AETHER IS MATTER
ART. 42. _Aether is Matter._--The hypothesis of an Aether which fills
all space was made in order that scientists might be able to account for
certain phenomena of Light, which otherwise were difficult to account
for. Its existence is demanded not only for the phenomena of Light, and
Heat, but, in view of the comparatively recent researches of Hertz on
"Electric Waves," of Electricity also.
The Aetherial Medium is generally assumed to be that fundamental medium,
by means of which possibly all the properties of matter, and all the
phenomena of motion of the universe are to be explained. Light and Heat
have been proved to be due to the periodic wave-motion of this universal
Aether, while from the investigations and researches of such men as
Clerk Maxwell, Poynting, Thompson and Hertz, it has been proved that
electro-magnetic phenomena are due to this same medium.
Several different forms of Aether have been postulated by various
philosophers from time to time, but the only Aether that has survived,
is that which was first conceived by Huyghens to explain the phenomena
of Light, though it was Thomas Young who finally succeeded in placing
the conception of the Aether on a sound basis. Each discovery of science
has only strengthened the hypothesis and existence of the Aether, the
latest discovery, that of wireless telegraphy so successfully developed
by Signor Marconi, being attributed to the electro-magnetic properties
of this self-same Aether.
It has already been pointed out that Newton endeavoured to account for
Gravitation by the pressure of the Aether. If, therefore, Gravitation be
really due to this universal medium it becomes necessary to ask
ourselves, What are the properties and characteristic qualities of this
wonderful medium? What then is Aether, and what its properties?
It has already been pointed out in Art. 29 that Aether is matter. Such
an assumption is strictly in accordance with the Rules of Philosophy,
quoted in Chap. I.
Not only is this hypothesis a simple one, but it is also in accord with
all our experience and observation.
It is a simple supposition, because, unless Aether is assumed to be
matter, then, instead of the universe being composed of two classes of
things, matter and motion, we have to add a third class, which we call
Aether. It can be readily seen, that by the introduction of a third
class into the composition of the universe, such an addition, instead of
simplifying the constitution of the universe, adds greater complexity to
the same.
By accepting the hypothesis that Aether is matter, we do away with the
third class of essentials in the universe, and so reduce the number to
two classes. If we could go one step further, and prove that instead of
there being two classes of things in the universe, there was only one
group, and show that all material things, and all phenomena could come
under the head of either matter, or motion, then we should have reduced
the universe to the simplest conception possible. As, however, it is not
possible, at least in our present state of knowledge, for us to come to
this fundamental and simple hypothesis of unity for the entire universe,
we must accept the next simpler solution, and affirm that the universe
is composed of two classes of things, viz. matter and motion, and this
as I have already shown is a simpler classification than by putting
Aether into a class by itself, and therefore is in accord with our first
Rule of Philosophy.
Again, it is entirely in accord with our second Rule of Philosophy, as
it in no way violates the results of experiment, experience, or
observation. Look where we will, or at what we will, whatever we see,
touch, taste, or smell is termed matter. The burning sun, the glowing
star, the flying meteor, the glowing comet, the earth, our own island
home, the towering rock, the wide ocean, the running river, the green
trees of the forest, the tiny insect, the lordly elephant, all animals,
plants, and our own physical body, all are composed of matter, either in
solid, liquid or gaseous form. Therefore when we affirm that Aether is
matter, the affirmation is strictly in accordance with the elementary
principles of Philosophy, and in no way violates their rules or laws. To
affirm that Aether is not matter, is to affirm something contrary to all
experience, unless it be affirmed that Aether is motion, for which
assumption the evidence is not nearly so strong or conclusive as that it
is matter. Therefore the objector to this assumption is himself
unphilosophical, in that he postulates or supposes that the Aether is a
medium, with qualities which lie altogether outside the range of our
experience and observation.
There is a growing conviction in the minds of scientific men, that
Aether belongs to that group of things which we describe by the term
matter. Lord Kelvin in giving an address to the British Association,
1901, on "Clustering of Gravitational Matter in any part of the
Universe," said: "We are all convinced with our President (Professor
Rucker) that _Aether is Matter_. Aether we relegate to a distinct
species of matter which has inertia, rigidity, elasticity,
compressibility, but not heaviness."
Dr. Larmor in _Aether and Matter_ writes: "Matter must be constituted of
isolated portions, each of which is of necessity a permanent nucleus
belonging to the Aether, of some such type as is represented for example
by a minute vortex ring in a perfect fluid."
Faraday in relation to this subject writes (_Exp. Res._, vol. ii.): "The
view now stated of the composition of matter would seem to involve the
conclusion that matter fills all space, or at least all space to which
Gravitation extends, _including the sun and its system_, for Gravitation
is a property of matter dependable on a certain Force, and it is this
Force which constitutes matter." As the Aether fills all space,
including the solar system, therefore, according to Faraday, "Aether
must also be Matter."
By the hypothesis that Aether is matter, with all the properties that
such a hypothesis logically gives to Aether, I venture to premise that
the third Rule of Philosophy will be fulfilled, and that there is no
phenomenon of the astronomical world, and no part of the universal Law
of Gravitation which such a hypothesis will fail to account for on a
satisfactory physical basis. For the first time a physical explanation
will be given to Newton's Laws of Motion, at least to those laws which
are strictly in accordance with the first and second Rules of
Philosophy. For the first time a physical conception will be given to
all Kepler's Laws, and what the mathematical Laws of Gravitation have
done to Kepler's Laws, in giving them a mathematical basis, the simple
hypothesis that Aether is matter, with all that is logically involved
therein, will do for the same laws from the physical standpoint. For the
first time a physical conception will be given to the Centrifugal and
Centripetal Forces, which are the complement and the counterpart of each
other, that physical conception being the outcome of the same hypothesis
that Aether is matter.
In addition to this, light is thrown upon such problems as are referred
to by Lord Kelvin (_Phil. Mag._, July 1902) in his paper on "Clouds on
the Undulatory Theory of Light," and further light is given to some
theories of Electricity advanced by such men as Faraday, Clerk Maxwell,
and Professor Thompson. I venture to think, therefore, that the
hypothesis advanced, and the conception put forward that Aether is
matter, is philosophically correct, and is warranted by the results that
arise out of such a hypothesis.
It may be thought by some that the hypothesis that I have advanced is
already conceded, and that the fact that Aether is matter is already
admitted by scientists and advanced thinkers generally. But such an idea
is only partly correct. It is already admitted by some of our most
advanced scientists that Aether is matter, but that admission is only
carried partially to its logical conclusion.
Lord Kelvin in an address to the British Association, 1901, gave
utterance to the following remarks on the relation of Aether to Matter:
"We are convinced with our President (Professor Rucker) that Aether is
Matter, but we are forced to say that the properties of Matter are not
to be looked for in Aether, as generally known to us by action resulting
from force between atoms of Matter and atoms of Aether. _Here I am_
ILLOGICAL _when I say between Matter and Aether_, as if Aether were not
Matter. Aether we relegate to a distinct species of Matter which has
inertia, rigidity, elasticity, compressibility, but NOT HEAVINESS."
From a quotation of this kind, which is from the lips of one of the
keenest intellects of the present time, I think I am justified when I
make the statement, that it is not conceded that Aether is matter, with
all that that concession logically involves. Because, as Lord Kelvin
points out, though it is admitted that Aether is matter, yet that
admission is only a qualified admission, and not one which carries with
it all the properties that essentially belong to matter, or an admission
which includes the fact that Aether is gravitative, that is, subject to
Gravitation. To be strictly logical and philosophical, in the statement
that Aether is matter, it must be conceded not only that Aether is
subject to such properties as elasticity, inertia, and compressibility,
but that it is also gravitative or possesses weight. For either Aether
is matter, or it is not matter.
It cannot be both at one and the same time. Such a conception is
altogether opposed to that simplicity which is the chief characteristic
of Nature as pointed out by Newton.
