with any body that does not possess inertia, as one of the factors of

momentum implies mass, even though it be a mass of an infinitesimal

form, and mass is the very essence of the property of inertia (Art. 40).

Dr. Larmor, in the work already referred to, dealing with the subject

of electric inertia, explains that it is concentrated at the nucleus of

the electron (p. 230), while on p. 202 he states: "Each electron as it

is moved by the aetherial displacement belonging to the radiation,

resists with its own definite inertia."

Apart from this evidence, the philosophical evidence already adduced in

Chapter X. is altogether in favour of the fact that electricity

possesses inertia. So that we may say that, though the evidence as to

the identity of electrical and aetherial inertia is not fully complete,

the balance of opinion lies in favour of the identity rather than

otherwise. See _Appendix A_.

It can further be demonstrated that electricity possesses elasticity the

same as the Aether does. The charge and discharge of a Leyden jar are

conclusive evidence of the elasticity associated with electrical

phenomena, while further proof is to be found in the fact that Dr.

Larmor attributes elasticity to his electrons, such elasticity being of

a rotational type.

The identity, therefore, that exists between Aether is now almost

complete. We have now only to prove that both are compressible, and the

identity is fully established. This will be done by reference to certain

of Faraday's experiments before the conclusion of this article. As we

have established, logically, the identity that exists between Aether and

electricity, the question arises now as to whether they are not one and

the same medium. If they are not one and the same medium, then we are in

the distinctly unphilosophical position of having to admit that all

interplanetary and interstellar space are filled at one and the same

time by two different media, and such an assumption is directly opposed

to all observation and experience.

Therefore, to be strictly philosophical, one of these media must be done

away with, and we may either assert that interplanetary and interstellar

space is filled with electricity, or else it is filled with Aether, as

it is much simpler to conceive of space being filled with one medium,

than it is to suppose it to be filled with two media, which are

absolutely identical in all their characteristic properties and

functions. Both can give rise to exactly the same kind of phenomena,

whether they are the phenomena of heat, light, electricity, or

magnetism, and even gravitation itself. So that, if Science wishes to be

distinctly philosophical in her statements in future, it will be

necessary, it seems to me, to do away either with the Aether, or with

the electricity, and as the latter is the better known entity, I am of

the opinion that Science will retain the electric conception of space

and matter, and do away with the aetherial, as being altogether

unnecessary. See _Appendix B_.

Thus are we led to the conclusion that electricity is itself a form of

matter, as indeed it must be if it is atomic, as suggested by Dr. Larmor

and Professor Thomson.

Professor Lodge, on p. 9 of the work already referred to, states:

"Electricity in this respect behaves just like a substance;" and again,

p. 313, he writes: "We cannot assert that it is a form of matter,

neither can we deny it; on the other hand, we certainly cannot assert

that it is a form of energy, and I should be disposed to deny it. It may

be that electricity is an _entity per se, just as matter is an entity

per se_."

Whether electricity be a form of matter or not, as I believe it

undoubtedly is, we have arrived at the fact, in view of the identity

between Aether and electricity, that, wherever the one is present, the

other is present also. So that if it can be demonstrated by direct

experiment that matter can be changed into its equivalent quantities of

electricities, or that equivalent quantities of electricities could

produce their equivalent forms of matter, then the electrical basis of

matter, and consequently the aetherial basis of matter, are proved

beyond contradiction, and we are thus led one step nearer to the

ultimate unity of the Universe, which unity is to be found in the

universal electro-magnetic Aether, which is identical with universal

electricity. For if Aether be the basis of all modes of motion, as heat,

light, and gravitation, and it is identical with electricity, it follows

that electricity is equally the basis of all the varied phenomena, and

if to that we add the constitution of matter itself, then we are within

sight of the medium in which the ultimate unity of the Universe is to be

found.

This view of the subject has already been dealt with by a German

scientist, Professor Vogt, in his book on _The Nature of Electricity and

Magnetism_, a book, however, which is not translated into English. In

that work I believe he shows the possibility of all matter having its

origin in electricity; and if that be so, then that theory is really

identical with an aetherial basis of matter, seeing that Aether and

electricity philosophically seem to be one and the same medium. Let us

therefore turn to Faraday's experiments, and see what they teach us on

the subject of the electrical basis of matter, and therefore the

aetherial basis at the same time.

In paragraph 852 of his _Experimental Researches_ Faraday writes: "The

theory of definite electro-chemical action appears to me to touch upon

the absolute quantity of electricity, or electrical power, belonging to

different bodies. Although we know nothing of what an atom is, yet we

cannot resist forming some idea of a small particle which represents it

to our mind, and though we cannot say what electricity is, so as to be

able to say whether it is a particular _matter or matters_, or mere

motion of ordinary matter, yet there is immensity of facts which justify

us in believing that the atoms of matter are in some way endowed or

associated with electrical powers to which they owe their most striking

qualities, and amongst them their chemical affinity. As soon as we

perceive, through the teaching of Dalton, that chemical powers are

(however varied the circumstances in which they are exerted) definite

for each body, we learn to estimate the relative degree of Force which

resides in such bodies; and when upon that knowledge comes the fact that

electricity, which we appear to be capable of loosening from its

habitation for a while, or conveying from place to place, whilst it

retains its chemical Force, can be measured out, and being so measured,

is found to be as definite in its action as any of those portions which,

remaining associated with the particles of matter, give them their

chemical relation, we seem to have found a link which connects the

proportion of that belonging to the particles in their natural state."

Then in paragraph 855 he writes as follows: "It seems a probable and

almost a natural consequence, that the quantity which passes is the

equivalent of, and therefore equal to, that of the particles separated,

_i. e._ that if the electrical power which holds the elements of a grain

of water in combination (or which makes a grain of oxygen and hydrogen,

in the right proportions, unite into water when they are made to

combine) could be thrown into the condition of a current, it would

exactly equal the current required for the separation of that grain of

water into its elements again."

Further, in Art. 857, he states, "I can have no doubt that, assuming

hydrogen as 1, and dismissing small fractions for the simplicity of

expression, the equivalent number or atomic weight of oxygen is 8, of

chlorine 36, of bromine 78.4, of lead 103.5, of tin 59, etc.,

notwithstanding that a very high authority doubles several of these

numbers." Then, writing upon the definite relationship of

electro-chemical equivalents, he states, Art. 835: "Electro-chemical

equivalents are always consistent; _i. e._ the same number which

represents the equivalent of a substance _A_, when it is separating from

a substance _B_, will also represent _A_ when separating from a third

substance _C_. Thus 8 is the electro-chemical equivalent of oxygen,

whether separating from hydrogen or tin or lead; and 103.5 is the

electro-chemical equivalent of lead, whether separating from oxygen or

chlorine or iodine."

So that from Faraday's experiments we learn definitely that the

electro-chemical equivalents coincide with and agree with the ordinary

chemical equivalents according to Dalton's theory. From these

experimental results of Faraday's we therefore learn that Faraday was of

the opinion that each atom had a definite and certain quantity of

electricity associated with it; and if this be true, then, in view of

the identity of Aether with electricity, it follows that each atom must

have definite and certain quantities of Aether associated with each

atom. So that through Faraday's experimental researches we are again led

to the hypothesis enunciated by Lord Kelvin in his paper "On the

Clustering of Gravitational Matter in any part of the Universe," viz.

that all matter has an aetherial, that is, an electrical basis, and that

it is by the condensation of this electricity, and combinations of the

condensational particles, that all the various elements are formed which

compose the infinite variety of forms that constitute the entire

Universe. Here, then, it seems to me, we have the evidence which gives

to the aetherial Nebular Hypothesis (Art. 121) that experimental

evidence which places that hypothesis upon a firm and philosophical

foundation, and conclusively proves that it is possible for Aether out

in the colder regions of interstellar space to be condensed into masses

of gaseous matter, which form nebulae, and other masses in the cold

regions of interplanetary space to condense and form comets and meteors.

