INSECT CALENDAR.
In this calendar I propose to especially notice the injurious insects.
References to the times of their appearance must be necessarily vague,
and apply only, in a very general way, to the Northern States. Insects
appear in Texas about six weeks earlier than in Virginia, in the Middle
States six weeks earlier than in northern New England and the
North-western States, and in New England about six weeks earlier than in
Labrador. The time of the appearance of insects corresponds to the time
of the flowering or leafing out of certain trees and herbs; for
instance, the larvæ of the American Tent caterpillar and of the Canker
worm hatch just as the apple tree begins to leaf out; a little later the
Plant lice appear, to feast on the tender leaves; and when, during the
first week in June, our forests and orchards are fully leafed out, hosts
of insects are marshalled to ravage and devour their foliage.
_The Insects of Early Spring._
In April the gardener should scrape and wash thoroughly all his fruit
trees, so as to rub off the eggs of the bark lice which hatch out early
in May. Many injurious caterpillars and insects of all kinds winter
under loose pieces of bark, or under matting and straw at the base of
the trees. Search should also be made for the eggs of the Canker worm
and the American Tent caterpillar, which last are laid in bunches half
an inch long on the terminal shoots of many of our fruit trees. A little
labor spent in this way will save many dollars' worth of fruit. The
"castings" of the Apple Tree Borer (Saperda bivittata) should be looked
for at the base of the tree, and its ravages be promptly arrested. Its
presence can also be detected, it is said, by the dark appearance of the
bark, where the grub is at work: cut in and pull out the young grub. It
is the best time of the year to catch and kill this pest. Cylindrical
bark borers, which are little round, black, weevil-like beetles, often
causing "fire-blight" in pears, etc., are now flying about fruit trees
to lay their eggs; and many other weevils and boring beetles, especially
the Pea weevil (Bruchus pisi, Fig. 215), the Pine weevil (Pissodes
strobi, Fig. 216), and Hylobius pales and Hylurgus terebrans, also
infesting the pine, now abound, and the collector can obtain many
specimens not met with at other times.
[Illustration: 215. Pea Weevil and Maggot.]
[Illustration: 216 Pine Weevil and Young.]
The housewife must now guard against the intrusion of Clothes moths
(Tinea), while many other species of minute moths (Tineids) and of
Leaf-rollers (Tortricidæ) will be flying about orchards and gardens just
as the buds are beginning to unfold; especially the Coddling moth
(Carpocapsa pomonella). On warm days myriads of these and other insects
may be seen filling the air; it is the busiest time of their lives, as
all are on errands of love to their kind, but of mischief to the
agriculturist.
When the May Flower--"O commendable flowre and most in minde"--blooms,
and the willows hang out their golden catkins, we shall hear the hum of
the wild bee, and the insect hunter will reap a rich harvest of
rarities. Seek now on the abdomen of various wild bees, such as Andrena,
for that most eccentric of all our insects, the Stylops Childreni. The
curious larvæ of the Oil beetle may be found abundantly on the bodies of
various species of Bombus, Andrena and Halictus, with their heads
plunged in between the segments of the bee's body.
[Illustration: 217. The Comma Butterfly.]
[Illustration: 218. Tachina.]
The beautiful moth, Adela, with its immensely long antennæ, may be seen,
with other smaller moths, feeding on the blossoms of the willow. The
Ants wake from their winter's sleep and throw up their hillocks, and the
"thriving pismire" issues from his vaulted galleries constructed in some
decaying log or stump, while the Angle worms emulate late their
six-footed neighbors. During the mild days of March, ere the snow has
melted away--
"The dandy Butterfly,
All exquisitely drest,"
will visit our gardens. Such are various kinds of Vanessa and Grapta
(Fig. 217, G. c-argenteum[30]). The beautiful Brephos infans flies
before the snow disappears.
"The Gnat, old back-bent fellow,
In frugal frieze coat drest,"
will celebrate the coming of Spring, with his choral dance. Such is
Trichocera hyemalis, which may be seen in multitudes towards twilight on
mild evenings. Many flies are now on the wing, such as Tachina (Fig.
218) and its allies; the four spotted Mosquito, Anopheles
quadrimaculatus, and the delicate species of Chironomus, whose males
have such beautifully feathered antennæ, assemble in swarms. Now is the
time for the collector to turn up stones and sticks by the river's side
and in grassy damp pastures, for Ground beetles (Carabidæ), and to
frequent sunny paths for the gay Cicindela and the Bombylius fly, or
fish in brooks and pools for water beetles and various larvæ of
Neuroptera and Diptera; while many flies and beetles are attracted to
freshly cut maples or birches running with sap; indeed, many insects,
rarely found elsewhere, assemble in quantities about the stumps of these
trees, from which the sap oozes in March and April.
In April the injurious insects in the Northern States have scarcely
begun their work of destruction, as the buds do not unfold before the
first of May. We give an account, however, of some of the beneficial
insects which are now to be found in grass-lands and in gardens. The
farmer should know his true insect friends as well as his insect foes.