If therefore Aether be matter, then, to be strictly logical and
philosophical, it must be conceded that Aether is gravitative, as well
as having the other properties of matter, as elasticity and inertia,
etc. Unless this is conceded, then we have the anomaly in Nature of
matter, which is not matter, because it violates the very principles
which above all others decide what is matter, viz., "That every particle
of matter attracts every other particle," etc., that is, that it is
gravitative. Thus by supposing that the Aether is matter, and yet not
being gravitative, all the Rules of Philosophy are violated, as such a
hypothesis is opposed to both the first and second Rules of Philosophy,
and is contrary to all observation and experience. If Aether therefore
be matter, as is conceded by the most advanced thinkers of the time,
then it follows that the only logical and philosophical conclusion that
can be arrived at is, that it is also subject to those properties which
are the chief characteristics of all matter. These properties may be
classified as follows: atomicity, gravitation, density, elasticity,
inertia, and compressibility.
ART. 43. _Aether is Universal._--Young in his first Hypothesis on the
Aether medium states that, "A Luminiferous Aether pervades the Universe
rare and elastic in a high degree" (_Phil. Tran._, 1802).
As Young points out, this invisible and elastic Aether fills all space
and floods the universe at large. In it suns blaze, stars shine, worlds
and planets roll, meteors flash, and comets rush in their mysterious
flight. In it all material and physical things exist, for it is to them
not only the primary medium of their existence, but, just as the
infinite and ever-active energy of the Divine is to the universe in its
entirety and fulness, the exciting and stimulating spirit of its
energies and powers, so this aetherial ocean is to the material and
physical universe, the exciting and stimulating medium of all its
activities, energies, and powers; and without which, though all material
and physical things were endowed with the varied capacities of their
kind or life, yet they could neither exert nor exercise them, nor even
exhibit the simple activity of motion. Hence everywhere, where material
and physical things are, there, as the medium of their existence and
energy, the Aether is; and where the Aether is not, no material or
physical thing is, or can be. That the Aether is universal is proved by
the phenomena of light. Light-waves have a velocity of about 186,000
miles per second. Now the distance of the sun from the earth is about
92,000,000 of miles, so that light takes about eight minutes and a half
to travel from the sun to the earth.
A ray of light from the nearest fixed star takes about three and a half
years to reach the earth, while there are some stars so far away that
astronomers tell us, that though light travels with so great a velocity,
yet it would take several thousand years to reach the earth. This fact
implies that throughout boundless space there is to be found this
aetherial medium. Thus interplanetary and interstellar space is not
empty, but is filled with this ever-present, all-pervading Aether; and
not only so, but every particle of matter in the universe is surrounded
by this universal Aether, which forms the exciting and stimulating
medium of all the activities, energies, and motions of all Matter. Thus
the Aether is both universal and infinite in its extent.
Clerk Maxwell, in his paper on "Action at a Distance" (_Collected
Works_, by Niven), with reference to the universality of the Aether,
writes: "The vast interplanetary and interstellar regions will no longer
be regarded as waste places in the universe, which the Creator has not
seen fit to fill with the symbols of the manifold order of His Kingdom.
We shall find them to be full of this wonderful medium, so full, that no
human power can remove it from the smallest portion of space, or
produce the slightest flaw in its infinite continuity. It extends
unbroken from star to star, and when a molecule of hydrogen vibrates in
the Dog Star, the medium receives the impulses of those vibrations, and
transmits them to distant worlds. But the medium has other functions
besides bearing light from world to world, and giving evidence of the
absolute unity of the material system of the universe. Its minute parts
may have rotatory as well as vibratory motions, and the axes of rotation
form those lines of magnetic force which extend in unbroken continuity
into regions which no eye has seen, and which, by their action on our
magnets, are telling us in language not yet interpreted what is going on
in the hidden world from century to century." Now I premise, that in the
theory of the Aether to be submitted in this work, the physical
interpretation of this statement of Maxwell's will receive its literal
fulfilment.
ART. 44. _Aether is Atomic._--If there is one fundamental truth which is
applicable to all matter, it is, that all matter is atomic.
Professor Rucker, in his Presidential Address to the British Association
of 1901, in dealing with this question, said: "The believer in the
atomic theory asserts that matter exists in a particular state, that it
consists of parts which are separate and distinct from one another, and
as such are capable of independent movement. It is certain that matter
consists of discrete parts in a state of motion, which can penetrate
into spaces between the corresponding parts of surrounding bodies. Every
great advance in chemical knowledge during the last ninety years finds
its interpretation in Dalton's Atomic Theory."
From such an authority as this, and from the facts which he gave in his
dealing with the question, we are bound to admit that all matter is
atomic. That being granted, when the statement is made, therefore, that
Aether is matter, the only logical conclusion that can be arrived at,
with reference to the question of the atomicity of the Aether, is, that
Aether is also atomic. Unless this be conceded, we have the first and
second rules of our Philosophy violated, as an atomless Aether is
opposed to that simplicity of conception, which is an essential
requirement of all hypotheses, and is moreover contrary to that
presumptive evidence gathered from observation and experiment, which
teaches us that all matter is atomic. If it be argued, that it is
impossible to decide upon a question as to the atomicity of the Aether,
my reply is that the same argument may reasonably be applied to all
matter. But, as Professor Rucker stated, all the evidence on matter
points out and supports the theory of its atomicity, and, therefore, the
only logical and philosophical conclusion is, that Aether is atomic
also. Again, it may be suggested that we cannot see or touch an atom of
Aether, and that it is not only invisible, but apparently incapable of
being made sensible to our senses. In reply to that, as I have already
shown in Art. 31, that objection can be equally used against an atom of
hydrogen, or an atom of oxygen. Does any one doubt the existence of the
hydrogen atom or the atom of oxygen, because it is invisible to the
sense of sight, or cannot be revealed to the limited sense of touch?
Certainly not! By the same reasoning, it is just as illogical to deny
the existence of an atom of Aether because it cannot be seen or felt, as
it is to deny the existence of an atom of hydrogen or oxygen. An atom of
Aether reveals itself to the senses in the same way that an atom of
hydrogen or oxygen does, that is, by the force or energy which it
exerts. Its vibrations can be manifested to the body in the form of
heat, while the undulatory motion which the aetherial atoms transmit in
the form of light, reveal the presence of the aetherial atom to the
sense of sight. The question at once arises as to what constitutes an
aetherial atom, what are its properties and motions?
Now, in order for us to enter successfully into this speculative region,
it is essential that we should, as far as possible, conform to the Rules
of Philosophy, and endeavour to gain some conception of an aetherial
atom from the results of experience and observation. In doing this, we
are at once confronted with the difficulty, that no one has ever seen an
atom, or analyzed the properties of one. Actual experiment has revealed
nothing absolutely certain as to the ultimate character of an atom, and
if this be true of the atoms of matter, then it must also be true of an
aetherial atom. It would seem at first, therefore, that we have no
results of experiment, or observation, by which we may be guided in
formulating a right conception as to the constitution of an aetherial
atom, and therefore we are thrown simply into the regions of speculation
as to its constitution and properties.
But I venture to suggest, that there is a method which is strictly
philosophical in its application, by which we may possibly arrive at a
clear conception of an aetherial atom. All great discoveries of science
have been the outcome of applying the principle, that what is true of
the visible and seen, is true of the invisible and unseen; that what is
true of the known, is true of the unknown; that the principles and laws
which govern the small also govern the large and the great. It was thus
that Newton discovered his great Law of Gravitation, as he was able from
the falling of an apple, to rise to the application of the same
principle to our satellite the moon, and this led him on to the
discovery of the Law of Gravitation.