[Footnote 45: _Aether and Matter._]

ART. 125. _Physical Constitution of Matter._--In Art. 31 we learned that

all matter was made up of minute parts called atoms. When these atoms

enter into combination with each other, they form the smallest particles

of elementary substances as well as compound bodies, these particles or

bodies being termed molecules.

A molecule, therefore, may consist of any number of atoms of the same

element, or may be formed of the union of the atoms of two different

elements. In the preceding article we have learned that the atom of

hydrogen or carbon, however, is divisible, at least theoretically if not

experimentally, as we came to the conclusion that all atoms are composed

of infinitesimal aetherial atoms, which are synonymous with atoms of

electricity.

Whether we shall ever be able to experimentally prove the existence of

such an atom remains to be seen, though Dr. Larmor states that the

atomicity of electricity is coming within the scope of direct

experiment; while the researches of Professors Crookes and J. J. Thomson

have undoubtedly given direct evidence of the existence of corpuscles,

which are part of the atoms of the various elements.

When we try to conceive, however, of the manner in which the various

elements can be formed from one primary medium, that is, the Aether or

electricity, we find it difficult to arrive at a simple physical

conception of the process involved.

We are indebted to Professor J. J. Thomson for what is practically the

only simple physical conception of the method in which various elements

may be formed from that medium, which gives unity to the whole of the

universe. In the Adams Prize Essay of 1883 Professor Thomson indicated a

theory based on the vortex atom (Art. 43) which satisfactorily accounted

for the various laws which governed gaseous matter, and also showed how

the varied chemical combinations might be physically conceived as being

produced from one primary medium.

In this theory we have to conceive of the vortex atom as possessing a

hollow core, while in our conception of an aetherial atom (Art. 43) we

conceived it as being more of a spherical or globular form than

ring-shaped. We have, then, to consider the atom of any element as being

composed of a vortex ring of various thickness, the thickness of the

ring being an indication of its atomic weight.

Each vortex ring must also be conceived as itself being composed of a

number of aetherial atoms, or atoms of electricity, the number of such

atoms being proportionate to the respective atomic weights of the

various elements. Dr. Larmor suggests that a vortex ring may have this

constitution in his work on _Aether and Matter_.

According to Professor J. J. Thomson, then, any vortex ring, which we

have supposed to be constituted of aetherial atoms, or atoms of

electricity, may unite with any other vortex ring, thus producing a

vortex ring of double density, which would possess double the

electricity of the unit vortex ring. If we united three vortex rings,

then the result would be an atom of threefold the density and strength

of the unit vortex ring.

We might conceive of four or any number of these rings uniting together

to form a separate element, and then each element would simply be a

multiple of the unit vortex ring, and so possess regular multiples of

the atoms of electricity, each multiple representing a distinct element.

We will now let Professor Thomson speak for himself on the matter, and

will describe the theory in his own words, always keeping in mind the

hypothesis that the unit vortex ring is itself composed of a definite

number of atoms of electricity or electrons, as proved by Faraday. See

_Appendix C_.

In the work already referred to, Professor Thomson states: "We may

suppose that the union or pairing in this way of two vortex rings of

different kinds is what takes place, when two elements of which these

vortex rings are atoms combine chemically; while, if the vortex rings

are of the same kind, this process is what occurs when atoms combine to

form molecules. Now let us suppose that the atoms of different chemical

elements are made up of vortex rings, all of the same strength, but that

some of these elements consist of only one ring, others of two rings

linked together, others of three loops, and so on. Then if any of these

rings combine to form a permanent combination, the strength of all the

primaries in the system so formed by the combination must be equal."

"Thus an atom of one element may combine with another atom of the same

kind, to form a molecule of that substance consisting of two atoms.

Again, three of these atoms may combine, and form a system consisting of

three primary elements, but the chance of their doing so is small

compared with the chance of two pairing; so that the number of systems

of this kind will be small compared with the number of the systems

consisting only of two atoms. We might have systems of four atoms, but

the number would be small compared with the number of systems that

consist of three atoms."

"Now, suppose that an atom of one element is to combine with an atom of

another. Suppose, to fix our ideas, that the atom consisting of two

vortex rings linked together, is to combine with an atom consisting of

one vortex ring; then, since, for the stability of connection, the

strength of all the primaries which form the components of the compound

must be equal, the atom consisting of two links must unite with

molecules containing two atoms of the one with one link. Thus the

compound formed will be the simplest combination, consisting of one of

the atoms which consist of two vortex rings linked together with two of

the atoms consisting of only one vortex ring. Similarly, if an atom

consisting of three vortex rings linked together were to combine

directly with atoms consisting of only one vortex ring, the compound

formed would consist of the three linked atoms with three of the others,

and so on for all the combinations of atoms formed by any number of

vortex rings linked together. This suggests that the elements, called by

the chemists monads, dyads, triads and so on, consist of one, two, etc.

vortex rings linked together, for then we should know that a dyad could

not combine with less than two atoms of a monad to form a stable

compound, or a triad with less than three, and so on, which is just the

definition of the terms monad, dyad, triad."

"On looking at chemical combination from this point, we expect to find

that such compounds as Hydrochloric acid, where one atom of Hydrogen has

only to meet one atom of Chlorine; or water, where one atom of Oxygen

has only to meet two atoms or a molecule of Hydrogen, would be much more

easily and quickly formed than a compound such as ammonia gas, to form

which an atom of Nitrogen has to find itself close to three atoms of

Hydrogen at once."

"It is the case, I believe, in direct combination, that simple compounds

are formed more quickly than compound ones. We might call the ratio of

the number of links in the atom of any element, to the number in the

atom of Hydrogen, the Valency of the element. Thus the compounds H-CL,

H-I, H-F, show that the atoms of Chlorine, Iodine, Fluorine have the

same number of links as the atom of Hydrogen, so that the valency of

each of these elements is unity. From the compound H_{2}O we infer that

the atom of Oxygen consists of twice as many links as the atom of

Hydrogen. The compound H_{2}S indicates that the atoms of Sulphur have

twice as many links as the atom of Hydrogen."

"The molecules CO_{2} and Marsh Gas have each three primaries

represented by C-O-O and C-H-H respectively. According to the view we

have taken, atomicity corresponds to complexity of atomic arrangement,

and the elements of high atomicity consist of more vortex rings than

those whose atomicity is low."

"Thus high atomicity corresponds to complicated atomic arrangement, and

we should expect to find the spectra of bodies of low atomicity much

simpler than those of high. This seems to be the case, for we find that

the spectra of Sodium, Potassium, Lithium, Hydrogen, Chlorine, which are

all monad elements, consist of comparatively few lines."

Here then, on the vortex theory of matter, especially when that vortex

theory is given an electric basis, as is the case in Dr. Larmor's

electron theory, we have a thinkable and logical explanation of the

physical and chemical properties of matter, by which all elements and

compounds may be formed from the primordial aetherial or electric atom.

