GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
“The child should know no other endeavor but to be at every stage
of development wholly what this stage calls for. Then will each
successive stage spring like a new shoot from a healthy bud; and
at each successive stage he will with the same endeavor again
accomplish the requirements of this stage; for only the adequate
development of man at each preceding stage can effect and bring
about adequate development at each succeeding later stage.”
—F. FROEBEL.
Children do not grow and develop by any haphazard process. Too often
parents have had so little, either of first-hand acquaintance with
other children, recollection of their own childhood, or knowledge of
the literature of child-study, that they have fumbled in the dark,
misunderstanding and experimenting on their own children, without
either standards for comparison or principles for guidance.
There is a wealth of material, both technical and popular, available
in this “century of the child.” The impetus given to the study of the
child by Pestalozzi and Froebel a century ago has gained increasing
momentum in Europe and America. Some investigators have made
laborious studies of large numbers of children to ascertain average
rates and factors of growth or development of some part of the body
or some phase of spirit. Others have made painstaking, intensive
studies of individual children and have reported the characteristics
observed at different ages.
The outlines, main features, and basal principles are already
defined. A knowledge of these is as essential to the intelligent
worker with children as a knowledge of the processes of plant growth
and development to the intelligent agriculturist. Many blanks and
gaps in our knowledge of child development are yet to be filled. The
father, mother, teacher who is sympathetic with child nature, who has
the scientific mind for accuracy, definiteness and persistence of
observation, has an opportunity to contribute to the common fund of
knowledge of child life by making original observations of the child
in the home. Hitherto most of the published studies, both of groups
and of individuals, have been made by men. Doctor G. Stanley Hall
has been the pioneer leader and chief inspirer of the child-study
movement in America. Doctor John Dewey’s contributions and
inspirations have been both profound and extensive. Madame Montessori
is the one woman who has made large contributions.
It should be noted that a science of child-study and development
was not possible until the idea of evolution became known and
appreciated. Froebel sensed this evolution, as will be noted in
reading his “Education of Man”, which was published a quarter of a
century before Darwin’s “Origin of Species.”
This phase of psychology—tracing the stages of mental development
as an organic process from its simple beginnings in the individual
or the race to its maturity in adulthood of the individual or
civilization of the race—is the field of genetic psychology.
The intelligent worker with children in the home must be acquainted
with what is normal and usual at any stage, in child anatomy,
physiology, and psychology. Only with such knowledge is it possible
to make intelligent observations of the development of the individual
child, and to supply a normal environment and guidance suited to his
stage of development. Such knowledge and preparation can be acquired
only through study of the literature of child psychology, and through
intensive, first-hand acquaintance with children.
It requires about twenty-five years for nature to bring a human
individual from birth to physiological maturity. In the nine months
before birth the growth and development is very rapid. All the organs
are formed, but their development at birth is immature, especially
the development of the nervous system. What is accomplished in these
years?
From Birth to Maturity
Total weight increases from 16 to 22 fold.
Length of body ” 3 fold
Size of muscles ” 37 ”
Size of lungs ” 18 ”
Size of heart ” 13 ”
Size of brain ” 3 ”
Weight of arm ” 4 ”
Weight of leg ” 5 ”
Note the great differences in increase of different parts of the body.
=At Birth= =At Maturity (25 years)=
Stomach undeveloped Complete digestive development
Few digestive juices All
No provision for digesting Digestion of all food elements,
starch until 8 or 9 months; including solids
fats (except cream); protein
(except curds of milk); solid
food
No teeth cut Two sets of teeth cut
Sense organs: incomplete Senses fully developed
development, especially Fine sense discrimination
sight and hearing
Reproductive system rudimentary Reproductive system mature
Nerve cells undeveloped Nervous system complex and
Few association fibers formed developed
Medullary sheath not formed
Motor ability limited to crying, Motor coördination of all muscles,
grasping, reflex movements including accessory eye
of arms and legs and finger muscles
Mental ability limited to few Concentration, imagination,
vague, unlocated sensations, judgment, speech, all well
slight motor memory developed
Language only a cry or instinctive Fluent use of language
movements of head, arms, legs
Emotions limited to slight Wide range of emotions, potentially
pleasure-pain; no control controlled and expressed
Volition rudimentary Will power to achieve any purpose
Social, moral, religious instincts Sense of law and property rights
undeveloped Social coöperation
Moral standards, judgments,
and habits
Religious feeling and action
After twenty-five years there is sometimes a slight increase in
height and weight; plasticity is slight; new habits are not readily
formed; new ideas not readily accepted. The nervous system is capable
of continued development.
There are a few foundation facts and principles that should be
summarized before taking up in detail the stages of growth and
development.