We introduce to our readers a large family of ground-beetles (Carabidæ,
from Carabus, the name of the typical genus) which prey on those insects
largely injurious to crops. A study of the figures will familiarize our
readers with the principal forms. They are dark-colored, brown or black,
with metallic hues, and are seen in spring and throughout the summer,
running in grass, or lurking under stones and sticks in damp places,
whence they sally forth to hunt by night, when many vegetable-eating
insects are most active.
[Illustration: 219. Calosoma scrutator.]
[Illustration: 220. Calosoma calidum and Larva.]
The larvæ are found in much the same situations as the mature beetles.
They are, elongate, oblong, and rather broad, the terminal ring of the
body being armed with two horny hooks, and having a single fleshy leg
beneath; and are usually black in color. The larva of Calosoma (C.
calidum, Fig. 220; _a_, the beetle; and Fig. 219, C. scrutator) ascends
trees to feed on caterpillars, such as the Canker worm. When about to
transform to the pupa state, it forms a rude cocoon in the earth. The
beetle lies in wait for its prey in shallow pits excavated in pastures.
We once saw it fiercely attack a May beetle (Lachnosterna fusca) nearly
twice its size; it tore open the hard sides of its clumsy and helpless
victim with tiger-like ferocity. Carabus (Fig. 221, C. serratus Say, and
pupa of Carabus auronitens of Europe, after Westwood) is a closely
allied form, with very similar habits.
[Illustration: 221. Carabus and Pupa.]
[Illustration: 222. Brachinus.]
[Illustration: 223. Casnonia.]
[Illustration: 224. Pangus.]
[Illustration: 225. Agonum.]
[Illustration: 226. Carabid Larva.]
A much smaller form is the curious Bombardier beetle, Brachinus (Fig.
222, B. fumans), with its narrow head and heart-shaped prothorax. It is
remarkable for discharging with quite an explosion from the end of its
body a pungent fluid, probably as a protection against its enemies. An
allied genus is Casnonia (Fig. 223, C. Pensylvanica), which has a long
neck and spotted wing covers. Figure 224, Pangus caliginosus, and figure
225, Agonum cupripenne, represent two common forms. The former is black,
while the latter is a pretty insect, greenish, with purplish-red
wing-covers, and black legs.
Figure 226, enlarged about three times, represents a singular larva
found by Mr. J. H. Emerton under a stone early in spring. Dr. LeConte,
to whom we sent a figure, supposes that it may possibly be a larva of
Harpalus, or Pangus caliginosus. It is evidently a young Carabid. The
under side is represented.
_The Insects of May._
During this month there is great activity among the insects. As the
flowers bloom and the leaves appear, multitudes wake from their long
winter sleep, and during this month pass through the remainder of their
transformations, and prepare for the summer campaign. Most insects
hibernate in the chrysalis or pupa state, while many winter in the
caterpillar or larva state, such as the larvæ of several Noctuidæ and
the "yellow-bear," and other caterpillars of Arctia and its allies.
Other insects hibernate in the adult or imago form, either as beetles,
butterflies or certain species of bees.
It is well known that the Queen Humble bee winters under the moss, or in
her old nest. During the present month her rovings seem to have a more
definite object, and she seeks some deserted mouse's nest, or hollow in
a tree or stump, and there stows away her pellets of pollen, containing
two or three eggs apiece, which, late in the summer, are to form the
nucleus of a well-appointed colony. The Carpenter bees (Ceratina and
Xylocopa, the latter of which is found in abundance south of New
England) are busy in refitting and tunnelling the hollows of the grape;
while the Ceratina hollows out the stem of the elder, or blackberry.
This little upholsterer bee carpets her honey-tight apartment, storing
it with food for her young, and later in the season, in June, several of
these cartridge-like cells, whose silken walls resemble the finest and
most delicate parchment, may be found in the hollow stems of these
plants. The Mason bee (Osmia) places her nest in a more exposed site,
building her earthen cells of pellets of moistened mud, either situated
under a stone, or in some more sheltered place; for instance, in a
deserted oak-gall, ranging half a dozen of them side by side along the
vault of this strange domicile. Meanwhile their more lowly relatives,
the Andrena and Halictus bees, are engaged in tunnelling the side of
some sunny bank or path, running long galleries underground, sometimes
for a foot or more, at the farthest end of which are to be found, in
summer, little earthen urn-like cells, in which the grubs live upon the
pollen stored up for them in little balls of the size of a pea. Later in
the month, the Gall flies (Cynips), those physiological puzzles, sting
the leaves of our oaks of different species, giving rise to the strange
excrescences and manifold deformities which deface the stems and leaves
of our most beautiful forest trees.
[Illustration: 227. Chrysophanus Thoe.[31]] 31 A: The lower side of the
wings is figured on the right side of this and Figs. 228 and 229.