As all Nature is composed of about seventy elements, and it has been

conclusively demonstrated that an atom of Hydrogen is the same all over

the universe, no matter whether it exists on this planet, or in some

distant star or nebula, we arrive at the conclusion that all the other

elements are exactly the same in their properties and qualities wherever

they are found. If, therefore, we couple Faraday's experiments and

results as to the electro-chemical equivalents of all atoms, with this

theory of Professor J. J. Thomson's, then we are again compelled to come

to the conclusion that the unity of the universe in all its

universality, and infinite variety of forms and modes of matter, is to

be found, and alone found, in the universal Aether, which is co-existent

and coextensive with electricity.

ART. 126. _Quod Erat Faciendum._--Before concluding this work let us

briefly review the whole of the theory submitted herein to the reader.

That which was to be done consisted primarily in ascertaining the

physical cause of Gravitation, by which would be accounted for on a

philosophical basis all the phenomena incidental to and associated with

the Law of Gravitation. Such phenomena included the physical cause of

the Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces, the physical cause of Kepler's

Laws, together with a physical conception of the application of Newton's

Laws of Motion to all solar and stellar bodies. In addition to this,

there were other outstanding problems in physics that it was premised

would receive either a partial or an entire physical explanation. It was

premised, for example, that the problem of the relative motion of Aether

and matter would be solved, that the cause of the permanent magnetism of

the earth would be revealed, and the great problem of the constitution

of matter attacked, together with the unity of the universe which arose

from that conception.

In order, however, for any theory to be philosophical in its initial

stages, the rules of some of the greatest philosophers which govern the

making of any hypotheses were briefly outlined, and were found to

resolve themselves into three divisions.

The first rule dealt with the general simplicity of Nature's mode of

working, and therefore the general simplicity which must govern our

hypotheses in perfecting any theory as to the cause of all phenomena,

gravitational or otherwise.

The second rule showed that the only sound basis from whence we could

derive all our data upon which to speculate and reason, lay in our

experience of all natural phenomena. Whatever else we might do, or not

do, it was absolutely necessary, if we wished to be perfectly

philosophical in our conclusions, that we should not traverse the direct

results of observations and experiments.

The third rule laid down was the obvious axiom, that the theory so

perfected by logical reasoning must satisfactorily account for and

explain all the phenomena sought to be explained.

Now I wish to submit the whole theory as propounded in this work in its

completion and in its entirety to the reader, and to ask him if the

Rules of Philosophy have not been adhered to throughout the whole work?

Can any theory be more simple than the one submitted in this work, by

which we have endeavoured to account for all, and even more, than was

premised in the opening chapters?

The very simplicity of the fundamental hypothesis that Aether is matter,

in all its properties and qualities, has been the chief obstacle to the

retardation of its earlier discovery.

Any proposition more simple, more easy of comprehension, is, to my mind,

difficult of conception. Why, children in our homes and schools may be

taught the truth, and grasp it in its concrete form, and that is the

highest test of the simplicity of any hypothesis.

Thus the first Rule of Philosophy is satisfied and fulfilled in the

initial hypothesis, and I venture to affirm that the same simplicity has

characterized the development of the theory throughout its entire

progress. Step by step, simple facts and simple truths which are known

to any ordinary student have been shown to have a wider and more

universal application than even the writer dreamed of, when he started

out on his voyage of discovery in philosophical research.

When we consider the second Rule of Philosophy in its application to our

theory, we find that experience, as revealed by observation and

experiment, is fulfilled to the minutest detail. The simple hypothesis

that Aether is matter, fulfils to the very fullest extent all

requirements demanded by the experience of all the scientists and

experimentalists that the world has ever known. To assert that Aether is

not matter is to assert a proposition contrary to all the accumulated

experience of the past generations. Therefore, if Aether is matter, then

its fundamental qualities must be those which belong to and are

associated with all matter, those qualities being atomicity, gravity,

density, elasticity, inertia, and compressibility.

The objector to this statement is himself violating the chief rule of

all philosophy, in that he is going contrary to the tenor and teaching

of his own experience. Then, following out the second rule step by step

we arrive at the one grand central truth, that electricity is also a

form of matter, and that all the forces of the entire universe are but

different modes of motion, different vibrations of the universal

electro-magnetic Aether; while all the varied bodies that exist are

themselves but different manifestations in a gaseous, liquid, or solid

form of the same electro-magnetic substance.

Thus, step by step, we have tried to build up a theory of the physical

cause of all phenomena, which will satisfactorily account for those

phenomena, and even for the structure of the universe itself, from the

mechanical standpoint, and by so doing have fulfilled the third Rule of

our Philosophy as enunciated by Newton and others.

So that by the conception that Aether is matter, in its primordial

state, we have more than fulfilled all that was premised should be done.

Thus the long-sought-for and long-expected cause of Gravitation,

together with the cause of the two complementary forces, is found in the

simple statement that Aether is matter, with all that is logically

included therein. Kepler's Laws and Newton's Laws of Motion also receive

a physical explanation in the same universal electro-magnetic Aether.

In addition to the solution of these problems, the transverse vibrations

of light has received for the first time a physical conception, and a

physical explanation, even admitting that that explanation may not be

perfect in detail.

The origin of the permanent magnetism of the earth has also received a

physical explanation through the motions of this same electro-magnetic

Aether, while certain theories in relation to electricity given to the

world by Ampère, Weber, Faraday, and Clerk Maxwell have found their

consummation in this atomic electro-magnetic medium.

Further, astronomical hypotheses in relation to comets and nebulae are

not untouched by the theory of a compressible and condensing atomic

Aether. Indeed, there is not a phase of natural phenomena which is not

affected in some way or other by the philosophical result arrived at

that Aether is matter in its original state. Therefore, we claim,

however imperfectly it may have been done, that not only have the Rules

of Philosophy been fulfilled, but that the theory so advanced has

accomplished more than even we in our wildest imagination hoped and

dreamed for it.

Look at the problem of the Aether how we may, the advantages of the

theory of an atomic electro-magnetic Aether far surpass and outweigh the

advantages of a frictionless medium, which in some unknown way possesses

mass and inertia, although the conception of such properties themselves

disproves the existence of such a frictionless medium.

After all, how much of this theory is there which is entirely new or

absolutely original? Age after age, men have had exactly similar dreams,

and seen similar visions. In the old Grecian days similar views were

expressed by their philosophers; and, even in the philosophy of less

civilized countries, many of the suggested hypotheses found their place

in a more or less perfect form.

Analyze the whole theory from its initial stages to the last chapter,

and we shall find, with the exception of one or two features, that every

hypothesis first had its origin in the mind of some of the greatest

thinkers and philosophers that the world has ever known.

Take several hypotheses as examples. The hypothesis that Aether is

atomic was suggested by such men as Newton, Huyghens, Descartes,

Challis, Clerk Maxwell, and others.

That Aether is gravitative has been suggested by Young, Grove, Faraday,

and Lord Kelvin. Huyghens, Fresnel, and Young postulated different

degrees of density for the Aether, while Stokes and McCullagh have

affirmed and proved different degrees of elasticity of the medium.

The inertia of the medium has received experimental evidence from

Tyndall, Maxwell, Faraday, Lodge, and others, and its compressibility

has received the adherence of men like Faraday, Maxwell, and Lord

Kelvin.