The child is not a small edition of an adult. His anatomical
proportions, his physiological processes, his ways of thought and
of thinking, his motives, interests, likes, emotions, methods of
expression, are all different from the adult’s; and they are all
different at different stages in his development.
The child lives through (recapitulates) in a general way the main
stages and order of physical and psychological development that
organic life and the race have passed through in the countless ages
since life began. Starting as a one-celled creature, he recapitulates
in the nine months of embryonic life the processes of evolution that
required millions of years, from the amœba to the higher vertebrates,
in the evolution of the species.
At birth the baby is less developed and more plastic than the young
of any other creature at its birth. This helplessness and plasticity
are due to the incompleteness in development of the nervous system.
It is because of this incompleteness that the physical, mental, and
spiritual life can be shaped in great measure by environment. It
is this incompleteness that provides both the opportunity and the
responsibility of parents and guardians.
For normal development there must be both the growth principle and
power within the individual, and the growth stimulus and materials
supplied by the environment.
The rate and nature of growth and development are influenced by two
factors: (1) heredity (race, family); (2) environment (climate,
social status, economic resources, city or country, materialistic or
idealistic atmosphere, commonplace or cultured, ugly or beautiful,
expressive or repressive, guiding or neglectful).
Growth and development are two different processes. Growth is
increase in size; development is increase in power of function. This
principle holds true for every muscle, every nerve, every special
organ, every brain center.
Growth is a vegetative process, dependent upon intake of nutrition
and elimination of waste. Development is dependent upon use, which
involves the exercise of the organ or system and of the related brain
center, and this leads to both (a) the initial use of mind and (b)
mental development.
Each organ, each physiological system or process, each mental
process, is controlled by its own definite nerve cells in the spinal
cord and brain. By exercise of the specific organ or system, the
corresponding nerve center is developed; and the development of the
nerve center makes possible a more adequate and perfect use of the
specific organ or system.
During the growth stage of any part, exercise of the part is not
normal but injurious. When sufficient growth has been attained for
development to begin, there is an instinctive desire or hunger for
exercise of the part. This desire is manifested by the natural,
spontaneous activity or interest of the child. For example, during
some ten or twelve months the muscles of the legs and back, and
corresponding nerve centers in the spinal cord and the brain, are
growing. When their growth is attained, these muscles and nerve
centers begin to function in the process of standing and walking,
and the child makes every effort to walk. To put him on his feet
and attempt to teach him before this stage, is to strain unprepared
organs, bones, muscles, and nerves. To keep him lying in a vehicle
so he cannot exercise when he spontaneously attempts to walk, is to
retard or prevent this natural development.
The process of growth and development is not uniform during
childhood; neither do all the parts grow and develop at the same
time. Growth is periodic and by parts; it is variable for each part
or system. There are periods of slow or rapid growth and development
at different ages.
Development begins first for the oldest (racially) muscles and parts,
and for those that are being used reflexly, that is, arms, legs,
trunk, hands, which are known as the fundamental muscles. The finer,
accessory muscles and their brain centers do not develop completely
until several years after birth.
There are no average children. Every child is somewhat different.
In rate of growth, children may normally vary one to two years from
the average. In individual children, some factors at any stage will
normally be more marked than others. Distinction must therefore
be made between (1) chronological age, (2) physiological age, and
(3) psychological age. The standards for (2) and (3) are at present
the subject of special researches. Physiological age refers to such
factors as dentition, development of bones, height, weight, sex
maturity. Psychological age refers to mental ability and maturity.
In some children the hereditary force of a specific characteristic
is stronger than in other children. Or the environment of one child
gives greater stimulus to an instinct at its nascent (beginning)
period, and greater opportunity for its use.
The individual who lives most completely in each stage the life
normal to that stage, is best prepared for the succeeding stages of
life.
To attempt to hurry a child through this process or to permit an
arrest of development in any stage or at any point, is to seriously
handicap the child’s normal and complete development. Infant
prodigies and infantile youths are both abnormal.
In each stage there are some instincts to be especially fostered,
some that need encouragement or stimulation, some that require
careful direction into useful channels, some to be ignored as only
transitory, and a few that may need inhibiting.
The following group of stages has been prepared as possibly most
helpful for guidance of parents and teachers in the home. The
transition from one stage to another is gradual.
In so brief a summary as the following, only a few of the most
significant items can be presented, and these typical of the average.
This is not a form into which every child must be expected to fit.
Rather it is a suggestion of the usual, which the individual normal
child will approximate in general. It presents a method for recording
the development of the individual child.