If, therefore, in Philosophy, the laws governing the small things are
also applicable to the great things, then the converse equally holds
good, that the laws governing great things are the reflex of the laws
which govern the small things. For example, the laws which govern the
light and heat of the sun are the same which govern the light and heat
of a candle or a glow-worm; and the laws which govern a planet or world
are the same as those which govern an atom. Thus a planet or world,
which is simply an agglomeration of atoms, may reveal to us in its
motions and laws, what are the motions and laws which govern the atomic
world.
In looking at the properties and motions of a planet, therefore, as our
earth for example, we find that a planet is a sphere, or more correctly
an oblate spheroid; that the earth or planet is a magnet possessing
polarity, having a north and south pole; that it has rotation on an
axis, in addition to translation in an orbit, and that it is subject to
the universal Law of Gravitation.
If, therefore, it holds good in Philosophy, that the small things are
the index to the greater, and that the laws governing the small things
also govern the greater, then the converse holds good, that what is true
of the large is true of the small, and that the laws governing the great
also govern the small.
So that gathering up those chief properties of the earth to which I have
already referred, and applying them to an aetherial atom, or any other
atom if necessary, we arrive at the conclusion that an atom must be
spherical in shape, must possess rotation, and must have an orbit, must
possess polarity, and also be subject to the universal Law of
Gravitation.
Here, then, we have given to us certain data by which we are enabled to
form our conception of an atom, aetherial or otherwise. The question
arises, whether, among the forms of atoms which have been devised by
scientists, any of the atoms so conceived fulfil all, or nearly all of
these requirements. We have Boscovitch's Atom, the Hard Atom of
Lucretius, and the more recent conception of the Vortex Atom of Lord
Kelvin. Of all the hypotheses in regard to the ultimate nature and
constitution of an atom, the Vortex Theory probably is the one which
offers to the mind the simplest conception of an aetherial atom.
The Vortex Ring Atom, however, which has been so fully developed by Lord
Kelvin, hardly fulfils all the requirements of an aetherial atom. In the
first place it is not spherical in shape, and I hold that to be one of
the fundamental bases of the aetherial atom. Then, in the next place it
does not, so far as I can read, possess polarity; that is, it does not
possess a north and south pole, through being a magnet in the same way
as the earth is a magnet. We must therefore look for a modification of
the vortex ring to discover the constitution of our aetherial atom, and
I venture to think that such a modification is to be found in Professor
Hill's conception of a Spherical Vortex Atom (_Phil. Trans._, 1894).
In the conception there put forward, and mathematically worked out,
Professor Hill showed that his spherical vortex atom possessed similar
properties and characteristics to the vortex rings of Lord Kelvin. So
that the spherical vortex atom would possess rotation on an axis, and it
would be a magnet, as I shall prove later on, because it rotates in an
electro-magnetic medium. It would possess elasticity, compressibility,
inertia, and, further, would possess a certain amount of mass. That mass
might be infinitely small, but nevertheless it would possess mass of an
infinitesimal order.
Further, if we are to be strictly correct, in our analogy between the
earth and the aetherial atom, its polar diameter must be shorter than
its equatorial diameter, as that is one of the facts observable
regarding the shape of our earth, so that the shape of the aetherial
atom will not be strictly spherical, but its actual shape would be that
of an oblate spheroid, being flatter at the poles, and bulging out in
the equatorial regions.
This exact analogy between the earth and an aetherial atom may not at
present seem of very great importance, but its importance will be seen
later on, when we come to deal with the phenomena of heat, light, and
electricity.
Here, then, is our conception of an aetherial atom in the rough, based
not upon any imaginative hypothesis, but rather upon that strict
conformity to observation and experience, which is the very groundwork
of all true Philosophy.
For, after all, what is the earth but an atom on a large scale? In
comparison with illimitable space, with its infinite distances, that can
alone be measured by the velocity of light, our own earth is but a speck
of dust, a very atom that helps to make up the universe, and, as such,
should teach us the shape and properties of other atoms of which the
same universe is composed.
We have therefore to conceive of the all-space-pervading Aether as being
composed of infinitesimal portions of Aether, which are nearly spherical
in shape, and ever in a state of rotation; this state of rotation
differentiating the atom of Aether from the free Aether, if such an
entity exists. So that an atom of Aether would simply be an
infinitesimal portion of the Aether in a state of rotation.
If, by any means, we could stop the rotation, we should at once destroy
the atom, in the same way that the smoke vortex ring would cease to be a
ring, if its rotation were stopped. The cessation of the rotation I,
however, believe to be impossible. So that even in the ultimate atom of
that universal medium the Aether, we have an illustration of the
combination of those two forms which are inseparably connected
throughout the whole universe, viz. matter and motion, and it is the
combination of these two that gives to the aetherial atom its form, and
its very existence, without which it has no life, and ceases to exist.
It may be necessary in the development of this work as we proceed, to
slightly modify our conception of the aetherial atom, but that
modification will rather be of a constructive character, than a
destructive one. There may also be certain objections to meet and
explain away when we deal with the phenomena of light, heat, and
electricity, and Gravitation, and the part which the aetherial atom
plays in those phenomena, but these objections I hope to meet and answer
as they arise.
The atomicity of the Aether has already been suggested by such
scientists as Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin, Dr. Larmor, and Professors
Lodge and J. J. Thompson. Clerk Maxwell, in an article on "Action at a
Distance,"[3] referring to the atomicity of the Aether, writes: "Its
minute parts may have rotatory as well as vibratory motions, and the
axes of rotation may form those lines of magnetic force which extend in
unbroken continuity into regions which no eye has seen." I premise that
I will conclusively prove that this statement finds its literal
fulfilment in the theory of the Aether that will be developed in this
work.
Lord Kelvin, in several articles on "Vortex Motion" in the Philosophical
Magazines of recent years, has mathematically dealt with the Aether from
the atomic standpoint, and has endeavoured to prove that the Aether
medium is composed of vortex rings, but he was unable to come to any
satisfactory conclusion. With the theory that Aether is matter, and
therefore possesses mass, his conception is now brought within the range
of physical explanation, as well as mathematical calculation.
Dr. Larmor, in his _Aether and Matter_, has successfully applied the
principle of the atomicity to the Aether, on what is termed the
"Electron" basis. He states that an electron is nothing more or less
than "a point singularity in the electro-dynamic and optical Aether." So
that our aetherial atom is practically synonymous with Dr. Larmor's
electron. Again, Dr. Larmor, in the same work, states that "the
atomicity of electricity is coming within the scope of direct
experiment."[4] But Professor Lodge, in his _Modern Views of
Electricity_, states that "the Aether is composed of positive and
negative electricity, the combination of these two forming the Aether
medium."[5] Now, if the Aether is composed of positive and negative
electricity, and the atomicity of electricity is coming within the scope
of direct experiment, it follows as a matter of necessity that the
atomicity of Aether and the atomicity of electricity are one and the
same, and therefore the atomicity of Aether is coming within the scope
of direct experiment. Professor J. J. Thompson, who has also attacked
the problem of the atomicity of electricity, speaks of "corpuscles"
which are the actual carriers of the positive and negative electricity,
in the atoms of the various elements. These corpuscles therefore
indicate the fact that electricity has an atomic basis.
Now if there is any such identity between Aether and electricity, as
there undoubtedly is, and electricity has an atomic basis, then the
atomicity of the Aether follows as a matter of course, otherwise we
shall have a medium composed of atoms which is itself not atomic, which
conclusion is absurd and therefore unphilosophical. So that the most
recent researches into electricity confirm and establish the atomicity
of the Aether.
[Footnote 3: _Collected Works_, by Niven.]
[Footnote 4: Preface to _Aether and Matter_.]
[Footnote 5: Page 348.]
ART. 45. _Aether is Gravitative._--Young, in the _Philosophical Trans._
of 1802, in regard to this question, states in his Fourth Hypothesis:
"All material bodies have an attraction for the aetherial medium, by
means of which it is accumulated within their substance, and for a small
distance around them, in a state of greater density, but not greater
elasticity." He adds that "this fourth hypothesis is opposed to that of
Newton's."