[Illustration: 228. Argynnis Aphrodite.]
[Illustration: 229. Melitæa Phaeton.]
When the Kalmia, Rhodora, and wild cherries are in bloom, many of our
most beautiful butterflies appear; such are the different species of
Chrysophanus (Fig. 227), Lycæna, Thecla and Argynnis (Fig. 228). At this
time we have found the rare larva of Melitæa Phaeton (Fig. 229) clothed
in the richest red and velvety black, feeding daintily upon the hazel
nut, and tender leaves of the golden rod. In June, it changes to the
chrysalis state, and early in July the butterfly rises from the cold,
damp bogs, where we have oftenest found it, clad in its rich dress of
velvety black and red.
Later still, when the lilac blooms, and farther south the broad-leaved
Kalmia, the gaily-colored Humming Bird moth (Sesia) visits the flowers
in company with the Swallow-tail butterfly (Papilio Turnus). At
twilight, the Hawk moth (Sphinx) darts noiselessly through our gardens,
as soon as the honeysuckles, pinks and lilies are in blossom.
[Illustration: 230. D. 12-punctata.]
[Illustration: 231. Diabrotica vittata.]
Among the flies, mosquitoes now appear, though they have not yet,
perhaps, strayed far from their native swamps and fens; and their
mammoth allies, the Daddy-long-legs (Tipula), rise from the fields and
mould of our gardens in great numbers.
[Illustration: Fig. 232. Plum Weevil and Young.]
Of the beetles, those which feed on leaves now become specially active.
The Squash beetle (Diabrotica vittata, Fig. 231, and Fig. 230, D.
12-punctata) now attacks the squash plants before they are fairly up;
and the Plum weevil (Conotrachelus nenuphar, Fig. 232) will sting the
newly formed fruit, late in the month, or early in June. Many other
weevils now abound, stinging the seeds and fruit, and depositing their
eggs just under the skin. So immense are the numbers of insects which
fill the air and enliven the fields and woodlands just as summer comes
in, that a bare enumeration of them would overcrowd our pages, and tire
the reader.
[Illustration: 233. May Fly.]
A word, however, about our water insects. Late in the month the May fly
(Ephemera, Fig. 233) appears, often rising in immense numbers, from the
surface of pools and sluggish brooks. In Europe, whole clouds of these
delicate forms, with their thin white wings, have been known to fall
like snow upon the ground, when the peasants gather them up in heaps to
enrich their gardens and farms.
The Case worms, or Caddis flies (Fig. 234), begin now to leave their
portable houses, formed of pieces of leaves, or sticks and fine gravel,
or even of shells, as in an European species, and fly over the water,
resting on the overhanging trees.
A few busy Mosquito Hawks, or Dragon flies (Libellula), herald the
coming of the summer brood of these indefatigable friends of the
agriculturist. During their whole life below the waters, these
entomological Herods have slain and sucked the blood of myriads of
infant mosquitoes and other insects; and now in their new world above
the waters, with still more intensified powers of doing mischief,
happily, however, to flies mostly obnoxious to man, they riot in
bloodshed and carnage.
[Illustration: 234. Different Forms of Case Worms.]
This is the season to stock the fresh-water aquarium. Go to the nearest
brook, gather a sprig or two of the water cress, which spreads so
rapidly, a root of the eel grass, and plant them in a glass dish or deep
jar. Pour in your water, let the sand and sediment settle, and then put
in a few Tadpoles, a Newt (Salamander), Snails (Limnæa, Planorbis and
Valvata), Caddis flies and Water beetles, together with the gatherings
from a thicket of eel grass, or other submerged plants, being rich in
the young of various flies, Ephemeras, Dragon flies and Water fleas
(Entomostraca, Fig. 235), which last are beautiful objects for the
microscope, and in a few days the occupants will feel at home, and the
aquarium will be swarming with life, affording amusement and occupation
for many a dull hour, by day or at night, in watching the marvels of
insect transformations, and plant-growth.
Among the injurious hymenoptera, which abound late in this month, is
the Rose Saw fly (Selandria rosæ, Fig. 236) and S. cerasi. The eggs are
then laid, and the last of June, or early in July, the slug-like larvæ
mature, and the perfect insects fly in July. Various Gall flies now lay
their eggs in the buds, leaves and stems of various kinds of oaks,
blackberries, blueberries and other plants.
[Illustration: 235. Water Flea.]
[Illustration: 236. Selandria rosæ.]
Dipterous Gall flies are now laying their eggs in cereals. The Hessian
fly (Cecidomyia destructor) has two broods, the fly appearing both in
spring and autumn. The fly lays twenty or thirty eggs in a crease in the
leaf of the young plant. In about four days, in warm weather, they
hatch, and the pale-red larvæ crawl down the leaf, working their way in
between it and the main stalk, passing downward till they come to a
joint, just above which they remain, a little below the surface of the
ground, with the head towards the root of the plant. Here they imbibe
the sap by suction alone, and, by the simple pressure of their bodies
become imbedded in the side of the stem. Two or three larvæ thus
imbedded serve to weaken the plant and cause it to wither and die. The
second brood of larvæ remains through the winter in the flax-seed, or
puparium. By turning the stubble with the plough in the autumn and early
spring, its imago may be destroyed, and thus its ravages may be checked.