Infancy
Birth to 2-3 Years
Marked Characteristics:
Rapid growth, especially of brain
First dentition
Nervous system rapidly developing
Association fibers developing between spinal centers and brain centers
Bones, nervous system plastic
Rapid heat radiation
Rapid pulse, respiration
Tissues flabby
Low vitality
Motor and sensory development rapid
Motor coördinations developing rapidly
Speech develops
Interest in pure motor activity, and sensory experiences
Thinking exceeds power of expression
All mental processes developing
Curiosity about everything seen, handled, heard
Perceptions crude, few
Unconsciously imitative
Activity an end in itself
Imagination crude, vague
Reasons by association of circumstances
Emotions crude, uncontrolled
Fear of noises and strange objects
Humor in surprise
Social dependence
Little self-control
Obedience
Trust
Early Childhood
2-3 to 6-7 Years
Marked Characteristics:
Rapid growth
Nervous system rapidly developing
Rapid growth of brain until 7 yrs.
Fundamental muscles utilized
Accessory muscles immature
Activity its own end
Experiments in motor control
Greatest sensory development and efficiency
Curiosity, analysis, investigation, experimentation strong
Interest in simple construction
Constructs for use
Thought concrete
Suggestibility
Continued plasticity
Attention flitting
Asks “What?” “Why?”
Memory for words
Æsthetic tastes crude
Frankness
Crude experience and association of ideas
Vivid, concrete imagination; images distorted
Imitation at its strongest
Imitative dramatic play
Humor in incongruity
Curiosity regarding sex biology
Sex feeling undeveloped
Emotions strong, slight control
Imaginary fears
Self-control weak
Selfish, thoughtless
Respect for parents
Wonder at universe
Obedience
Personification of nature
Conscience begins
Infancy and Early Childhood
Birth to 6 Years
Foster:
Sensory and motor activity
Trustfulness
Curiosity
Investigation
Acquaintance with world of realities
Initiative
Wide range of interests
Fanciful imagination
Formation of permanent habits
Sense of wonder
Cultivate:
Regularity
Respect for authority
Concentration
Thoughtfulness for others
Courtesy
Emotional control
Permanent moral prejudices
Thrift
Inhibit, or Overcome:
Social dependence
Fear
Selfishness
Reckon with:
Slow mental adjustment
Motor awkwardness
Misunderstanding of instructions
Mischief, which is the result of an abundance of vitality,
initiative, sense of humor, investigating spirit; it is not
something to condemn, but for which to provide natural environment.
Rudeness, which is due to childish frankness, democracy,
thoughtlessness, examples of discourtesy.
Curiosity regarding biology of sex, to be answered honestly but
poetically under three years and biologically after three.
Telling of falsehoods, from 3 to 7 years of age, frequently due to
the vivid, imaginative life that the child is living, his relative
inexperience with the world of realities, and the difficulty,
therefore, of keeping the distinction clear between the two.
Later Childhood
6-7 to 9-10 Years
Marked Characteristics:
Growth progressing
Differences in growth rate of boys and girls
Second dentition
Sensory and motor activities prominent
Heart and lungs relatively small
Brain growing slowly, attains adult size
Eye development still incomplete: near sight
Finger movements stronger, more precise
Rapid increase in motor control
Forearm and finger control develops
Manual skill easily acquired
Interest in workmanship
Ideals exceed ability
Plasticity to habit
Receptivity
Routine easy
Experimentation, exploration strong
Interest in variety
Actions not well coördinated
Lack of perseverance
Easily discouraged
Adjustment to realities
Images truer to reality
Memory strong for concrete
Period of imaginative activity
Less direct imitation
Imitative and imaginative dramatic play
Emotions becoming controlled
Fears strong
Self-control vacillating
Humor in puns, riddles
Appreciation of rules in game
Beginning of social sense in group play
Slight sense of property rights
Slight conscience
Interest in religious forms (imitative)
Foster:
Exploration
Experimentation
Moral habits
Imaginative play
Variety of interests
Doll interest
Motor coördinations—skating, dancing, swimming
Cultivate:
Power of voluntary attention
Self-control
Initiative
Modesty
Conventional courtesies
Respect for property rights
Inhibit:
Cruelty
Fears
Reckon with:
Fatigue, due to bodily conditions
Discouragement, from greater increase in ideals than in
technical ability
Youth
Girls, 9 to 12-14 Years
Boys, 9 to 14-16 Years
Marked Characteristics:
Slower growth
Period of transition
Practical adjustment
Reproductive organs maturing
Period of low morbidity
Heart and lungs relatively small
Great motor activity
Reactions vigorous
Resistance to fatigue
Immunity to exposure, danger,
temptation
Senses acute
New adjustments and coördinations readily made
Routine and rote enjoyed
Motor skill easily acquired
Keen interest in workmanship and motor skill
Constructs for concrete purposes or use
Mental action better controlled, more connected, orderly
Memory quick, sure, lasting
More critical
Sex consciousness develops
Emotions weaker
Fear increases
Teasing other children
Less submissive to elders
Competitive sense increases
Conscience weak
Reverence weaker
Religious indifference
Foster:
Muscular activity
Motor and manual skill
Drill, memorizing
Routine, discipline
Three R’s.