Scientific research has justified the conception of his first three
hypotheses with respect to the universality, elasticity and vibrations
of the aetherial medium, but up to the present I am not aware that
science has accepted his fourth hypothesis.
I propose to show how, from a strictly philosophical and logical
standpoint, his fourth hypothesis is just as true as his first three
hypotheses, and that it henceforth passes out of the realm of the
hypothetical into the realms of fact and science, not only by
philosophical reasoning, but by actual experiment made by some of the
most advanced scientists of the present time.
Let us consider the question first from the standpoint of the Rules of
Philosophy. Our first Rule of Philosophy states, that any hypothesis
must be simple in connection. Now I put it to any intelligent man, and
ask him which is the simpler conception of Aether? To affirm that Aether
is matter, and therefore subject to the properties of matter, as
elasticity, density, inertia and Gravitation, or to affirm that Aether
is matter, but while it is subject to some of the properties of matter,
as elasticity, density and inertia, it is not subject to the very
property which of all properties is the most fundamental, viz.
Gravitation. There can, in my opinion, only be one answer to the
question, so that, when we affirm that Aether is matter, we are
compelled to affirm, in order to conform to the first Rule of
Philosophy, that it is gravitative also. Faraday was also of the opinion
that Aether was subject to the Law of Gravity, for, writing in
_Experimental Researches_, he states: "The view now stated of the
constitution of matter, would seem to involve the conclusion, that
matter fills all space, or at least all space to which Gravitation
extends, INCLUDING THE SUN AND ITS SYSTEM. For Gravitation is a property
of matter, dependable on a certain force, and it is this force which
constitutes matter."
Let us also test the question by our second Rule of Philosophy, and we
shall find greater evidence still for the statement that Aether is
gravitative. What do experience and observation teach us with reference
to matter? As we have already seen (Art. 37), if there is one truth that
they teach us regarding matter, it is that it is gravitative.
There is not the slightest evidence throughout the universe, as far as
our observation can lead us to form an opinion, that there is any kind
of matter which is not subject to the Law of Gravitation. Therefore to
assume that Aether is matter, and yet not to assume that it is also
subject to Gravitation, is to assume that which is directly opposed to
the most fundamental principle of all philosophical teaching and
scientific research. If Aether be matter, therefore, and yet is not
gravitative, we shall have an anomaly in an otherwise universal law, as
we shall have some kind of matter which fails to come within the scope
of the universal Law of Gravitation.
To be consistent, therefore, we must either cease to call Aether matter,
or else admit that Aether, like all other matter, is gravitative. It is
absolutely impossible to be strictly logical and admit that Aether is
matter, and not to admit that it is subject to the most universal law
that governs matter, as the Law of Gravitation distinctly states that
"every particle or atom of matter attracts every other particle." This
universal law in view of a gravitationless Aether would have to be
amended to "Some particles of matter attract some other particles." Thus
the universal Law of Gravitation ceases at once to be a universal law,
and such a result is opposed to all experience and experiment. Again,
let us apply our third Rule of Philosophy to this supposed
gravitationless Aether, and see what the result is.
Our third rule states, that any hypothesis put forward must satisfactorily
account for the phenomena sought to be explained and accounted for. The
Aether was conceived in order to explain the phenomena of light, and one
of the properties it was conceived to possess was elasticity, yet that
very conception was devoid of the most fundamental property of matter,
without which there is no elasticity, that is, that it was not atomic.
I have already shown in Art. 44, that Aether is atomic, and therefore
there is given to the Aether a structure which is capable of exhibiting
elasticity, inertia, density, and even Gravitation, while at the same
time, the conception is fully in harmony with philosophical reasoning
and Newton's Rules of Philosophy.
Let us consider the question whether Aether is, or is not gravitative,
from another aspect. For several hundred years, the physical cause of
Gravitation has been outstanding, while the world has held the
conception that Aether is a gravitationless and frictionless medium. The
earth has been rolling on in her orbit year in, year out, together with
all the other planets in their annual march round the sun, and yet
through all that time no one has been able to suggest, or give any
satisfactory or adequate physical explanation, as to what moves the
earth along.
I am fully aware that Newton suggested and proved, that it was because
of the Law of Gravitation. But I look upon that as a mathematical
explanation and not as a physical one.
Now I venture to predict this, that on the assumption of a
gravitationless medium, the physical explanation so longed for will
always be outstanding, as a gravitationless Aether is synonymous with a
frictionless medium, and so long as we admit that there is a
frictionless medium, so long will the physical cause of Gravitation, and
therefore the physical cause of all the movements of the planets and
comets, be outstanding and unexplained.
If, however, instead of being illogical in our reasoning, we become
logical, and affirm that Aether is matter, and because all matter is
gravitative, therefore Aether is gravitative; and if, instead of being
unphilosophical, we become philosophical, and affirm that because a
gravitationless Aether violates both the first and second Rules of
Philosophy, such a conception must be put away, and in its place a more
philosophical conception must be forthcoming, which is that Aether is
gravitative; then, upon such a logical and philosophical basis, I
venture to premise that the great problem which is still outstanding of
the cause of Gravitation, will remain outstanding no longer, and the
physical cause of all the movements of all celestial bodies will be put
upon a physical basis, in addition to a mathematical one.
If such a result can be arrived at by the logical and philosophical
conception of a gravitative Aether, then the three Rules of Philosophy
are fully satisfied, and the assumption of a gravitative Aether is
warranted on a strictly philosophical basis.
So that Thomas Young is strictly correct from a philosophical standpoint
in his fourth hypothesis, when he states: "That all material bodies have
an attraction for the aetherial medium, by means of which it is
accumulated within their substance and for a small distance around them
in a state of greater density but not greater elasticity." He is not,
however, correct when he states that though there is a greater density
near the body, there is not a greater elasticity, as such an assumption
is opposed to experiment and observation in relation to perfect gases,
as I shall show when dealing with the elasticity of the Aether.
Again, in view of the fact that the Aether is atomic, it can now be
easily understood how it may be subject to Gravitation. The very essence
of Gravitation is that atoms, or particles, attract each other. If there
were no particles, or atoms, it is obvious that there would be no
attraction, and therefore no Gravitation. Wherever, therefore, there are
to be found atoms of any kind or sort, whether they be atoms of
hydrogen, oxygen, silver or aetherial atoms, there the Law of
Gravitation holds good, and attraction between these atoms is to be
found. In other words, any substance which is atomic, is also
gravitative. Now Aether is atomic as has been shown, and therefore from
that standpoint it is also gravitative. It may, however, be objected
that the assumption of gravitative properties for the Aether is after
all but a speculation, and that Young's fourth hypothesis was only a
hypothesis, and that the gravitating properties of the aetherial medium
have never come within the scope of direct experiment, without which no
hypothesis can be fully accepted.
If such an argument be advanced against a gravitating Aether, then I
must differ from those scientists who advance such an objection. My
contention is that the gravitating properties of the Aether have already
been made the subject of some of the most refined and delicate
experiments that have been made during the past few years.
I refer to the experiments of Michelson and Morley of America.
For an outline and explanation of such experiments I must refer the
reader to the _Phil. Mag._ of December 1887.
Now what is the result of these experiments?
I believe it is almost unanimously conceded by all scientists, that
their experiments prove that the Aether is carried along by the earth.
Let us carefully look at this conclusion and see what it implies in
relation to the question at issue.
If the Aether is carried along by the earth, it necessarily follows that
there is some governing law or principle which holds it to the earth,
while the earth moves through space with its velocity of 68,000 miles per
hour.
Now what is that governing principle or law, which is capable of holding
such an aetherial atmosphere to its central body? If we wish to be
strictly philosophical, it is necessary, according to our second Rule of
Philosophy, that we should not go outside experience and the analogy of
Nature.