(Figure 237 represents the female, which is about one-third as large as
a mosquito: _a_, the larva; _b_, the pupa; and _c_ represents the joint
near the ground where the maggots live.) The same may be said of the
Wheat midge (Cecidomyia tritici), which attacks the wheat in the ear,
and which transforms an inch deep beneath the surface.
[Illustration: 237. Hessian Fly.]
[Illustration: 238. Turnip Butterfly.]
Among the butterflies which appear this month are the Turnip butterfly
(Pontia oleracea, Fig. 238,) which lays its eggs the last of the month.
The eggs hatch in a week or ten days, and in about two weeks the larva
changes to a chrysalis. Thanaos junevalis and T. Brizo fly late in May.
The caterpillars live on the pea and other papilionaceous plants. Thecla
Auburniana, T. Niphon, and other species fly in dry, sunny fields, some
in April. Argynnis Myrina flies from the last of May through June, and a
second brood appears in August and September. Vanessa J-album and V.
interrogationis appear in May, and again in August and September. The
caterpillars of the latter species live on the elm, lime and hop-vine.
Grapta comma also feeds on the hop. Alypia 8-maculata (Fig. 49) flies at
this time, and in August its larva feeds on the grape. Sphinx gordius,
S. 5-maculata (Fig. 239) and other Sphinges and Sesia (the Clear-winged
moth), appear the last of May. Arctia Arge, A. virgo, A. phalerata and
other species fly from the last of May through the summer. Hyphantria
textor, the Fall-weaver, is found in May or June. The moth of the
Salt-marsh caterpillar appears at this time, and various Cut worms
(Agrotis, Fig. 240) abound, hiding in the daytime under stones and
sticks, etc., while various Tineids and Tortrices, or Leaf-rolling
caterpillars, begin to devour tender leaves and buds and opening
blossoms of flowers and fruit trees.
[Illustration: 239. Sphinx 5-maculata, Larva and Pupa.]
[Illustration: 240. Cut Worm and Moth.]
The White-pine weevil flies about in warm days. We have found its
burrows winding irregularly over the inner surface of the bark and
leading into the sap-wood. Each cell, in which it hibernates, in the
middle of March, contains the yellowish white footless grub. Early in
April it changes to a pupa, and a month after the beetle appears, and in
a few days deposits its egg under the bark of old pine trees. It also
oviposits in the terminal shoots of pine saplings, dwarfing and
permanently deforming the tree. Associated with this weevil we have
found the smaller, rounder, more cylindrical, whitish grubs of the
Hylurgus terebrans, which mines the inner layers of the bark, slightly
grooving the sap-wood. Later in April it pupates, and its habits accord
in general with those of Pissodes strobi. Another Pine weevil also
abounds at this time, as well as Otiorhynchus picipes (Fig. 241), which
injures beans, etc.
[Illustration: 241. Garden Weevil.]
Cylindrical bark-borers, which are little, round, weevil-like beetles,
are now flying about fruit trees, to lay their eggs in the bark.
Associated with the Pissodes, we may find in April the galleries of
Tomicus pini, branching out from a common centre. They are filled up
with fine sawdust, and, according to Dr. Fitch, are notched in the sides
"in which the eggs have been placed, where they would remain undisturbed
by the beetle as it crawled backwards and forth through the gallery."
These little beetles have not the long snouts of the weevils, hence they
cannot bore through the outer bark, but enter into the burrows made the
preceding year, and distribute the eggs along the sides (Fitch). Another
Tomicus, more dangerous than the preceding, feeds exclusively in the
sap-wood, running solitary galleries for a distance of two inches
towards the centre of the tree. We figure Tomicus xylographus Say (Fig.
242, enlarged). It is the most formidable enemy to the white pine in the
North, and the yellow pine in the South that we have. It also flies in
May. Ptinus fur (Fig. 243, much enlarged) is now found in out-houses,
and is destructive to cloth, furs, etc., resembling the Larder-beetle
(Dermestes) in its habits. It is fourteen hundredths of an inch in
length.
[Illustration: 242. Pine Weevil.]
[Illustration: 243. Ptinus and Larva.]
_The Insects of June._
Early in the month the Parsnip butterfly (Papilio Asterias) may be seen
flying about, preparatory to laying its eggs for the brood of
caterpillars which appear in August. At the time of the flowering of the
raspberry and blackberry, the young larva of Vanessa Antiopa, one of our
most abundant butterflies, may be found living socially on the leaves of
the willow; while the mature larva of another much smaller butterfly,
the little Copper skipper (Chrysophanus Americans), so abundant at this
time, may sometimes be found on the clover. It is a short, oval,
greenish worm, with very short legs. The dun-colored skippers (Hesperia)
abound towards the middle of the month, darting over the flowers of the
blueberry and blackberry, in sunny openings in the forests.