Responsibility
Cultivate:
Fine handwork
Thoroughness
Reserve (in girls)
Chivalry (in boys)
Confidence in parents
Inhibit:
Athletic competition (too great strain on heart)
Fear
Reckon with:
Less confidence in adults
Group interest
Secretiveness
Adolescence
Girls, 12 to 18 Years
Boys, 13 to 21 Years
Marked Characteristics:
Rapid growth and development
Proportions changing
Lungs, heart increase in size and function
Blood pressure increases
Muscular strength increases
Voice changes
Awkwardness
Senses keen
Craving for larger experience
Routine irksome
Power of concentration
Abstract thought
Independent thought
Mental speculation
Larger mental perspective
Memory strong, includes abstract
Abstract reasoning
Debating
Imagination strong, comprehensive
Original thought and action
Organized dramatics
Individuality increases
Works for remote ends
Restive of restraint
Sex feelings increase
Romantic interest strong
Social sympathy increases
Social coöperation
Subject to moods
Shyness and bashfulness
Conscience keener or very callous
Sense of duty develops
Spirit of social service or rowdyism
Religious feeling
Conversion period
Criminal period
Idealism
Hero-worship
Foster:
Idealism
Hero-worship
Altruism
Religious feeling
Group interest; team work
Leadership, individuality
Reasoning, debating
Constructive imagination
Athletics; physical activity
Cultivate:
Sense of reality
Emotional poise
Responsibility
Strength of will
Mutual sympathy (parent and youth)
Variety of interests
Vocational choice
Outdoor life
Inhibit:
Depression and pessimism
Finicalness
Recklessness
Reckon with:
Emotional upheaval
Philosophical speculation
Sex interest
Awkwardness, bashfulness
Self-consciousness
Reserve with family
Development of Language
Children vary naturally, and according to their environment, in the
rate of development in use of language. Any effort to hasten the
process of talking or vocabulary during the first four or five years
is an artificial forcing that is more likely to retard development.
The following represents all that should be expected of a normal
child.
First six months: crying, gesture language
Second six months: babbling, imitation of sounds, gesture language
One year: three to ten words
One to two years: vocabulary of 100 to 500 words; two-word sentences
Two to three years: 500 to 1500 new words; begins use of pronouns
Three to four years: 500 new words; complete sentences
Four to five years: articulation nearly perfect; interest in rhyming
Five to six years: articulation perfect; inflection of nouns and
verbs nearly perfect; interest in nonsense words; use of drawing
Six to nine years: grammar usually correct; interest in puns and in
secret language; use of drawing as language expression; imitative
interest in symbols of language (alphabet, reading, writing)
Nine to twelve years: genuine interest in language symbols; easily
learns reading and writing; with limited vocabulary, slang develops
PHYSICAL AND MENTAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
==================+=================+==================+=============
PHYSICAL | BIRTH | FIRST | SECOND
CHARACTERISTICS | | SIX MONTHS | SIX MONTHS
——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————
Organs rapidly | | Muscles, bones, | As first 6
growing | | brain, viscera | months, and
| | | teeth
Organs | Head, surface, | Head, intestines,| ”
proportionately | intestines, | liver, surface |
large | liver | |
| | |
Organs | Stomach, | Stomach, lungs, | ”
proportionately | lung capacity, | heart, legs |
small | legs | |
| | |
Organs | | Anti-bodies, | ”
proportionately | | kidneys |
strong in | | |
function | | |
| | |
Organs | Digestive and | Digestive, | ”
proportionately | respiratory | respiratory, |
weak in | systems; | nervous systems; |
function | tissues flabby | leucocytes, |
| | hemoglobin |
| | |
Dentition | No teeth | 2 teeth | 6-8 teeth
| (rudiments of | |
| both sets in | |
| jaw) | |
| | |
Nerves | Total number of | Easily exhausted;| As first six
| cells but | peripheral | months;
| development | nerves sensitive;| spinal and
| incomplete | sensory and | brain
| | motor centers | associations
| | developing | connecting
| | |
Sense development | No hearing; | Hearing begins; | Color sense,
| sight only for | eyes begin to | sound,
| light and | converge and | rhythm
| darkness; touch | work together | developing
| vague; | |
| sensitiveness | |
| to temperature | |
| | |
Special organs | Lungs | Muscles of arms, | As first
or systems at | | legs, trunk, | 6 months;
developmental | | hand; lungs | muscles of
stage, needing | | | creeping,