Where is there a similar analogy in Nature to that of the Aether being
carried along through space by the earth? I know of only one analogy
which can be used, and that is the analogy of the atmosphere, which is
also carried along by the earth through space, as it rushes on in its
orbit round the sun.
That being so, the question arises, what principle or law holds the
atmosphere to the earth? for, whatever be the law which governs the
atmosphere, to be consistent with the second Rule of Philosophy, we must
infer that the same law also holds the Aether in its place. There is
only one answer to the latter question, and that is the Law of
Gravitation. If it were not for that law, and the fact that the
atmosphere is subject to that law, the atmosphere would simply be swept
off from its central body, the earth, as the latter rushed through space
with its comparatively enormous velocity.
The only legitimate and philosophical conclusion that we can arrive at,
therefore, is that the Aether must be carried along with its central
body, the earth, through being acted upon by the self-same Law of
Gravitation, and for it to be so acted upon it must obviously be
gravitative. It would be unphilosophical to suggest that it was held in
its place by any other force, as that would be introducing a new force
or law into Nature, contrary to our experience in relation to an exactly
similar phenomenon of Nature.
We have therefore, it seems to me, direct proof by actual experiment
that Young's fourth hypothesis was correct, and that not only in
relation to the atomic world, but also in relation to the planetary
world, and the stellar world, all bodies exert an attractive influence
upon the surrounding Aether, by means of which the Aether is accumulated
near the surfaces of all bodies in a state of greater density, and
therefore of greater elasticity.
Let us apply this truth to the solar system, and see what we get. If it
is true that the earth exerts an attractive influence upon the
surrounding Aether by means of which it is held in its place relatively
to the earth, then it is equally true that Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune also exert gravitating or attractive
influences upon the surrounding Aether, in the same way that they do
upon their own atmospheres. So that in their cases also, the surrounding
Aether is carried along by them through space. Professor Stokes has
suggested that this is so, in order to account for the aberration of
light, as we shall see later on.
Not only so, but the sun also would have an attractive power over the
Aether by means of which its aetherial atmosphere would be carried
through space, as it moved along in its progress at an estimated rate of
17,000 or 18,000 miles per hour.
I would like to point out here, that this explanation of the effect of
the planets' attractive power over the surrounding Aether is only a
partial one, as there are other effects directly involved in the fact
that the Aether is subject to the gravitating influence of all
satellites and planets.
This is not the place, however, to go fuller into the matter, the
consideration of the subject being taken up in a later chapter.
Thus I have tried to show a gravitating Aether is strictly in accord
with the three Rules of Philosophy, for it is simple in conception, is
not contrary to experience, and by it I premise that it is possible to
explain the physical cause of Gravitation, with all that is involved in
that law.
Once more, if Aether is gravitative, then every atom and particle in the
universe, as well as every planet, and sun, and star, exert an
attractive power over the Aether, so that every atom is enveloped in an
atmosphere of Aether, in the same way that every planet, and sun, and
star is enveloped by the aetherial atmosphere.
The Aether, however, while it may flow through the spaces that exist
between the molecules of bodies, yet is held bound to those molecules in
the same way, and by exactly the same force, that holds the atmosphere
to a planet or world.
Further, if the atoms possess different masses or weights, as they do,
then each atom would possess an aetherial atmosphere proportionate to
its mass, with the result that an atom of carbon, with its atomic weight
of 12, ought to possess a denser aetherial atmosphere than an atom of
hydrogen, and so on right through the atomic scale. I need hardly point
out that this conception of the Aether in relation to atoms, and
molecules of bodies, will solve certain problems relating to the density
of Aether in connection with matter, which problem up to the present
cannot be solved by the present conception of a frictionless medium.
That problem may be stated as follows: Does the presence of matter
affect the Aether in any way, so as to load or make it denser? Professor
Lodge, in _Modern Views of Electricity_, in relation to the density of
the Aether, writes: "The neighbourhood of gross matter seems to render
Aether more dense. It is difficult to suppose that it can really
condense an incompressible fluid, but it may load it, or otherwise
modify it, so as to produce the effect of increased density."
In view of the fact that Aether is gravitative, the reply is to be found
in the Law of Gravitation, "Every particle of matter attracts every
other particle of matter, etc.," and as Aether is matter, it will be
attracted by the other matter irrespective of whether that matter be in
the atomic, molecular, or planetary or stellar form. We shall see that
this is so when we come to deal with the density of the Aether.
It may be objected in relation to this aspect of Aether, that Young also
asserted that the Aether flows as freely through matter, as the air
flows through the trees of the forest, and that such a statement
therefore contradicts his fourth proposition regarding the gravitating
properties of Aether. A little reflection will, however, put a different
construction on this objection.
Let us consider the analogy from the standpoint of experience, and see
what that analogy teaches us. From experience we learn that the air is
gravitative, but we also learn that it is possible to be moved from
place to place as winds, and that as such it can move freely between the
trees of the forest, causing their boughs and leaves to tremble and bend
beneath its energy and power.
I have yet to learn, however, that while it moves between the trees as
separate and distinct objects, such a movement militates or destroys its
gravitating properties.
Does the air cease to be any less gravitative, or subject to the Law of
Gravity, when it is subject to certain movements, which give rise to
certain currents as winds? Such an assumption is altogether opposed to
philosophical reasoning.
Whether the air is stationary or in motion, it is ever subject to the
great Law of Gravitation, and accepting that as an analogy, the apparent
contradiction between the oft-quoted simile of Young and his fourth
hypothesis is at once removed, and from analogy we learn that it is
quite possible for Aether to move between bodies because of certain
currents which may be originated by heat, light or electricity, yet at
the same time the existence of such currents does not violate its
gravitating tendency.
Young's fourth hypothesis is therefore in perfect harmony with his
oft-quoted simile, that the Aether flows through the interstices of
bodies as the wind flows through a group of trees, but like the
air-currents it does not so flow unless the currents are generated by
some form of energy, as heat or light, electricity or magnetism.
From these considerations therefore we are compelled to come to the
conclusion that Aether, like all other matter, is subject to the same
universal Law of Gravitation. If further evidence of the gravitating
tendency of the Aether were required, I would refer the reader to Lord
Kelvin's utterance on this subject.
Lord Kelvin, _Phil. Mag._, November 1899, in relation to the Aether
writes: "We are accustomed to call Aether imponderable. How do we know
that it is imponderable? If we had never dealt with air except by our
senses, air would be imponderable to us, but we know by experiment that
a vacuum glass tube shows an increased weight when air is allowed to
flow into it. We have not the slightest reason to believe that Aether is
imponderable. It is just as likely to be attracted by the sun as air is.
At all events the _onus of proof rests with those who assert it is
imponderable_. I think we shall have to modify our ideas of what
Gravitation is, if we have a mass spreading through space with mutual
attraction between its parts, without being attracted by other bodies."
We have already seen in the previous article that Faraday was of opinion
that the Law of Gravitation extended throughout the whole of the solar
system, and as Aether fills the solar system, then obviously Aether must
also be subject to the Law of Gravitation.
ART. 46. _Aether possesses Density._--That matter possesses density has
already been shown in Art. 38, and on the hypothesis that Aether is
matter, Aether must possess density also. This property has already been
postulated for the Aether, in order to account for certain phenomena in
connection with the reflection and refraction of light. Young assumed
different densities for the Aether near bodies owing to its being
attracted by those bodies (Art. 45). Reflection and refraction of light
are produced by a change of density of the Aether. It is now generally
accepted that the optical difference of bodies depends mainly on the
different densities of Aether in association with those bodies.
Professor Tyndall, in his _Lectures on Light_, writes on the density of
the Aether as follows: "The density of the Aether is greater in liquids
and solids than in gases, and greater in gases than in vacuo. A
compressing force seems to be exerted on the Aether by the molecules of
these bodies."