The family of Hawk moths (Sphinges) now appear in greater abundance,
hovering at twilight over flower-beds, and, during this time, deposit
their eggs on the leaves of various fruit-trees. The American Tent
caterpillar makes its cocoon, and assumes the pupa state. The
caterpillar passes several days within the cocoon, in what may be
called the semi-pupa states during which period the chrysalis skin is
forming beneath the contracted and loosened larva skin. We once
experimented on a larva which had just completed its cocoon, to learn
how much silk it could produce. On removing its cocoon it made another
of the same thickness; but on destroying this second one it spun a third
but frail web, scarcely concealing its form. A minute Ichneumon
parasite, allied to Platygaster, lays its eggs within those of this
moth, as we once detected one under a bunch of eggs, and afterwards
reared a few from the same lot of eggs. A still more minute egg-parasite
(Fig. 244) we have seen ovipositing in the early spring, in the eggs of
the Canker-worm.
[Illustration: 244. Canker worm Egg-parasite.]
Among that beautiful family of moths, the Phalænidæ, comprising the
Geometers, Loopers, or Span-worms, are two formidable foes to fruit
growers. The habits of the Canker worm should be well known. With proper
care and well-directed energy, we believe their attacks can be in a
great measure prevented. The English sparrow, doves and other
insectivorous birds, if there are any others that eat them, should be
domesticated in order to reduce the number of these pests. More care
than has yet been taken should be devoted to destroying the eggs laid in
the autumn, and also the wingless females, as they crawl up the trees in
the spring and autumn to lay their eggs. The evil is usually done before
the farmer is well aware that the calamity has fallen upon him. As soon
as, and even before the trees have fairly leafed out, they should be
visited morning, noon and night, shaken and thoroughly examined and
cleared of the caterpillars. By well-concerted action among
agriculturists, who should form a Board of Destruction, numbering every
man, woman and child on the farm, this fearful scourge may be abated by
the simplest means, as the cholera or any epidemic disease can in a
great measure be averted by taking proper sanitary precautions. The
Canker worms hatch out during the early part of May, from eggs laid in
the fall and spring, on the branches of various fruit-trees. Just as the
buds unfold, the young caterpillars make little holes through the tender
leaves, eating the pulpy portions, not touching the veins and midribs.
When four weeks old they creep to the ground, or let themselves down by
spinning a silken thread, and burrow from two to six inches in the soil,
where they change to chrysalids in a day or two, and in this state live
till late in the fall, or until the early spring, when they assume the
imago or moth form. The sexes then unite, and the eggs are deposited for
the next generation.
The Canker worm is widely distributed, though its ravages used to be
confined mostly to the immediate vicinity of Boston. We have seen
specimens of the moth from Illinois. Riley has found it in Missouri.
[Illustration: 245. Abraxas ribearia.]
The Abraxas ribearia of Fitch (Fig. 245, moth), the well-known Currant
worm, defoliates whole rows of currant bushes. This pretty caterpillar
may be easily known by its body being of a deep golden color, spotted
with black. The bushes should be visited morning, noon and night, and
thoroughly shaken (killing the caterpillars) and sprinkled with ashes.
[Illustration: 246. May Beetle and Young.]
Among multitudes of beetles (Coleoptera) injurious to the crops, are the
May beetle (Lachnosterna fusca, Fig. 246), whose larva, a large white
grub, is injurious to the roots of grass and to strawberry vines. The
Rose beetle appears about the time of the blossoming of the rose. The
Fire-flies now show their light during mild evenings, and on hot sultry
days the shrill rasping song of the male Cicada, for "they all have
voiceless wives," cuts the air: The Chinch-bug, that fell destroyer of
our wheat crops, appears, according to Harris, in the middle of the
month, and "may be seen in their various stages of growth on all kinds
of grain, on corn and herds-grass during the whole summer." So widely
spread is this insect at present, that we have even detected it in
August on the summit of Mount Washington.
[Illustration: 247. Pemphigus.]
The Diptera, or two-winged flies, contain hosts of noxious insects, such
as the various Cecidomyians, or two-winged Gall flies, which now sting
the culms of the wheat and grasses, and various grains, and leaves of
trees, producing gall-like excrescences of varying form. Legions of
these delicate minute flies fill the air at twilight, hovering over
wheat fields and shrubbery. A strong north west wind, at such times, is
of incalculable value to the farmer. Moreover, minute flies, allied to
the house fly, such as Tephritis, Oscinis, etc., now attack the young
cereals, doing immense injury to grain.
[Illustration: 248. Apple Bark Louse.]
Millions of Aphides, or Plant lice, now infest our shade and fruit
trees, crowding every green leaf, into which they insert their tiny
beaks, sucking in the sap, causing the leaves to curl up and wither.