much immediate | | | hand,
exercise | | | speech organs
| | |
Defects easily | Eyestrain; | Bones misshaped; | As first
acquired | blindness | eyestrain; | six months
| | nerves; |
| | disposition |
| | |
Defects easily | Phimosis | Bones; | ”
overcome | | temperament; |
| | phimosis; |
| | tongue-tie, |
| | harelip |
| | |
Illness most | Cold, pneumonia,| Digestive, | ”
susceptible | jaundice, | pulmonary; |
| inflammation | rickets; |
| of navel | nervous |
| | disorders, |
| | erysipelas |
| | |
Most common | Congenital | Congenital | ”
immediate | debility; | debility, |
causes | syphilis; | digestive |
of death[2] | prematurity, | disturbances, |
| accidents | pneumonia, |
| | whooping cough, |
| | bronchitis, |
| | convulsions, |
| | measles, |
| | meningitis |
| | |
Nature and rate | Vague, | Slow, vague, | More
of mentality | indefinite, | diffused | definite,
| slow, groping | | alert,
| | | quickened
| | |
Motor activities | Chiefly reflex | Grasping, | Sitting,
| | waving arms, | creeping
| | hands; kicking; | standing,
| | few vocal sounds | prattle
| | |
Sense activity | Slight, vague | Touch, sight, | Sight, touch,
| | hearing becoming | hearing,
| | active | active
| | |
Attention | None | Begins in | Listening,
| | staring, | examining
| | handling |
| | |
Perception | ” | Dimly begins | Vague
| | |
Curiosity | ” | Begins, vague | Objects in
| | | reach,
| | | opening doors,
| | | pulling;
| | | exploring
| | | cupboards
| | |
Imitation | ” | Of moods and | Mechanical, of
| | vocal sounds of | vocal sounds,
| | adults | moods, facial
| | | expression
| | |
Memory | Slight | Faint, vague; | For familiar
| | motor | acts and faces,
| | | responses
| | | to his crying
| | |
Imagination | None | Glimmerings | Glimmerings
| | |
Reasoning | ” | Dawning, by | By
| | association | association,
| | | increasing
| | |
Social instincts | ” | Egoistic, strong;| Trust, desire
| | trustful, | for
| | responsive to | companionship
| | care | of adults
| | |
Sense of law | ” | Vaguely sensed, | Developed
| | as association | through regular
| | of cause and | regimen and
| | effect; and in | beginnings of
| | rhythm of | obedience,
| | regular regimen | especially to
| | | direct commands
| | |
Emotions | Slight, vague | Fear, sympathy, | Control weak
| | confidence, | but susceptible
| | satisfaction, | to training
| | anger |
| | |
Sense of humor | None | None; smiling | Shown in
| | begins | surprise,
| | | plays, laughing
| | |
Will | ” | Temperamental | Persistent;
| | expression | shown in temper
| | |
Religion | ” | Begins in trust, | Human sympathy,
| | dependence | confidence,
| | | obedience
——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————
PHYSICAL | SECOND YEAR | THIRD YEAR | FOURTH YEAR
CHARACTERISTICS | | |
——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————
Organs rapidly | Brain, teeth, | Trunk, brain, | Upper arm,
growing | muscles, bones, | teeth | thigh; brain
| viscera | | still
| | | increasing;
| | | bones
| | |
Organs | Intestines, | As second year | As second year
proportionately | liver, kidneys, | |
large | arteries, head, | |
| surface | |
| | |
| | |
Organs | Legs, lungs, | ” | Lungs, legs,
proportionately | heart | | heart
small | | |
| | |
Organs | | Heart, | As third year
proportionately | | fundamental |
strong in | | muscles |
function | | |
| | |
Organs | As first year | Eyes, hands, | As third year
proportionately | | fingers, legs, |
weak in | | nerves, |
function | | digestive, |
| | respiratory |
| | |
Dentition | 6 teeth cut | Completion of |
| | first set |
| | |
Nerves | Motor | Sensory-motor | Sensory keen,
| coördinations | coördinations | motor
| developing, | forming | coördinations
| association | | rapidly
| centers | | developing
| developing | | (fundamental)
| | |
Sense development | Hearing | Touch, muscular, | Increasing
| discriminate; | sight, sound; | keenness,
| touch becoming | increasing | discrimination
| keen, sight | discrimination |
| definite, | |
| focused | |
| | |
Special organs | Muscles of | Trunk, back, | Arms, legs,
or systems at | walking, | arms, legs, | trunk;
developmental | forearm, | hands, speech, | sensory-motor
stage, needing | hand; speech, | senses, teeth, | coördinations;
much immediate | sight, touch, | respiratory | sensory
exercise | hearing; teeth | | nerves;
| | | teeth; lungs
| | |
Defects easily | Bones; teeth, | Bones, teeth, | Eyes, bones,
acquired | speech, nerves, | speech, nerves | speech,
| disposition | | nerves, teeth
| | |
Defects easily | Bones; | Bones, teeth, | Eyes, bones,