Then, when we come to deal with the causes of the forces involved in

gravitational phenomena, we find that exactly similar hypotheses in

regard to the Centrifugal Force have been postulated by Herschel,

Bredichin, M. Faye, and Lebedew; while Faraday, Gauss and others have

suggested the close relationship that exists between electrical and

gravitational phenomena.

The physical explanation of Kepler's Laws was suggested by Kepler

himself, while Huyghens, Bernoulli, Descartes, and many of their

contemporaries believed in the existence of some kind of vortices.

The unity of the universe has been a dream of philosophers for

generations past, and that dream is now crystallized in the definite

conception of an atomic universal electro-magnetic medium, while the

electrical basis of matter receives the support of such men as Crookes,

J. J. Thomson, Larmor and Vogt.

Thus we learn that all the dreams and thoughts, all the hypotheses and

postulates of old-world as well as present-day philosophers find their

consummation and ultimate realization in one universal, atomic,

electro-magnetic medium.

If this fact does not stamp the theory with that authority which is

undeniably associated with the names of some of the scientists quoted,

then all the greatest men in the scientific world have lived and toiled,

thought and dreamed in vain, while the priceless gems of their

imagination and research are treated as worthless and valueless.

Again, what shall we say of the discoveries of to-day?

What is the key to the greatest scientific discovery of modern times,

viz. wireless or aetherial telegraphy, which is girdling the earth with

its mysterious communications? Is not the key to that discovery to be

found in this universal electro-magnetic medium?

Whence come the X-rays, Rontgen rays, and other light rays with their

adaptability to human suffering, if they come not from this same

electro-magnetic medium? their adaptability to human suffering being

dependent upon the intimate and close relationship that exists between

the physical body and the electro-magnetic medium.

Where is the key to the principle underlying the gramophone, the

phonograph and the telephone, if it be not in this self-same atomic and

easily impressible medium?

Nay! let us go further, and ask ourselves where is the key to be found

for the many marvellous effects of so-called spirit phenomena? Who can

read F. W. Myer's _Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death_,

and not feel that we are standing on the threshold of the unseen world?

Already men are asking themselves the meaning of the strange sensations

which they receive from unseen sources; already men's spirits are

vibrating in unison with vibrations that come from the unseen world; and

to-day we see spiritual phenomena as through a glass darkly, and the

question arises, what is the medium of all this communication, of all

these vibrations?

Is there no medium at all which forms the medium of communication? To

assert that would be to assert something opposed to all experience and

therefore would be unphilosophical.

May not then the theory of an atomic universal electro-magnetic medium

help us on in our groping and searching after light in this direction?

Who will uplift the veil? Already we peer almost into the spirit world.

A little more light, a little more truth, and then there will burst

forth upon the hearts and minds of men the grandest and most glorious

truth that Nature can reveal of her Creator, and then men shall come to

know and understand the place that God holds in the Universe, such truth

being advanced on its way by an atomic, universal electro-magnetic

Aether which is as truly matter as our own bodies.

ART. 127. _God and the Universe._--To the superficial reader it may

appear at first sight, that the theory of the Aether suggested in this

work leaves no place in the Universe for the operations and existence of

an Infinite and living Spirit, a God. It may be objected, that if all

matter and all modes of motion find their physical origin in one common

and primordial medium, the electro-magnetic Aether, where is the

necessity for the existence of an Eternal and Infinite Spirit?

At first sight there appears some force in the objection, but it loses

its point when we come to view the Universe from the standpoint of

spirit phenomena. The purpose of the writer in this work has been to

deal with natural phenomena only, purely from the philosophical and

scientific standpoint. Spirit phenomena (which is equally as real and

obvious as natural phenomena) have no part or place in a work which

deals with scientific facts and data, but demand and will receive in a

future work equal consideration and philosophic treatment. A man must

indeed be lacking in vision who cannot see behind all things the

evidence of a richer and fuller truth than that which merely lies on the

surface, or who fails to read and learn the greatest truth that circles

the Universe in its ultimate unity, which indisputably points to the

existence of an Eternal and ever-living Spirit, a God. I affirm that

there is no scientific truth, even including the law of the conservation

of matter and motion, which has been enunciated in this work, but what

is reconcilable with the existence of an Eternal and Infinite Spirit;

and although such a statement may seem a paradox, yet I am convinced

that before many more years have passed, the reconciliation of natural

with spiritual phenomena will be an accomplished fact. The fool to-day

may say in his heart, there is no God, but ere long not only religion,

but Science herself, shall expose his lack of wisdom and his folly.

For all things derive their existence primarily, with all the energies

and powers they possess, from God. Look where we will, or at what we

will, from the smallest atom or molecule up to the most stupendous

world, or myriads of worlds that roll and sparkle in the blue infinity,

in each and all we see the indisputable evidence of the existence of a

mysterious spirit, or power, that controls and governs them. A spirit or

power that we cannot see, but which is so indisputably evidenced that

its existence cannot be denied. For example, we see forms of many kinds,

some of which are simple entities of themselves, while others are

complex and made up of many parts, but while each part is inseparably

connected with the other, yet each part is itself distinct from the

others in nature and substance. The whole combined forms a complete

mechanism or organism, and, like all mechanisms of human make, not only

needs a controlling and governing power, but also evidences a maker.

Even the laws of Nature and modes of motion, whether it be heat, light,

electricity, or magnetism, are, however, unable of themselves to control

the mechanism, and therefore prove themselves to be but the servants of

an infinite Intelligence, a GOD.

Thus, behind and beyond all we see, in every living form, there is the

evidence of a hidden spirit, which is the governing and controlling and

sustaining power, and without which the organism ceases to be an

organism. A spirit which animates the mechanism, and uses its activities

and powers as it wills for its own purposes and ends. This spirit or

power we call its life, which gives to the form its existence, together

with all that it possesses, as its powers, activities, energies and

productions, for all are but the effects of the hidden life. If this

mysterious something, termed its life, becomes in any way separated from

the mechanism or organism, then as a distinct and separate organism it

ceases to be; and though the mechanism may still exist for a time, yet

all its powers are gone, while the organism, robbed of its very life,

begins slowly to decay.

We cannot see this power; we cannot find it We may search for it, rend

and tear part from part, only to find that it baffles all our skill, and

laughs at our endeavours to discover the secret of its existence. We

know that it is there, just as truly as we know that in these forms of

ours, these living stoves, these perfect mechanisms called our bodies,

there exists and dwells a spirit, a living, conscious, self-acting and

controlling power. A spirit which we know is not the mechanism itself,

and which by experience and observation we know to be distinct from the

organism. It is this mysterious spirit which controls and governs all

our acts, that rules and reigns as king of our bodies, and makes the

physical mechanism, with all its wondrous parts, obey and do its

bidding. That this is so, that the spirit is distinct from the body, and

is the controlling and governing principle within us, is evident in a

thousand ways. If, however, that spirit departs from the mechanism of

our bodies, then the controlling and governing influence is gone; and

the mechanism, robbed of its life, ceases to work, ceases to fulfil its

functions, and ceases to exist in that particular form.