They also attack the stems and even the roots of plants, though these
latter (Pemphigus, Fig. 247) differ generically from the true Plant
lice. Fruit trees should be again washed and rubbed to kill off the
young Bark lice, of which the common apple Bark louse (Aspidiotus
conchiformis, Fig. 248), whose oyster-shaped scales may be found in
myriads on neglected trees, is a too familiar example. Another pest of
apple trees is the woolly Blight (Eriosoma lanigera). These insects
secrete from the surface of the body a downy, cottony substance which
conceals the animal, and when they are, as usual, grouped together on
the trees, makes them look like patches of mould. The natural insect
enemies of the Plant lice now abound; such are the Lady bugs
(Coccinella, Fig. 249); the larva of the Syrphus fly (Fig. 76), which
devours immense quantities, and the larva of the Golden-eyed,
Lace-winged fly (Chrysopa, Fig. 256).
[Illustration: 249. Coccinella and Young.]
The last days of June are literally the heyday and jubilee of insect
life. The entomological world holds high carnival, though in this
country they are, perhaps, more given to mass-meetings and caucuses. The
earth, the air, and the water teem with insect life. The insects of
mid-summer, now appear. Among the butterflies, the Wood Satyrus
(Neonympha Eurythris) skips in its low flight through the pines. The
larva of Grapta Progne appears on the currants, and feeds beneath the
leaves on hot sunny days. The larva of Cynthia cardui may be found on
the hollyhocks; the pupa state lasts twelve days, the butterfly
appearing in the middle or last of July. The Hyphantria textor now lays
its smooth, spherical eggs in broad patches on the under side of the
leaves of the apple, which the caterpillar will ravage in August; and
its ally, the Halesidota caryæ, we have found ovipositing the last week
in the month on the leaves of the butternut. The Squash bug, Coreus
(Gonocerus) tristis (Fig. 250) is now very abundant, gathering about the
roots of the squash vines, often in immense numbers, blackening the
stems with their dark, blackish-brown bodies. This insect is easily
distinguished from the yellow striped Squash beetle previously
mentioned, by its much greater size, and its entirely different
structure and habits. It is a true bug (Hemipter, of which the bed-bug
is an example), piercing the leaves and stalks, and drawing out the sap
with its long sucker.
[Illustration: 250. Squash Bug.]
In June, also, we have found that beautiful butterfly, Militæa Phaeton
rising from the low, cold swamps. Its larva transforms early in June or
the last week in May, into a beautiful chrysalis. The larva hibernates
through the winter, and may be found early in spring feeding on the
leaves of the aster, the Viburnum dentatum and hazel. It is black and
deep orange-red, with long, thick-set, black spines.
The Currant borer, Trochilium tipuliforme (Fig. 251), a beautiful,
slender, agile, deep blue moth, with transparent wings, flies the last
of the month about currant bushes, and its chrysalids may be found in
May in the stems. Among moths, that of the American Tent caterpillar
flies during the last of June and July, and its white cocoons can be
detected under bark, and in sheltered parts of fences and out-houses.
Among others of the interesting group of Silk worms (Bombycidæ) are
Lithosa, Crocota and allies, which fly in the daytime, and the different
species of Arctia, and the white Arctians, Spilosoma, and Leucarctia,
the parent of the Salt-marsh Caterpillar.
[Illustration: 251. Currant Moth.]
Many Leaf rollers, Tortrices, are rolling up leaves in various ways for
their habitations, and to conceal them from too prying birds; and hosts
of young Tineans are now mining leaves, and excavating the interior of
seeds and various fruits. Grape-growers should guard against the attacks
of a species of Tortrix (Penthina vitivorana) which rolls the leaves of
the grape, and, according to Mr. M. C. Reed, of Hudson, Ohio, "in
mid-summer deposits its eggs in the grape; a single egg in a grape. Its
presence is soon indicated by a reddish color on that side of the yet
green grape, and on opening it, the winding channel opened by the larva
in the pulp is seen, and the minute worm, which is white, with a dark
head, is found at the end of the channel. It continues to feed upon the
pulp of the fruit, and when it reaches the seeds, eats out their
interior; and if the supply from one grape is extinguished before its
growth is completed, it fastens this to an adjoining grape with a web,
and burrows into it. It finally grows to about one-half of an inch in
length, becomes brown, almost black, the head retaining its cinnamon
color. When it leaves the grape it is very active, and has the power of
letting itself down by a thread of silk. All my efforts to obtain the
cocoons failed until I placed fresh grape leaves in the jar containing
the grapes. The larvæ immediately betook themselves to these, and,
cutting a curved line through the leaf thus), sometimes two lines thus
(), folded the edge or edges over, and in the fold assumed the chrysalis
form. From specimens saved, I shall hope to obtain the perfect insect
this season, and perhaps obtain information which will aid in checking
its increase. Already it is so abundant that it is necessary to examine
every branch of ripe grapes, and clip out the infested berries before
sending them to the table. A rapid increase in its numbers would
interfere seriously with the cultivation of the grape in this locality."