overcome | cleft palate, | speech, eyes | speech, teeth
| temperament | |
| | |
Illness most | Digestive, | Digestive, | Digestive,
susceptible to | respiratory; | respiratory; | respiratory;
| ears, throat, | ears, throat, | measles,
| nerves; scurvy, | infectious | scarlet fever,
| rickets | fevers | whooping
| | | cough, colds
| | |
Most common | Digestive | Period of | Low death rate
immediate | disturbances, | low death rate; | Pneumonia,
causes of death | croup, | pneumonia, | diptheria,
| pneumonia, | tuberculosis, | croup,
| diptheria, | croup, | tuberculosis,
| bronchitis, | diptheria, | meningitis
| tuberculosis, | meningitis, |
| measles, | scarlet fever |
| meningitis | |
Nature and rate | Gaining in | Impulsive, | Active, slow
of mentality | definiteness, | flitting, slow |
| slow | |
| | |
Motor activities | Alertness, but | Increasing | Quiet games
| inefficient | coördination of | preferred to
| Runs, throws | legs, arms, eye, | active;
| | and hand | dawdling;
| | | spontaneous
| | |
Sense activity | Keen, | Handling, | At best, most
| especially | listening; sight,| active
| touch | touch, sound |
| Acquiring | discrimination |
| discrimination | |
| | |
Attention | Increasing | Flitting, | Voluntary—weak
| | concentration | Involuntary—
| | increased in | strong
| | doing |
| | |
Perception | Gaining | Still vague, but | Still vague,
| clearness, | becoming | improving
| definiteness | definite |
| | |
Curiosity | Insatiable; | Varied; names; | Insatiable
| objects in | animals; |
| environment | mechanical |
| | processes |
| | |
Imitation | Constant, of | Adult actions, | Chiefly adult
| adult actions, | speech, moods | occupations,
| voice | | less
| | | impulsive;
| | | literal
| | |
Memory | For names of | Verbal and motor | Verbal, motor
| things; | good; emotions | and emotional
| emotions, | | strong
| simple movements| |
| | |
Imagination | Slightly | Concrete, vivid | Auditory and
| increasing | | motor images
| | | more distinct
| | | than visual;
| | | concrete
| | |
Construction | Building | Persistent, for | For activity,
| | motor activity | immediate use
| | |
Reasoning | By association | By association | By association;
| of experiences | of experiences | ludicrous
| | | inferences;
| | | guessing period
| | |
Social instincts | Increasing sense| Social dependence| Self-assertive;
| of ownership | on an adult; | selfish;
| | slight play with | quarrels
| | other children | over property
| | |
Sense of law | Discerned in | Dim: susceptible | Disorderliness;
| regularity of | to training; | imaginative
| régime: in | sense of | tales taken for
| commands, | ownership | lying
| rewards, | developing |
| punishments | |
| | |
Emotions | Trust, fear, | Love, fear, | Easily aroused,
| anger | anger easily | keen; pity
| | stirred; | begins;
| | little control | imaginary fears
| | |
Sense of humor | In surprises, | In grotesque | Persistent;
| in tumbles | situations, being| crude; in
| | caught, hiding | grotesque
| | |
Will | Vacillating, | Little control | Unreasonable;
| temperamental | | persistent
| | |
Religion | Respect for | Obedience, trust,| Animistic;
| parents, trust | respect for | invests
| Obedience to | authority | inanimate
| parents | | things with
| | | life
——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————
PHYSICAL | FIFTH YEAR | SIXTH YEAR |LATER CHILDHOOD
CHARACTERISTICS | | | 6-9 years
——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————
Organs rapidly | See 4th year | Legs, arms, | Motor cells in
growing | | chest girth | brain
| | | Period of
| | | slower physical
| | | growth;
| | | cessation
| | | of rapid
| | | brain growth
| | |
Organs | Surface, | As 5th year | Digestive
proportionately | intestines, | | system,
large | kidneys, | | liver, kidneys,
| arteries | | surface, legs
| | |
Organs | As 4th year | As 4th year | Trunk, heart,
proportionally | | | lungs
small | | |
| | |
Organs | Digestive and | Digestive and | Leg muscles
proportionately | respiratory | respiratory |
strong in | ability | ability |
function | increasing | increasing |
| | |
Organs | Accessory | As 5th year | Heart; low
proportionally | muscles and | | blood pressure;
weak in | nerves; eyes, | | teeth
function | fingers, throat | |
| | |
Dentition | | Sheds some first | 2nd dentition
| | teeth |
| | |
Nerves | Association | As 5th year | Rapid growth
| fibres rapidly | | of association
| developing; | | fibres
| see 4th year | | in brain;
| | | easily fatigued
| | | in 8th year
| | |
Sense Development | Keen | Senses | Eyes developed
| development | correlated; | for finer work
| | finer |