Just as it is with ourselves, so it is with the Universe. For look where

we will, from the smallest atom to the great aggregation of atoms, as

our earth, or even to the more stupendous orbs of heaven, the working of

a secret and mysterious power or spirit meets our gaze. A spirit or

power that is not the form or the mechanism, but is separate and

distinct from the mechanism, while at the same time it is inseparably

connected with each and all. For everything that we see, from an atom to

the Universe itself, is a perfect mechanism, or complexity of

mechanisms. The entire Universe is one vast, intricate, and elaborate

piece of mechanism, beginning with the simple aetherial atom, ranging

through all the atomic systems, graduating by successive steps through

compound substances, which, in their aggregations, form meteors,

satellites, planets, suns, and stars; until the ultimate whole is

reached, where everything is blended into one vast whole; a perfect,

infinite, complex mechanism, a Universe.

Now if philosophy teaches anything at all regarding mechanisms of human

invention, it indisputably teaches that every machine or mechanism that

has ever been made, implies the existence of a maker, and that the maker

possessed intelligent attributes, as reason, judgment, perception, and

imagination. For example, stand before some elaborate machine of human

invention, as a lace machine, and watch the working of that machine in

all its details. It is composed of many parts, each of which is perfect

in itself. Each part may be distinct in nature and purpose, yet each and

all are inseparably and unitedly connected with each other, and all work

harmoniously together for the accomplishment of a definite and specific

end, that is, the production of a lace curtain of exquisite design and

pattern. As we watch the machine and its workings, we see therein the

evidence of the existence of a spirit or power that gave it its birth. A

spirit or mind that made and formed the machine, that constituted,

arranged, and gave it its governing and controlling power; fitted and

ordered every part, gave to each part its allotted task, and moulded all

to the harmonious fulfilment of the definite end and purpose he had in

view.

Thus in the machine we see evidence of contrivance and design, of method

and arrangement, of conception, perception and judgment, which are all

the effects and outflowings of intelligence which belong, and alone

belong, to mind; and therefore we say, "The machine was made, and there

was and must have been a maker." So universally is this fact accepted,

that any one who seriously challenged the statement, or dared to deny

it, would be at once pitied as insane or laughed at as a fool. Thus all

experience proves, and philosophy testifies, that wherever we get a

machine or mechanism of any kind or sort, there must have been a living,

conscious being or person, who is distinct from and outside of the

machine. He made it, and therefore must have existed before it, in order

to make it. Wherever, therefore, we find a mechanism that bears the

marks of intelligence and design, of judgment, perception and

conception, it is only logical and philosophical to infer, that such a

mechanism equally evidences the existence of an intelligent being. The

more intricate and elaborate the mechanism, the greater the ingenuity

displayed, the more complex and perfect the design, the more harmonious

the working, the greater will be the wisdom, the more profound the

judgment, the keener the perception, the more perfect the understanding,

and the vaster, nobler, and more sublime the order of Being who

originated and made it. This being so, according to philosophical

reasoning, let us glance at the Universe in all its fulness and oneness,

and we shall see the indisputable evidence of the existence of an

Infinite Being, who made, controls and governs the infinite Universe.

In the atomic world we get an illustration of the perfect mechanism that

underlies all atomic systems. Our conception of an aetherial atom was

based upon the analogy of our own planet, and there is every reason to

believe that the little world in which all atoms live and move and have

their being, is analogous to a planetary or solar system, in which we

find the two essentials of matter and motion ever associated together,

to form a larger and more complete mechanism. For atoms are not simply

mere points; they possess real dimensions, with a determinate and fixed

form, differing in their relative weights, and in the amount of motion

or force with which each is endowed. The very fact that they possess

atomic weights which are unalterable throughout the long periods of time

that mark the history of the Universe, and that they combine in definite

and fixed proportions, indisputably evidence the fact that they but do

the bidding of an Eternal and Infinite Spirit, a God. Thus each

molecule, or atomic system forms a perfect mechanism in itself, with its

own centre of gravity, and subject to the same laws of repulsion and

attraction, or pressures and tensions--due to the vibrations and motions

of the universal electro-magnetic Aether.

In each of the planetary systems we get an illustration of the same

perfect mechanism, which is indicative of all systems whether large or

small; each system being characterised by the same beauty of order and

harmony of motion which are equally characteristic of atomic systems.

Our own solar system, composed as it is of many parts, of thousands of

meteors and comets, of numbers of satellites and planets, all revolving

around one common centre, also forms a complete and perfect mechanism in

itself. For millions and millions of years this perfect mechanism has

been harmoniously working together in all its parts, as it moves in all

its unity through the realms of infinite space. Yet through all the

unknown ages of the past, such a phenomenon as disorder in the working

of any part of the system is inconceivable and unknown. Out in stellar

space there are, however, innumerable systems, similar to our own solar

system, each distinct and perfect in itself; each being made up of

similar parts, as meteors, comets, satellites, planets, and central sun.

These systems are, however, united together into one vast aggregation of

worlds, having one common controlling centre of their own, and by their

unity form a constellation, a larger and grander mechanism. Throughout

the whole constellation there is the same order, and harmonious working

of part with part, that characterise the solar system. Then these

constellations increasing in their aggregations form a still larger

complexity of systems, called a Galaxy; and galaxy being added to

galaxy, constellation to constellation, there is formed by such union,

an ocean of suns and stars like our own Milky Way, the ultimate whole

being characterised by the same mechanical order and harmonious working

that characterise the solar system. It may even be, that there are

numbers of these oceans of suns and stars existing in infinite space,

all bound together by one common bond, the universal electro-magnetic

Aether, and forming one vast ultimate whole, a Universe; with all its

oceans of suns moving around one central Orb or mass of Orbs called the

Throne of GOD.

Thus the whole Universe is a mechanism, complete and perfect in every

detail, and forming a system, so great, so grand, so sublime, so

magnificent that it puts all mechanisms of human origin to shame and

scorn. Now, if a mechanism of human invention evidences the existence of

intelligence and mind, and proves itself to be the production of a

living, sentient, conscious, and intelligent being, how much more,

incomparably more, does the Universe with its infinite complexity

evidence a Maker also; and that Maker must be as infinitely greater in

wisdom, knowledge, perception and judgment as the Universe is infinitely

greater in mechanical perfection than any mechanism of human origin.

The Universe is God's teaching in symbol and in type. It is His great

picture-book, where in living form He has portrayed Himself, and all

that belongs to Him--His nature, character, wisdom; His greatness,

glory, and His power. The Universe is a temple, where He sits enshrined

in the things His own hands have made, and where those who have eyes to

see, and hearts to learn and understand, may adore and worship Him.

Thus is it true that "the heavens declare the glory of God," _i. e._ the

character of God, His infinite wisdom, His infinite knowledge, His

profound judgment, and His eternal righteousness; while the firmament

showeth His handiwork. "Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto

night showeth (His) knowledge."

"The Lord by wisdom hath founded the earth, by understanding hath He

established the heavens."

"He hath made the earth by His power. He hath established the world by

His wisdom, and hath stretched out the heavens by His discretion."

"Thou, Lord, in the beginning hast laid the foundations of the earth,

and the heavens are the work of Thy hands; they shall perish, but Thou

remainest; and they all shall wax old, as doth a garment; and as a

vesture shalt Thou fold them up, and they shall be changed; but Thou art

the same, and Thy years shall not fail."

To prove the validity of these statements from a scientific and

philosophic standpoint, and to show the harmony that exists between the

natural and the Divine revelation as given in the Word of God, will form

the subject of a future work.