The Rose beetle (Macrodactyla subspinosa) appears in great abundance.
The various species of Buprestis are abundant; among them are the
Peach-borer (Dicerca divaricata), which may be now found flying about
peach and cherry trees; and Chrysobothris fulvogutta, and C. Harrisii,
about white pines. A large weevil (Arrhenodes septentrionalis), which
lives under the bark of the white oak, appears in June and July. The
Chinch bug begins its terrible ravages in the wheat fields. The various
species of Chrysopa or Lace-winged flies, appear during this month.
_The Insects of July._
During mid-summer the bees and wasps are very busy building their nests
and rearing their young. The Humble bees, late in June and the first of
this month, send out their first broods of workers, and about the middle
of the month the second lot of eggs are laid, which produce the
smaller-sized females and males, while eggs laid late in the month and
early in August, produce the larger-sized queens, which soon hatch.
These hibernate. The habits of their peculiar parasite, Apathus, an
insect which closely resembles the Humble bee, are still unknown.
[Illustration: 252. White-faced Wasp.]
The Leaf-cutter bee (Megachile) may be seen flying about with pieces of
rose-leaf, with which she builds, for a period of twenty days, her
cells, often thirty in number, using for this purpose, according to Mr.
F. W. Putnam's estimate,[32] at least one thousand pieces! The bees
referred to "worked so diligently that they ruined five or six
rose-bushes, not leaving a single unblighted leaf uncut, and were then
forced to take the leaves of a locust tree as a substitute."
The Paper-making wasps, of which Vespa maculata (Fig. 252), the
"White-faced wasp," is our largest species, are now completing their
nests, and feeding their young with flies. The Solitary wasp (Odynerus
albophaleratus) fills its earthen cells with minute caterpillars, which
it paralyzes with its poisonous sting. A group of mud-cells, each stored
with food for the single larva within, we once found concealed in a
deserted nest of the American Tent caterpillar. Numerous species of Wood
wasps (Crabronidæ) are engaged in tunnelling the stems of the
blackberry, the elder, and syringa, and enlarging and refitting old nail
holes, and burrowing in rotten wood, storing their cells with flies,
caterpillars, aphides and spiders, according to the habit of each
species. Eumenes fraterna, which attaches its single, large, thin-walled
cell of mud to the stems of plants, is, according to Dr. T. W. Harris,
known to store it with Canker worms. Pelopæus, the Mud-dauber, is now
building its earthen cells, plastering them on old rafters and stone
walls.
The Saw flies (Tenthredo), etc., abound in our gardens this month. The
Selandria vitis attacks the vine, while Selandria rosæ, the Rose slug,
injures the rose. The disgusting Pear slug-worm (S. cerasi), often live
twenty to thirty on a leaf, eating the parenchyma, or softer tissues,
leaving the blighted leaf. The leaves should be sprinkled with a mixture
of whale-oil soap and water, in the proportion of two pounds of soap to
fifteen gallons of water.
[Illustration: 253. Imported Cabbage Butterfly.]
Among the butterflies, Melitæa Ismeria, in the south, and M. Harrisii,
in the north, are sometimes seen. A second brood of Colias Philodice,
the common sulphur-yellow butterfly, appears, and Pieris oleracea visits
turnip-patches. It lays its eggs in June on the leaves, and the
full-grown, dark-green, hairy larva may be found in August. The Pieria
rapæ, or imported cabbage butterfly (Fig. 253, male) is now also
abundant. Its green hairy larva is fearfully prevalent about Boston and
New York. The last of the month a new brood of Grapta comma appears, and
a second brood of the larva of Chrysophanus Americanus may be found on
the sorrel.
The larvæ of Pyrrarctia Isabella hatch out the first week in July, and
the snuff-colored moth enters our windows at night, in company with a
host of night-flying moths. These large moths, many of which are
injurious to crops, are commonly thought to feed on clothes and carpets.
The true carpet and clothes moths are minute species, which flutter
noiselessly about our apartments. Their narrow, feathery wings are edged
with long silken fringes, and almost the slightest touch kills them.
[Illustration: 254. Apple Borer, Larva and Pupa.]
[Illustration: 255. Lady Bug and Pupa.]
Among beetles, the various borers, such as the Saperda, or apple tree
borer (Fig. 254) are now pairing, and fly in the hot sun about trees.
Nearly each tree has its peculiar enemy, which drives its galleries into
the trunk and branches of the tree. Among the Tiger beetles, frequenting
sandy places, the large Cicindela generosa and the Cicindela hirticollis
are most common. The grotesque larvæ live in deep holes in sand-banks.
[Illustration: 256. Lace-winged Fly and Eggs.]
[Illustration: 257. Forceps-tail.]