| | discrimination |
| | |
Special organs or | As 4th year | As 4th year | Muscles of
systems at | | | arms,
developmental | | | legs, trunk
stage, needing | | | Muscles of
much immediate | | | forearm,
exercise | | | 8 years
| | | Muscles of
| | | fingers,
| | | 9-10 years
| | |
Defects easily | ” | ” | Spinal
acquired | | | curvature,
| | | defective teeth
| | | speech
| | | disorders,
| | | eyestrain
| | |
Defects easily | ” | ” | Speech
overcome | | | disorders
| | |
Illness most | Digestive, | As fifth year | Infectious
susceptible | respiratory, | | diseases,
| ears, | | rheumatism,
| diphtheria, | | nervousness,
| rheumatism, | | anemia,
| measles, | | digestive
| scarlet fever | | disturbances;
| | | illness
| | | increases
| | | 8th year
| | |
Most common | Period of low | Period of low | Low mortality;
immediate | death rate | death rate | pneumonia,
causes of death | As 4th year | As 4th year | tuberculosis,
| | | diphtheria,
| | | croup,
| | | measles, kidney
| | | and heart
| | | disease
| | |
Nature and rate | Steadier, | More definite, | Hesitating,
of mentality | quicker, more | alert, quicker | impulsive,
| alert | | restless
| | |
Motor activities | Increasing | Increasing | Finger
| coördinations, | correlation | movements
| rhythmic | Steadier action, | stronger, more
| movements, | marching, | precise;
| skipping | dancing | actions
| | | not well
| | | coördinated
| | |
Sense activity | Finer | Improvising on | Senses become
| discriminations;| piano; eagerness | practically
| notices | to color; | perfected;
| sound, color | tasting | sensory
| | | interest
| | | weaker
| | |
Attention | Voluntary—weak; | Purposive | Flitting; lack
| involuntary- | inattention; | of endurance,
| strong | keener | application
| | concentration in |
| | play |
| | |
Perception | Clearer, many | Clearer | Truer to
| groups | | realities,
| | | more distinct;
| | | differentiates
| | | between real
| | | and imagined
| | |
Curiosity | Intense | Physical | Asks “What is
| (see 4th year) | properties; | it for?” Wider
| | processes; | range of
| | causes; birth | interests
| | |
Imitation | Dramatic, of | Dramatic; | Decreasing,
| adult | adults’ | imitates idea
| activities, | activities, | rather than
| animals; | animals; | action
| literal | less literal |
| | |
Memory | Verbal, strong; | Verbal, strong; | Literal,
| learns nonsense,| poetry, stories; | increasing
| poetry | motor, emotional,| in ability
| | strong |
| | |
Imagination | Strong visual, | As 5th year; | Less fanciful;
| lives in | fanciful tales | related more
| imagination; | of personal | to facts and
| invents stories | experience | needs of life
| | |
Construction | Follows idea; | Things for use; | Begins to be
| for activity, | æsthetic | creative;
| use, æsthetic | interest | interest
| interest | | begins in
| | | finish,
| | | workmanship
| | |
Reasoning | See 4th year, | As 5th year | Little use for
| reasons by | | explanations
| analogy; | | or logic
| attempts | |
| arguing | |
| | |
Social instincts | Prefers child to| Self-sufficiency;| Group play,
| adult; love of | homesickness; | circle
| emulation; | begins group | games; slight
| selfish; | play | respect for
| ownership | | property rights
| | |
Sense of law | No sense of | As 5th year | Expects to be
| property rights;| Increasing; | held to law and
| disobedience | rigid, literal | consequences;
| increases | | respects power
| | | that requires
| | | obedience
| | |
Emotions | See 4th year; | Degree of | Increasing
| jealousy; fears | control | control,
| animals; | | reserve
| imaginary fears | |
| | |
Sense of humor | See 4th year | As 5th year | Incongruities
| Drawings, | Silliness | of action; play
| practical jokes | | on words;
| | | disasters
| | |
Will | Increasing | As 5th year | Vacillating
| force | |
| | |
Religion | Wonder in | As 5th year; | Period of
| nature; | imitative | ceremony,
| reverence; | interest in | forms, rites
| prayer; | formal worship | Animistic
| obedience | | tendency
| | | weakening
——————————————————+—————————————————+——————————————————+—————————————
———————————————————————+———————————————————————+———————————————————————
PHYSICAL | YOUTH | EARLY ADOLESCENCE
CHARACTERISTICS | Girls, 9-12 years | Girls 12-16 years
| Boys, 9-13 years | Boys 13-18 years
———————————————————————+———————————————————————+———————————————————————
Height | Slow growth; girls | Rapid increase (Girls,
| more rapid than boys | 11-14) (Boys, 13-17)
| |
Weight | Slow growth | Rapid increase ” ”
| |
Organs rapidly growing | Legs, arms | Trunk, legs, arms,