Apart, however, from the atomicity and gravitative properties of the
Aether, it is difficult to understand how there can be density of the
medium, and still more difficult to give a satisfactory explanation of
different degrees of density for the same medium, which some scientists
assume it to have.
If, however, all that is logically included in the statement that Aether
is matter, and therefore is atomic and gravitative, is conceded, then,
from the analogy of our own atmosphere in relation to the earth, the
density of the Aether, and different degrees of density also, is at once
put upon a logical and philosophical basis, as it is brought into
harmony with all experience and observation, and is simple in its
conception.
On the other hand, an Aether which is not atomic or gravitative cannot
possess different degrees of density, except by assuming the existence
of some unknown law of which we have no knowledge, which conception is
altogether opposed to the fundamental principles of simplicity,
observation, and experiment as laid down not only by Newton but by every
true philosopher.
Therefore, that Aether can possess different degrees of density, is only
the logical outcome of the statement that Aether is matter, seeing that
such a statement without the shadow of a doubt must at least imply that
it is gravitative.
I need hardly point out, that it is much more philosophical to be able
to account for the density of the Aether in a reasonable and
philosophical manner, than simply to postulate for the Aether certain
properties and qualities, because certain phenomena demand the existence
of such properties.
The Aether has been such a hypothetical medium, that it has been easy to
postulate for it certain properties, if certain phenomena have demanded
the existence of those properties.
Thus if the Aether were required to be elastic, then elasticity was
postulated for it; if more elastic, then greater elasticity was added.
If density were demanded, then density was postulated, and if less or
more density, less or more density was given to it.
That method of speculation may be satisfactory up to a certain point,
but no one will admit that such a method is wholly philosophical. It
will be a far better method to adopt, if, in dealing with the universal
Aether, we can make it conform to certain recognized laws and
principles, and from the application of those well-known laws, be able
to infer the exact constitution of this space-filling Aether medium.
Now the question arises, if Aether is gravitative, what effect has the
Gravitation of any body, be it an atom, or a meteor or planet, sun or
star, upon the Aether in which it moves, and which surrounds it?
That we may have some light thrown upon the matter, I would like now to
take the reader to Newton's _Optics_, in order that he may give us his
opinion as to this property of density of the Aether. In his nineteenth
query Newton (_Optics_) asks this question--
"Is not this medium much rarer within the dense bodies of the sun,
stars, planets and comets than in the empty spaces between them, and in
passing from them to great distances, doth it not grow denser and denser
perpetually, and thereby cause the gravity of those great bodies towards
one another, and of their part towards the bodies, every body
endeavouring to go from the denser parts of the medium towards the
rarer?"
Here then we have given to us an indication of what is the possible
state of things in relation to the gravitation of the Aether, and all
bodies in solar and stellar space. The only mistake that Newton made,
was in inverting the right order of comparatively dense and rarer parts
of the aetherial medium, by putting the rarer parts of the medium near
to the bodies, and supposing the denser parts to be farther away in
space.
As a matter of fact, the correct view is exactly the opposite, that is,
if we are to form our conception by following out those philosophical
rules that Newton laid down. For either the rules are right, or his
supposition is right. They cannot both be right, as his supposition is
contrary to the second Rule of Philosophy, as all experience and
observation from the analogy of Nature teach us that a medium enveloping
any body, as planet, star or sun, is densest nearest to the body,
becoming rarer the further that medium gets away from the central body.
Let us take for our illustration the best example, that experience and
observation afford, that of the atmosphere surrounding the earth. The
analogy is so perfect, that one is almost tempted to believe that the
atmosphere and the Aether are in some way intimately associated with
each other. Some years ago Lord Kelvin was of the opinion that the
Aether was but an extension of the atmosphere, though I am not certain
whether he holds that view at the present time. Clerk Maxwell, writing
in the _Phil. Mag._ in May 1861, writes: "I have deduced from this
result the relation between statical or dynamical electricity, and have
shown that the elasticity of the magnetic medium in air is the same as
that of the luminiferous medium, _if these two coexistent, coextensive,
and equally elastic media are not rather one medium_."
Now for the comparison. Both the atmosphere and Aether are matter. Both
are atomic, both are gravitative, both possess elasticity, and both
possess density. The atmosphere also possesses different degrees of
density, so does the Aether. In the case of the atmosphere, however,
experience and experiment teach us that the atmosphere is denser nearer
the earth than farther away.
When we ascend mountains, it is a matter of common knowledge that the
higher we ascend, that is the further we get from the earth, the rarer
the atmosphere becomes. When we ascend in balloons, we find that the air
becomes so rare and so light, that the blood will flow from the nose, on
account of the reduced pressure exerted on it, the pressure inside the
body being greater than that outside. Now in accordance with our second
Rule of Philosophy, if experience is to be any guide at all, then it
most conclusively teaches us that the Aether being subject to the same
laws as the atmosphere, the same results inevitably follow. Therefore
the Aether nearest the earth is denser than any layer immediately above
it, and that layer denser than the one above it, and so on for great
distances, with the result that the only conclusion we can come to in
regard to the density and rarity of Aether in relation to all
gravitating bodies is, that the densest part of the Aether is nearest to
them, and the rarest, the farthest away from them. So that while
Newton's suggestion in his nineteenth query is correct in principle, it
is incorrect in application to space.
I would like to point out here, that what is true of the earth in
relation to the density of the surrounding Aether, must also be true,
according to our second Rule of Philosophy, of every other planet, or
sun, or star. So that every planet, satellite, every sun or star has its
atmosphere, if I may so term it, of Aether, which obeys and follows the
same laws as the earth's atmosphere does.
This is a most important fact, and has a most important bearing upon the
physical cause of Gravitation as applied to each planet, and sun and
star, as I shall afterwards show.
I wish now to bring the reader into contact with a Theory of Gravitation
that was given to the world by Professor Challis of Cambridge, 1872. In
the _Philosophical Magazine_ of June of that year he writes: "I assume
that all the active forces of Nature are different modes of pressure
under different circumstances of a universal elastic Aether, which
presses always proportionately to its density."
Now what I wish to point out is, that while Prof. Challis admits the
density of the Aether, and also varying degrees of density, as he states
that the Aether presses proportionately to the density, he does not show
how that varying density is accounted for. If there is this varying
density, then there must be some underlying principle which governs the
variation in density, and I know of only one principle or law which can
regulate that variation in density, and that is that Aether is
gravitative, and being gravitative it not only possesses density, but
also variations in density.
Thus by admitting that Aether is gravitative, because it is matter, we
have at once a satisfactory explanation for the density of the Aether
and also for different degrees of density both in the atomic world, and
in the planetary and stellar world.
ART. 47. _Aether is Elastic._--In Art. 39, matter was shown to be
elastic, and on the assumption that Aether is matter, the elasticity of
the Aether, which has been postulated for it by various scientists, can
be logically and philosophically accounted for.
In view of the transmission of light through space with a definite and
finite velocity, we are compelled to regard Aether as possessing
elasticity, similar to that of an elastic solid body.
If we take the analogy of sound, we find that sound is transmitted and
propagated through matter, by waves of alternate condensation and
rarefaction, and that transmission is regulated by the relation of the
density of the medium to its elasticity. Light has been proved to be due
to the undulatory wave-motions of the Aether, and in order to account
for the transmission of the wave-motion, it is essential that the Aether
should possess the property of elasticity.
As Young points out in his First Hypothesis,[6] the Aether possesses
this property of elasticity, but with the advance of scientific
knowledge and research, the elasticity of the Aether may be said to have
passed out of the hypothetical stage, into the state of actual fact and
experiment. Both McCullagh and Fresnel have assumed this property of
elasticity for the aetherial medium in order to account for certain
phenomena of light.