APPENDIX A

According to Sir Oliver Lodge the fact that electricity possesses mass

or inertia has now passed out of the hypothetical stage into the realm

of fact and experiment. In his Romanes Lecture recently published, he

states, page 4: "My first thesis is that an electric charge possesses

the most fundamental and characteristic property of matter, viz. mass or

inertia; so that if any one were to speak of a milligramme or an ounce

or a ton of electricity, though he would certainly be speaking

inconveniently, he might not necessarily be speaking erroneously."

Now in view of the identity that exists between Aether and electricity,

as proved by Hertz' experiments, the only logical conclusion that can be

arrived at is, that Aether must also possess mass and inertia. So that

the most recent experiments in relation to electricity confirm the

theory of the Aether presented in this work, viz. that it also possesses

mass and inertia, otherwise we should have a massless medium being

composed of electrons which possess mass, and that would be a violation

of all experience, and therefore an unphilosophical statement.

APPENDIX B

The hypothesis of electricity being the fundamental basis of all matter

made in the last chapter on the "Unity of the Universe," receives

confirmation from Sir Oliver Lodge in his _Modern Views of Matter_,

where he writes, page 13: "The fundamental ingredient of which, in this

view, the whole of matter is made up, is nothing more or less than

electricity, in the form of an aggregate of an equal number of positive

and negative electric charges. This, when established, will be a

unification of matter such as has through all the ages been sought; it

goes further than had been hoped, for the substratum is not an unknown

and hypothetical protile, but the familiar electric charge."

APPENDIX C

The hypothesis that all elements have definite quantities of electricity

in them, or a definite number of electrons, as suggested on page 335,

receives added weight by the testimony of Sir Oliver Lodge in the work

already referred to. Writing on the subject, he says: "It is a

fascinating guess that the electrons constitute the fundamental

substratum of which all matter is composed. That a grouping of say 700

electrons, 350 positive and 350 negative, interleaved or interlocked in

a state of violent motion so as to produce a stable configuration under

the influence of their centrifugal inertia and their electric forces,

constitutes an atom of hydrogen. That sixteen times as many, in another

stable grouping, constitute an atom of oxygen. That some 16,000 of them

go to form an atom of sodium; about 100,000 an atom of barium; and

160,000 an atom of radium."

From these extracts, taken from _Modern Views of Matter_, the author

claims that the theory of the Aether presented to the reader in _Aether

and Gravitation_ receives added confirmation and support.

* * * * *

ERRATA

The author regrets that Professor J. J. Thomson's name has been

incorrectly spelled in several places.