| | lungs,
| | reproductive organs,
| | heart, liver, kidneys;
| | proportions changing
| |
Organs proportionately | Arteries | Hands, feet, arms,
large | | legs
| |
Organs proportionately | Heart, trunk | Trunk, internal organs,
small | | arteries
| |
Organs proportionately | Muscles, legs, eyes | Heart, lungs; blood
strong in function | | pressure high; muscles,
| | fundamental and
| | accessory
| |
Organs proportionately | Heart, lungs; blood | Nerves; internal
weak in function | pressure; elimination | organs, elimination;
| | motor coördinations
| | because of change in
| | bodily proportions
| |
Dentition | Complete (except |
| wisdom teeth) |
| |
Nerves | Reactions vigorous | Under strain; easily
| | unbalanced
| |
Sense development | Complete, including | Senses keen
| eyes |
| |
Special organs or | Muscles of trunk, | Muscles of trunk, arms,
systems at | forearm, fingers; | legs, fingers; lungs
developmental stage, | motor adjustments; |
needing much | lungs |
immediate exercise | |
| |
Defects easily | Spinal curvature, | Of reproductive system;
acquired | eyestrain; precocious | shallow breathing
| sex development |
| |
Defects easily | Bones, teeth | Bones, lung capacity
overcome | |
| |
Illness most | Anemia, rheumatism, | Anemia, nervousness,
susceptible | heart weakness, | malnutrition;
| nervousness; period | tuberculosis (girls);
| of low morbidity | increased morbidity
| |
Most common immediate | Period of low | Pneumonia,
causes of death | mortality | tuberculosis,
| Pneumonia, | kidney and heart
| tuberculosis, | disease, accidental
| diphtheria and croup, | drownings
| heart and kidney |
| diseases, accidental |
| drownings |
| |
Nature and rate of | Direct, alert; more | Well coördinated,
mentality | orderly, controlled | more abstract,
| | logical, comprehensive;
| | routine irksome
| |
Motor activities | Well coördinated; | Muscular awkwardness
| need much exercise; | during growth
| new adjustments |
| readily made |
| |
Sense activity | Sure, acute, | Acute; all senses
| subordinate to |
| thought |
| |
Attention | Voluntary increasing | Potential voluntary
| | attention strong
| |
Perception | Clearer | Clear
| |
Curiosity | Less keen | Wide range; persistent;
| | craving for larger
| | experience
| |
Imitation | Less marked; of idea | Of ideals, strong;
| rather than action | originality marked;
| | individuality
| |
Memory | Quick, sure, lasting; | At best; logical
| period of rote |
| learning |
| |
Imagination | Clear, creative | Vivid, comprehensive,
| | creative; works for
| | remote ends
| |
Construction | Constructs for | Interest in technique,
| purpose; interest in | use, æsthetic qualities
| workmanship, skill |
| |
Reasoning | Immature; by analogy | Logical, abstract;
| or suggestion; logic | mental speculation
| premature |
| |
Social instincts | Less sympathy with | Strong sympathies;
| adults, more with | group loyalty;
| companions; | altruism; sex
| competition increases | instincts developing
| |
Sense of law | Increasing through | Conscience keen;
| games; contempt for | marked lawlessness
| artificial laws, | or law abiding;
| customs; less | restive of restraint
| submissive to |
| authority |
| |
Emotions | Weaker; fears | Keen, subjective,
| increase; sex | whimsical; shyness
| consciousness | and bashfulness;
| developing | romantic love develops
| |
Sense of humor | Keen, expressed in | Strong; riddles, puns
| teasing, practical |
| jokes, puns |
| |
Will | Self-will increasing; | Self-will strong;
| tendency to | potential will power
| vacillation, inertia |
| |
Religion | Conscience weak; | Deep religious
| reverence weak; | feeling or irreverence
| religious | Idealism; mysticism;
| indifference; formal | altruism
| interest in religious | Conversion period
| ceremonies, forms |
| |
=======================+=======================+========================
The tables of physical characteristics are based upon the work of
Vierordt, Uffelmann, Schmid-Monnard, Pfaundler and Schlossmann.
Holt, Kerley; the tables of mental characteristics upon the
studies of G. Stanley Hall, John Dewey, Earl Barnes, and their
disciples, and the summaries of Kirkpatrick, Tanner, Taylor,
Tracy. The author’s personal experience with children, as a
medium for developing these data into a composite grouping, has
been supplemented by the criticisms and suggestions of individual
physicians, biologists, and psychologists. The subject deserves
much additional research in the comparative study of children.
FOOTNOTES:
[2] Based on U. S. Census Report for 1913; causes arranged in
decreasing rank.