Apart, however, from the atomicity of the Aether, it is exceedingly
difficult to understand how such a property can belong to it. Atoms are
exceedingly small particles, possessing the property of elasticity, or
the power to recover their original shape after distortion or change of
shape. If the Aether therefore be atomic, as is pointed out in Art. 44,
it can at once be readily understood how the Aether as a whole can
possess the property of elasticity. The atoms of the Aether must be
inconceivably small, as the light-waves travel with the enormous
velocity of 186,000 miles per second.
What must therefore be the atomic vibration which such a statement
implies? If, on the other hand, the Aether is assumed to be continuous
and non-atomic, it must be seen how exceedingly difficult it is to
account for the elasticity of the Aether, as it seems absolutely
impossible for a medium which is continuous, and non-atomic, to be able
to transmit the waves of light with a finite velocity.
Apart, therefore, from atomicity of some kind or other, elasticity of
the Aether is an assumption philosophically incorrect, as it is contrary
to that simplicity of conception laid down by Newton, and is also
contrary to all experience, and thus violates the second Rule of
Philosophy.
Aether therefore must be said to be perfectly elastic; so perfectly
elastic, that it is susceptible to the least touch of any natural thing,
so that even an atom, so small that it cannot be seen with the most
powerful microscope, yet so elastic is this Aether medium, that the
least motion or vibration of one of these atoms, though the motion did
not exceed the 20- or 40-millionth part of an inch, yet even this would
create in the aetherial ocean, Aether-waves, just as a body moving in
water creates water-waves, which, radiating from the place of their
birth, beget and create others, the process continuing until they reach
the margin of the water in which they were generated. It is precisely
so with these Aether-waves, when once generated and set in motion. They
create others, the process being continued and perpetuated; and, unless
arrested in their course, may continue until they reach the very limits
and confines of material immensity and space.
It is, perhaps, only necessary to say, regarding the perfection of the
elasticity of the Aether medium, that though it takes from 40,000 to
69,000 waves to complete the space of one inch in extent, yet it is done
with such miraculous rapidity, as to speed the distance of 186,000 miles
in the short space of a second of time; or, taking the number of
Aether-waves to complete an inch as 50,000, its elasticity is such that
it makes 50,000 × 186,000 × 12 × 5280 vibrations in one second of time.
We have already seen in Art. 39, that according to Boyle and Marriotte's
Law, the velocity of a wave-motion, as sound in the air, is determined
by the relation of the elasticity of the medium to its density. If the
temperature of the atmosphere remains the same, then the _elasticity_
varies in the same proportion as its density.
According to Art. 45, Aether is gravitative, and that fact produces
different degrees of density in the aetherial atmosphere of an atom or
planet or meteor, sun or star; that part of the Aether being densest
nearest the central body, and rarer the further we go away from that
body.
Now the question at once arises, what is the effect of the increased
density of the Aether near the body upon the elasticity of the Aether?
From the analogy of sound in air, we arrive at the conclusion that Boyle
and Marriotte's Law equally applies to the Aether, as it does to the
atmosphere of any planet. That is, if the temperature of any stratum or
layer of the Aether remains the same, then the elasticity of the
aetherial medium in that layer is proportionate to its density, so that
while the gravitating property of the Aether makes it denser nearest the
central body, the fact that the elasticity is proportionate to the
density, does not affect the transmission of any wave-motion.
[Footnote 6: _Phil. Trans._, 1802.]
ART. 48. _Aether possesses Inertia._--From Art. 40 we have seen that all
matter possesses inertia, inertia being that property of matter by which
it cannot of itself change its state of motion or of rest.
If Aether be matter, therefore, then it must also possess inertia. This
property of inertia is already postulated for Aether by scientists, and to
that extent is conformable to the Rules of Philosophy. Professor Tyndall,
with reference to the inertia of the Aether, writes: "The motion of
Aether communicated to material substances throws them into motion. It
must be therefore itself a substance. Aether is a substance endowed with
inertia, and capable, in accordance with the established laws of motion,
of imparting its motion to other substances."[7]
Again, Lord Kelvin in his Address to the British Association, 1901, on
the "Clustering of Gravitational Matter in any part of the Universe,"
states: "Aether we relegate to a distinct species of matter which has
inertia, etc." Aether, therefore, according to Tyndall, "is a substance
or medium endowed with inertia, and capable, in accordance with Newton's
Laws of Motion, of imparting its motion to other substances."
If, however, the Aether is frictionless, as has generally been supposed,
then it cannot possess inertia, because to the extent that a body
possesses inertia, to that extent it is opposed to being frictionless.
Inertia is really the equivalent of mass, or the amount of matter
measured by gravity, and if Aether possesses mass in any sense at all,
as it must do if it is matter, then, possessing mass or weight, it must
offer resistance to any body moving through it, and to that extent
cannot be frictionless. To suppose that the Aether is frictionless, and
yet possesses inertia, is to suppose something altogether opposed to all
the Rules of Philosophy and therefore of experience.
I have already shown that a frictionless medium is opposed to all
philosophy and experience, and is an anomaly in the universe.
On the strictly philosophical assumption that Aether is matter, and
therefore atomic and gravitative, the whole question of the inertia of
the Aether is reduced to one of common experience. It is, at least to my
mind, difficult to conceive of mass without weight or without atomicity,
and yet that is the unphilosophical position of the present state of
science in relation to the Aether. In other words, while the Aether is
supposed to possess inertia, which is dependent upon mass, as measured
by gravity, yet it is supposed not to be gravitative, that is, that the
mass of the Aether has no weight at all, and therefore is not mass,
which assumption contradicts itself. From Arts. 44 and 45, however, we
have seen, to be strictly philosophical, that Aether must be atomic and
also gravitative. It can now be easily understood how it can possess
inertia like any other matter, and is therefore capable of receiving
motion from other matter, and also of imparting that motion to other
matter.
So that, wherever there is motion of any kind in the Aether, either in
the form of vibratory motion as heat, or undulatory motion as light, or
rotatory motion as electricity, those motions will affect adjoining
matter in the same way that the motion of any other moving matter
affects any body with which it comes into contact.
From the fact that Aether possesses inertia, and is also gravitative, we
have now to alter our conception of this universal space-filling medium,
and in place of a frictionless medium, which is incapable of imparting
motion to any body, we have now to remember henceforth that the Aether
is matter, which possesses inertia, and therefore has the capacity not
only of offering resistance to any body moving through it, as a comet or
meteor, but also of imparting the motion which it may receive in any
manner to any other matter, as a planet, satellite, or sun, that may be
floating in it.
With this philosophical view of the Aether, which is entirely in harmony
with our first and second Rules of Philosophy, we shall be able to give
a physical explanation of the Law of Gravitation, as we have now a
physical medium existing in all atomic, solar, and stellar space, which
can both accept motion, and transmit that motion to other bodies. In
other words, we have a medium which can both push and pull.
[Footnote 7: _Lectures on Light._]
ART. 49. _Aether is Impressible._--Another characteristic property of
this Aether medium is, that it is as perfectly impressible as it is
elastic. So perfectly impressible, that it receives, retains, and
perpetuates for thousands of years, and for distances to human mind
incalculable, every impression given to it of light, form, colour, tint,
and shade; and that, too, with a perfect fidelity that nothing mars,
even to the least and most infinitesimal detail.
Therefore, irrespective of distance, wherever there is matter to arrest
and reflect the impressions received, there those impressions of light
(and all that in the luminosity is involved and contained) become
visible and revealed, and wherever there is power of vision to receive
and concentrate these Aether- or light-waves, there, not only luminosity
or light, but all that constitutes and is involved in that luminosity,
becomes at once visible and seen.
It is by this means we see the colour, tints, shades, and forms of suns
and planets; of stars, constellations, etc., with all the varied forms,
configurations, and movements of the celestial phenomena. Each and every
one, small or great, glittering or blazing, sun or planet, are ever
creating or generating Aether-waves, and impressing them with all the
details and particulars of their nature and existence; and these
Aether-waves ever bear upon their mystic wings the impressions received,
carrying the information given with lightning speed to the very confines
and limits of infinite space or the material universe; beyond which
exists nothing but the ever-living and active energy of the Divine, the
only unlimited, unbounded, and absolute infinitive.