INDEX

Aberration of light, 69, 149, 218

Absorption, 104-6

Acceleration, 239

Actinic rays, 141

Action at a distance, 96, 174, 176

and re-action, 20, 251

Adams' discovery of Neptune, 25

Aether is matter, 54-8

is atomic, 59-67

is gravitative, 64-9

density of, 69, 71, 136, 243

elasticity of, 74-7

inertia of, 76, 330

its motions, 80

compressibility of, 291, 315

waves, 79-80

Aetherial basis of matter, 326

Affinity, chemical, 43

Aldebaran, 312

Aluminium, 79

Ampère, 192

Ampère's theory of magnetism, 193

Andromeda, 314

Annual magnetic variation, 208

Annular nebulae, 320

Aphelion of earth, 36

Arago, M., 321

Arcturus, 312

Areas, Kepler's law of, 36

Asten, Von, 234, 296

Asteroids, 31

Atmosphere, 68, 73, 102, 225

Atom, vortex, 45, 46, 61

what it is, 43

electron, 63

Boscovitch, 61

hard, 61

size of, 43

Attraction, electrical, 2, 286

of gravitation, 13, 24, 31

magnetic, 195

Balance, Torsion, 187

Bernoulli, 221, 341

Beta Persei, 308

Biela's comet, 296-7

Binary compound, 143

stars, 25, 309

Biot, 138

Boscovitch atoms, 44, 138

Boyle and Marriotte's law, 76, 103

Bradley's discovery of aberration, 149

Bredichin on comets' tails, 302

Brilliancy of stars, 307, 309

British Association Report, 57, 59

Calcium, 79

Canis major, 307

minor, 307

Capella, 312

Carbon, 48

Carboniferous period, 115

Carnot on heat, 116-18

Cassini, 307

Cause and effect, 14

of gravitation, 1, 282-9

Cavendish experiment, 24

Centauri, 79

Centre of gravity, 325

Centrifugal force, 9, 13, 15, 30, 236-8

Centripetal force, 9, 12, 282

Cetus, 307

Chalk, 6

Challis, Prof., 74, 96, 100, 107, 151, 155,

214, 227, 311

Chemistry, 47, 336

Coal, 86, 88

Clairaut, 297

Clusters of stars, 314

Cohesion, 48

Colour, 138

Colours of stars, 308

seven primary, 139

Comets, 291

attracted by planets, 298

condensation of, 292

Comets and meteors, 297

short period, 293-4

long period, 293-4

tails of, 298-9

orbits of, 293

nucleus of, 298-9

coma, 298-9

Compressibility of aether, 291, 315

Condensation of gases, 47

Conservation of matter, 42

of energy, 84

of motion, 92

Constellations, 307

Corollary, 15

Corona Borealis, 309

Corpuscles, 42, 64, 136

Corpuscular theory of light, 122

Correlation of forces, 83

Coulomb Torsion balance, 185, 187

Crookes, Sir William, 42, 136, 326, 341

Current, electric, 163

magnetic, 192

Currents, 90

Curry, Prof., 284

Cycle of operations, 114, 116

Cygnus, 307

Dalton's atomic theory, 42

Davy, 99, 107

Day and night, 4

D'Arrest's comet, 296

Deimos, 38

Democritus, 44

Density of matter, 51

of aether, 69

electric, 170

of earth, 242

of sun, 27

of planets, 242

Descartes, 221-2, 341

Dewar, Prof., 47

Diameter of earth, 29

polar, 29

equatorial, 29

of sun, 280

of planets, 29

Dielectric, 168, 175

Diffusion, 49

Dip, magnetic, 199

Distances of stars, 280

Diurnal variations, magnetic, 209

Dog star (Sirius), 306

Donati's comet, 298

Double stars, 308

Draco, 307

Dynamical equivalent of heat, 114

value of light, 150

Dynamics, laws of thermo-, 114-18

Dynamo, 87, 90

Ear, 120

Earth, mass of, 235, 242

a magnet, 196-8

size of, 29

rotation of, 219

orbit of, 276

periodic time of, 251

gravity of, 29

shape of, 29

distance from sun, 242, 251

velocity in orbit, 251

Eccentricity of orbits, 268, 276

Eclipse, 145, 148

Ecliptic, plane of, 277-9

Elasticity, 46

of matter, 51

of aether, 74

Electric current, 154

potential, 170

induction, 175

radiation, 182

density, 170

energy, 179

field, 166, 179

lines of force, 173

Electricity, 64, 162

two kinds of, 175

positive, 175

negative, 175

laws of, 184

theories of, 162

Electrons, 136, 163

Electro-static, 158, 164

kinetic, 158, 164

kinetic energy, 217

magnetism, 192-5

magnets, 199

magnetic theory of light, 229

chemical equivalents, 189, 333

Elements of matter, 47

Ellipse, 34

Kepler's discovery of, 34

Elliptical nebulae, 320

Emission theory of light, 122

Encke's comet, 293, 296

resisting medium, 228

Energy, 83, 84

what it is, 83

conservation of, 84

transformation of, 86

potential, 87

kinetic, 89, 164

radiant, 109

electrical, 179

and motion, 91

Engine, Carnot's heat, 116

Envelopes of comets, 298

Epicureans, 44

Equal areas, 36

times, 36

Equator, N. and S. Poles, 29

magnetic, 202

terrestrial, 29

Equipotential surfaces, 171

Equivalents, electro-chemical, 189, 333

Euler, 123

Exchanges, theory of, 105

Experience, 4

Experiments of Rumford, 98

of Michelson and Morley, 67, 227

of Lebedew, 302

of Nichols and Hull, 153

of Hertz, 165

of Faraday, 65, 285

of M. Faye, 302

of Joule, 114

Falling stone, 21, 29

Faraday, 45, 175, 220

on matter, 56

on Lines of Force, 168, 200, 203-5

on magnetic space, 208

on gravitation, 287

on electricity, 332

on induction, 176

Faye, M., 111, 302, 319

Faye's comet, 293, 296

Field, electric, 179

magnetic, 199

Fizeau, 149, 224

Fluids, 48

Food, 89

Forbes, 121

Force, 16, 19, 90

centrifugal, 9, 13, 236

centripetal, 9, 12, 282

lines of, 200

Forces, direction of the, 26

proportion of the, 26

Foucault, 149

Franklin, 106

Fresnel, 75, 131

Frictionless medium, 17, 131, 136, 224

Fundamental medium, 54

Galaxy, 325, 346

Gaseous nebulae, 313

Gases, condensation of, 47

liquefaction of, 47

kinetic theory of, 49

Glazebrook, Prof., on aether and gravitation, 22

Globular clusters of stars, 314

Gravitation, law of, 61, 65

universal, 24

intensity of, 27

law of proportion, 26

cause of, 1, 282

and binary stars, 25

Gravity, centre of, 325

Great Bear, 307

Grove, 83

Halley's comet, 296-7

Hamilton, Sir W. R., 247

Head of comets, 298

Heat is motion, 98

a mode of motion, 107

radiant, 109

dynamical equivalent of, 116

effects of, 107

nature of, 98

radiation of, 109

transformation of, 87

Heat engine, Carnot's, 116

of sun, 109

and matter, 100

and work, 114

refraction of, 121

Helmholtz, Von, 45, 86

Hercules, 257, 271, 307

Herschel, Sir J., 3, 4, 7, 226, 228, 281, 299, 301, 310, 321

Sir W., 109, 271-2, 313

Hertz, 138, 159, 182

Hicks, Prof., 13

Hodograph of planets, 247

Hot springs, 90

Huggins, 313-14

Huyghens, 54, 123, 125, 128

Hydrogen, 40, 42, 44, 60, 93, 314, 333

Hypotheses, 3, 338

Ice, 42

Identity of heat and light, 119

light and electricity, 156, 160, 165

aether and electricity, 331

Imponderable, 71

Impressed force, 20

Impressible aether, 78

Induction, electric, 174-5

magnetic, 199

Faraday's theory of, 175

Inertia of matter, 52

of aether, 330

Intensity of light, 28, 146

of heat, 28, 113

of electricity, 184

of gravity, 28

Iron, 42

expansion by heat, 101

contraction by cold, 102

Joule, 85, 114

Jupiter, 26, 68

mass of, 235

satellites of, 149, 178

rotation of, 219

orbital velocity of, 251, 265

size of, 235

distance from sun, 242, 251

density of, 242

and comets, 305

Kant, 317

Kelvin, Lord, 43, 71, 77, 80, 95, 216, 227

on aether, 56-7

on vortex atom, 63

on compressible aether, 291, 315

on light, 151

Kepler's laws, 32

first, 33, 256-9

second, 36, 260-2

third, 37, 263-5

on vortex motion, 221-2

Kinetic energy, 89

electro, 217

Kirchhoff, 43

Laplace, 317

nebular hypothesis, 317

Larmor, Dr., 22, 44, 56, 63, 93, 163

on electrons, 284

on aetherial physics, 22, 327-9

Lavoisier, 42

Law of gravitation, 24

of inverse squares, 27

Laws of electricity, 184

of light, 145

of heat, 113

of motion, 9, 15, 233

Lead, 88, 333

Lebedew, 32, 76, 153

Le Verrier, 25

discovery of Neptune, 25

Leyden jar, 157

Liebnitz, 223

Light, 75

a mode of motion, 122

corpuscular theory of, 123

undulatory theory of, 123, 136

electro-magnetic theory of, 156

path of a ray of, 144

intensity of, 145

reflection of, 136

refraction of, 135

aberration of, 149

composition of, 139

velocity of, 148

zodiacal, 277

transverse vibration of, 130

Lines of force, electric, 173

magnetic, 201-3

Liquefaction of gases, 47

Liquid air, 47

Liquids, 48

Little Bear, 307

Dog, 307

Lockyer, 109

Lodge, Dr., 219

on aether density, 69

on aether, 284, 289, 328, 332

on electric inertia, 330

on electricity, 64, 69, 284, 285

on force, 17

on gravitation, 283

Lorentz on light, 154

Lyra, 307

MacLaurin, 2, 10, 17

Magnesium, 79

Magnet, 21