It is by the interception and concentration of these waves by our
perceptive powers, aided with the giant powers of the telescope, that we
obtain the information given, or become cognizant of the nature and
existence of the varied lights, colours, tints, and shades of the
celestial bodies.
The vision, assisted by the giant power of the telescope, collects and
concentrates these Aether-waves into a perfect image of those things
that gave them birth, and by this means reveals to us the knowledge of
things afar, their existence, nature, characteristics, properties, and
powers.
Thus it is we see the solar orb, with its huge fires all aglow, obtain a
knowledge of its character and powers, see its huge spots, its quivering
fringe of flame, and high-leaping prominences, or watch its slowly
revolving form.
Thus we see the planets that around it sweep and roll; swift-footed
Mercury with his wondrous speed, and dazzling Venus with her silver
sheen; Mars the god of war with his ruddy glow, and mighty Jupiter with
his orange hue, and the yellow Saturn with her mysterious rings, the
blue Uranus, and the more distant Neptune, with all the satellites that
to it belong.
Then far far away the brilliant Sirius--the Dog Star, Cygnet, Centauri,
the Great Bear, and a thousand others.
The Pleiades and the twenty millions of suns that form our own galaxy
and the Milky Way, with all their varied colours, tints, and hues of
white, golden, orange, ruby, red and blue, green and grey, silver,
purple and yellow, buff and fawn, emerald and green, lilac and coppery.
Thus we see the distant Orion, so far away that swift-footed Light, with
its speed of more than eleven million miles per minute, has to travel
for more than thirty thousand years before it spans the gulf that
intervenes between it and us, and brings to us the news of its existence
there.
Then the spectroscope with its revealing power literally tears asunder
wave from wave, and reveals the mystic message which each doth bear, of
the distant things from which they come, of each and every sort and
kind.
Thus we know, that in the solar fires there ever burn such things as
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, and also, in a vaporous state, aluminium,
sodium, iron, magnesium, cobalt, calcium, chromium, copper, manganese,
zinc, and others.
Thus light-waves are speeding everywhere, and from all material things.
They come from our own sun, and rush in, and flood the earth's aerial
veil, the atmosphere; and "Each little atom of matter, like a mirror,
reflects and re-reflects them as if in sport, buffeting each luminous
ray from one to another, increasing and amplifying it by an infinity of
repercussions" (Herschel), and then in their entirety and whole, like a
huge multi-mirror, so blend and mingle them that they come to earth's
surface in that soft radiance we call Light, and bathe it as in a sea
of mellowed glory.
ART. 50. _Aether: its Motions._--The question of the exact motions of
the Aether is a question which has involved the attention of scientific
men for many years, and which is at the present time receiving the
attention of some of our most advanced scientists, not only in this
country but in other countries also.
Whether the Aether in space is at rest, or is moving along with all the
bodies that float in it, so to speak, is a question of the greatest
importance to scientists and philosophers generally, as the particular
character of the motions of the Aether, which are either suggested or
ascribed to it from the analogies of Nature, are sure to have a most
important bearing not only on the motions of all the planets and
satellites, but also upon such questions as the aberration of light, and
such difficulties as presented by Lord Kelvin in his paper on "Clouds on
the Undulatory Theory of Light" (_Phil. Mag._, July 1902).
I need hardly point out that the hypothesis that Aether is gravitative,
is bound to play a most important part in the consideration and
development of this phase of the study of the universal aetherial
medium. It is not my intention, however, at this stage of the work to go
fully into the development of this aspect of the subject.
The application of this principle will be considered at the right time,
and in the right place. It is, however, generally assumed, that the
Aether is at rest in space, and that the earth, the planets, and the sun
and all stars, move through it with varying velocity, although, as Lord
Kelvin points out, such an assumption is covered with a cloud which up
to the present is "as dense as ever." Of course, if the Aether be at
rest, and the planets and other heavenly bodies move through it with
varying velocity, then the only assumption regarding the Aether is, that
it is frictionless, but, as I have shown in Art. 45, this is opposed to
all philosophical reasoning, and therefore to experience and
observation.
We have, therefore, to postulate for the Aether such motions as shall
fulfil all the Rules of Philosophy, that is, shall be simple in
conception, shall be in harmony with our experience and observation, and
which shall satisfactorily account for the phenomena sought to be
explained, that is, the universal Law of Gravitation; for it is by the
properties, combined with the motions of the Aether, that the physical
cause of Gravitation is alone to be explained.
Let us revert to the question of a stationary Aether for a moment or
two, and let us ask ourselves, where is the evidence for such an
assumption? Has the sun ever ceased to shine, or to send its light-waves
with their enormous velocity speeding through the solar system? So far
as experience and observation go, I have never read of any record of
such a fact, or that light-waves have ceased to proceed from the sun and
fill the solar system with Aether-waves.
Not only is this true of the sun, but it is equally true of every planet
and satellite, every meteor or comet, every star and sun that exist or
dwell in this aetherial medium; for, as has already been shown (Art.
49), every body emits Aether-waves, and these waves spread out in all
directions in a spherical form.
The truth is, that the universal Aether is in eternal motion, and that
motion forms the physical life of the universe. If it were possible to
destroy the motion, then the whole fabric of the universe would fall to
pieces, and the beauty, order, and harmony of the celestial mechanism
would be replaced by disorder, confusion, and ultimate ruin. Take any
analogy of Nature, and see what such an analogy teaches us. Look at any
planet, sun, or star. Do we find any one of these stationary or at rest?
Why from the smallest meteorite or satellite, to the largest star that
shines in the firmament of heaven, there is nothing but motion; each
satellite, planet, sun, and star moving on and on, ever and ever through
the countless ages of time until its course is run and its existence
ended. But rest, never! Such a thing as rest is unknown in the entire
universe, whether it be in the atomic systems of matter, or the systems
of stars and suns that form the universe of worlds.
Take another illustration--that of the ocean! Is that ever at rest, with
its unceasing wave and tidal motion? Has the reader ever stood on the
shore and seen the ocean when it has been absolutely still, or when the
tide has ceased to flow? Such a possibility is almost absurd to
contemplate. The same argument applies to the air with its regular flow
of winds. Now in regard to the aetherial and universal medium, there are
just as regular motions as the flowing of the tide round the earth, or
the revolving of a satellite round a planet, or a planet round the sun.
And what is as important, all the motions can be as satisfactorily
explained and accounted for from the physical standpoint, as the flow of
the tide, or the revolution of a planet.
Year in and year out, the motions of the Aether remain the same, governed
by the same laws and producing the same effects. Age after age, the Aether
has been moving, producing by its various motions the continuity of that
beauty, order, and harmony that govern the universe as a whole.
I have already indicated in Art. 45 the effect of Gravitation on the
Aether surrounding each satellite, or planet, or star, or sun. As each
satellite, or planet, or star moves through the universal Aether, it
takes with it its surrounding Aether as indicated in Art. 45, in the
same way that each planet or sun takes with it its own associated
atmosphere, which is held in contact with it by the self-same force of
Gravitation.
In addition to this motion of the aetherial atmosphere through space,
there are other motions of this same gravitating Aether that have to be
taken into consideration, before a complete and adequate conception of
all the motions of the Aether can be arrived at.
I do not intend, however, at this stage to go fully into such motions,
but rather wish to lead up to them from a consideration of hypotheses
put forward by such men as Rankine, Challis, Maxwell, Lord Kelvin,
McCullagh, and Helmholtz, and from a consideration of such hypotheses in
the realm of heat, light, and electricity to be able to form a
scientific conception of the proper motions of the Aether, as well as a
philosophical one.