Magnets, bar, 199

moving, 211

Magnetic axis, 202

field, 199

lines of force, 200

shells, 205

equator, 202

induction, 199

variation, 208

molecules of, 193

polarity, 194

Magnetism of earth, 207-12

of planets, 211

cause of solar, 211

Ampère's theory of, 193

Mars, 68, 79

a magnet, 196

rotation of, 219

size of, 236

orbital velocity of, 251

satellites of, 178

orbit of, 33

Mass, 27, 53, 187

of earth, 235, 242

of planets, 235, 242

of sun, 190

Matter, elements of, 40

properties of, 42, 50

and motion, 41, 322

conservation of, 42

divisibility of, 44

four states of, 48

aetherial basis of, 48, 333

physical constitution of, 334

Maxwell, J. C., 43, 73, 85, 151, 211

on physical lines of force, 168, 203-5, 288

on aether, 59, 206

on magnetism, 205

on electro-kinetic energy, 180, 217

on aether, 58

Mayer, 84, 86, 114, 118

McCullagh, 75

Mechanical energy, 87

Medium, Descartes on a, 221

Kepler on a, 222

Mercury, 68, 79

a magnet, 196

rotation of, 219

eccentricity of orbit, 33

mass of, 242

orbital velocity of, 251

Meteorites, 95, 118

Meteors, 31, 85, 118

Michelson and Morley, 7, 67

Milky way, 79, 309, 314

Molecules, 44

Momentum, 20

Moon, 61

Motion of stars, 310

planetary, 253

of sun, 274

of aether, 80

and work, 95

modes of, 92, 122, 163

first law of, 15, 16, 239

second law of, 19, 244

third law of, 20, 251

Multiple stars, 308

Natural philosophy, 4

Nebulae and aether, 313

structure of, 314

spiral, 322

annular, 320

elliptical, 320

planetary, 321

spectrum of, 314

irregular, 319

Nebular hypothesis, 317

Nebulous stars, 311

Neptune, 68

discovery of, 25

mass of, 235

orbital velocity of, 251, 265

distance from sun, 242

a magnet, 196

Newton's coloured rings, 107

_Optics_,72, 98, 122

letter to Bentley, 2, 96

Rules of Philosophy, 3

_Principia_, 3, 7, 38

emission theory, 123

law of gravitation, 24

atoms, 44

on aether, 98

Nichols and Hull, 32, 153

Ocean, 81, 90

Operations, cycle of, 114

_Optics_, Newton's, 2, 122

Orbital motions of planets, 266

Orbit of earth, 33

of Venus, 33

Orbits of satellites, 34

of planets, 33-4, 266

moon, 267

stars, 310

sun, 270

Origin of sun's heat, 95

Orion, 79, 307, 314, 319

Oxygen, 40, 44, 60, 93

Parallelogram of forces, 15

Pendulum, 88

Periodic times, 37

Perpetual motion, 93, 220

_Phil. Mag._, 58, 67, 71, 73, 74, 80

_Phil. Trans._, 58, 62, 64, 75

Philosophy, Rules of, 3

Phobos, 38

Physical lines of force, 203-6

Pitch of Sound, 105, 120, 139

Plane of ecliptic, 277-9

Planetoids, 31

Planets, minor, 31

origin of, 240

orbits of, 33, 266

electrified bodies, 177

masses of, 242

relative distances of, 242

orbital velocities of, 251

periodic times of, 251

Platinum, 48

Pleiades, 79

Polarization, 176

Potential energy, 87

Potential, electric, 170

magnetic, 194

Pouillet, M., 109

Poynting, 91

Pressure, aetherial, 181

Preston, Prof., 283

Prevost, theory of exchanges, 105

Primitive impulse, 9, 10, 12, 319

_Principia_, Newton's, 3, 7, 38-9, 122

Properties of matter, 42

Quantity of sun's heat, 109

Query, 18-19

_Optics_, 72, 122

Radiant heat, 109

energy, 115

Radiation, 104

Radius Vector, 26

Rankine, 103

Rays, actinic, 141

dark heat, 140

infra-red, 141

ultra-violet, 140

Rontgen, 341

X, 341

Rectilinear propagation of light, 144

of heat, 111

Reflection, 160

Refraction, 160

Relative motion of aether and matter, 224-6

Resistance to motion, 17

Resisting medium, 228

Reversible cycle, 116, 118

Rings, vortex, 45

Rival theories, 8

Rivers, 89-90

Roemer, and velocity of light, 148

Rotation of earth, 219

of planets, 219

of sun, 246

Rotatory motion, 93

Rucker, Prof., 59

Rules of Philosophy, 3

first, 3

second, 4

third, 3, 7

Rumford, 98

Running water, 95

Satellites of Mars, 38, 178

Jupiter, 149, 178

Uranus, 254

Neptune, 254

Saturn, 26-7, 68

mass of, 235, 242

orbital velocity of, 251, 265

rotation of, 219

density of, 242

a magnet, 196

satellites of, 178

Schuster, Prof., 8, 218, 311

Sirius, 306, 308-9

Sodium, 43

Solar system, motion of, 257, 271

spectrum, 79, 139

magnetism, 211

Sound, 75

waves, 104, 120

Space, interstellar, 310, 313

Spectroscope, 47, 79

Spectrum analysis, 50, 139

Spiral nebulae, 322

Stars, fixed, 58

number of, 11, 306

binary, 309

distances of, 280

magnitude of, 306, 309

colour of, 79, 308

motion of, 310-11

nebulous, 320

proper motions of, 312

variable, 307

double, 308

clusters of, 314

orbits of, 310

are magnets, 307

Stokes, Sir G., 69, 152, 218

String, 21

Sun, diameter of, 280

constitution of, 79

a magnet, 164, 198-9

mass of, 190

heat of, 109

motions of, 270

orbital velocity of, 35

rotation of, 246

centre of two forces, 186

Tails of comets, 300, 304

straight, 300

curved, 301

multiple, 300

Tait, Prof., 18, 40-1, 88, 247

Telescope, 79

Temperature, 104-5

Terrestrial magnetism, 207-12

gravity, 29

Theory, atomic, 44

rules for making, 3

undulatory, 123

of exchanges, 105

Thermodynamics, first law of, 87, 114

second law of, 116

Thomson, J. J., Prof., 43, 326, 335

Tidal water-power, 88

Tides, 89, 96

Torsion balance, 185

Trade winds, 96, 249

Transformation of energy, 86

of motion, 93

Transverse vibration of light, 130

Tuning-fork, 104

Tympanum, 120

Tyndall on radiation, 104, 106

on light, 71

on Lines of Force, 174

on aether, 77

on atoms, 106

on aether waves, 112

Ultra-violet rays, 140

red rays, 140

Unity of universe, 322-9

Universal gravitation, 24

aether, 58

Universe, 313, 322, 347

Uranus, 68

mass of, 235

density of, 242

orbital velocity of, 265

a magnet, 196

Ursa Major, 307

Minor, 307

Vapour, 49

Variation, magnetic, 209-11

Velocity of light, 148

of electric waves, 182

of heat waves, 148

of falling bodies, 21

of wave motion, 76

Velocity, angular, 250

Venus, 33, 68, 79

a magnet, 197

mass of, 235

rotation of, 219

orbital velocity of, 251

periodic time of, 251

Vibration, atomic, 75

Vibrations, transverse, 130

longitudinal, 130

of sound, 123

Vibratory motion, 91

Vogel, Prof., 308, 312

Vogt, Prof., 332

Volume of sun, 27

Von Asten, 234, 296

Vortex theory, 92, 337

motion, 221-4

atom, 93, 126, 337

rings, 125, 337

Vortices, molecular, 103

Water waves, 124

currents, power of, 95

composition of, 141

power, 88

Wave front, 128

motion, 124, 160

Wave lengths, 120

envelope, 112

Waves, chemical, 141

sound, 104, 120, 124

light, 126

heat, 141

electric, 159

spherical, 112

electro-magnetic, 165

Weight, 29, 69, 84

variation of, 29

pound, 30

Whewell, 3, 221

Winds, 81, 90

energy of, 90

trade, 225

Work, 96

and energy, 84

from heat, 116

Young, Thomas, 54, 64, 67, 123

on aether, 58

fourth hypothesis, 70

Prof., of America, on electric space, 166

Zinc, 88

Zodiacal light, 277-9

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IZAAK WALTON AND HIS FRIENDS. By STAPLETON MARTIN, M.A., Christ's

College, Cambridge, Barrister-at-Law. With Portraits and Illustrations.

Demy 8vo, _10s. 6d. net_.

Mr. Stapleton Martin has written this book with the primary object of

bringing out the spiritual side of Walton's character. He traces

carefully the inner workings of Walton's mind, and aims at setting forth

the man as he was best known to the circle of intimates with whom he

shared his confidences.

The better to indicate this aspect, the volume also contains brief

biographical sketches of Walton's: poet and ecclesiastic friends,

together with a fine collection of portraits and illustrations of places

connected with Walton's life. There is also a selection from the

poetical works of Walton, Cotton, Donne, Herbert, Wotton, Duport.

LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LTD.

* * * * *

Transcriber's note:

ART. 41 is missing from the book.

In several instances changed S, W, E into italics to be

consistent with the rest of the book.

Page 194: Fixed typographical error for demonstated

Changed Figure captions so that all are of the form

"Fig: number."

Left unknown/misspelled word protile in appendix b

Page 148: ... and the Index, The surname of Ole Christensen

Rømer is spelled multiple times Roemer and once as Römer in

the index. Changed Römer to the English spelling "Roemer."