The nine-spotted Lady Bug, Coccinella novemnotata (Fig. 255, with pupa)
is one of a large group of beetles, most beneficial from their habit of
feeding on the plant lice. We figure another enemy of the Aphides,
Chrysopa, and its eggs (Fig. 256), mounted each on a long silken stalk,
thus placed above the reach of harm.
Among other beneficial insects belonging to the Neuroptera, is the
immense family of Libellulidæ, or Dragon flies. The Forceps-tail, or
Panorpa, P. rufescens (Fig. 257), is found in bushy fields and
shrubbery. They prey on smaller insects, and the males are armed at the
extremity of the body with an enormous forceps-like apparatus.
_The Insects of August._
During this month great multitudes of bugs (Hemiptera) are found in our
fields and gardens; and to this group of insects the present chapter
will be devoted. They are nearly all injurious to crops, as they live on
the sap of plants, stinging them with their long suckers. Their
continued attacks cause the leaves to wither and blight.
The grain Aphis, in certain years, desolates our wheat fields. We have
seen the heads black with these terrible pests. They pierce the grain,
extract the sap, causing it to shrink and lose the greater part of its
bulk. It is a most insidious and difficult foe to overcome.
[Illustration: 258. Leaf-hopper of the Vine.]
The various leaf-hoppers, Tettigonia (Fig. 258) and Ceresa, abound on
the leaves of plants, sadly blighting them; and the Tettigonias frequent
damp, wet, swampy places. A very abundant species on grass produces what
is called "frog's spittle." It can easily be traced through all its
changes by frequently examining the mass of froth which surrounds it.
Tettigonia Vitis blights the leaf of the grape-vine. It is a tenth of an
inch long, and is straw-yellow, striped with red. Tettigonia rosæ, a
still smaller species, infests the rose, often to an alarming extent.
The Notonecta, or water boatman, is much like a Tettigonia, but its
wings are transparent on the outer half, and its legs are fringed with
long hairs, being formed for swimming. It rows over the surface in
pursuit of insects. Notonecta undulata Say (Fig. 259) is a common form
in New England.
Another insect hunter is the singular Ranatra fusca (Fig. 260). It is
light brown in color, with a long respiratory tube which it raises above
the surface of the water when it wishes to breathe. This species
connects the Water-boatman with the Water-skaters, or Gerris, a familiar
insect, of which Gerris paludum (Fig. 261) is commonly seen running over
the surface of streams and pools.
[Illustration: 259. Notonecta.]
[Illustration: 260. Ranatra.]
[Illustration: 261. Water Skater.]
[Illustration: 262. Pirates.]
Reduvius and its allies belong to a large family of very useful insects,
as they prey largely on caterpillars and noxious insects. Such is
Pirates picipes (Fig. 262), a common species. It is an ally of Reduvius
personates, a valued friend to man, as in Europe it destroys the
bed-bug. Its specific name is derived from its habit while immature, of
concealing itself in a case of dust, the better to approach its prey.
[Illustration: 263. Phymata.]
Another friend of the agriculturist is the Phymata erosa (Fig. 263). Mr.
F. G. Sanborn states that "these insects have been taken in great
numbers upon the linden trees in the city of Boston, and were seen in
the act of devouring the Aphides, which have infested the shade trees of
that city for several years past. They are described by a gentleman who
watched their operations with great interest, as 'stealing up to a
louse, coolly seizing and tucking it under the arm, then inserting the
beak and sucking it dry.' They are supposed to feed also on other
vegetable-eating insects as well as the plant louse."
Phytocoris lineolaris swarms in our gardens during this month. It is
described and figured in "Harris's Treatise on Insects." Closely allied,
though generally wingless, is that enemy of our peace, the bed-bug. It
has a small somewhat triangular head, orbicular thorax, and large,
round, flattened abdomen. It is generally wingless, having only two
small wing-pads instead. The eggs are oval, white; the young escape by
pushing off a lid at one end of the shell. They are white, transparent,
differing from the perfect insect in having a broad, triangular head,
and short, thick antennæ. Indeed, this is the general form of lice
(Pediculus Vestimenti, and P. capitis), to which the larva of Cimex has
the closest affinity. Some Cimices are parasites, infesting pigeons,
swallows, etc., in this way also showing their near relation to lice.
Besides the Reduvius, the cockroach is the natural enemy of the bed-bug,
and destroys large numbers. Houses have been cleared of bugs after being
thoroughly fumigated with brimstone.
During this month the ravages of grasshoppers are, in the West, very
wide-spread. We have received from Major F. Hawn, of Leavenworth,
Kansas, a most interesting account of the Red-legged locust (Caloptenus
femur-rubrum). "They commence depositing their eggs in the latter part
of August. They are fusiform, slightly gibbous, and of a buff-color.
They are placed about three-fourths of an inch beneath the surface, in a
compact mass around a vertical axis, pointing obliquely up and outwards,
and are partially cemented together, the whole presenting a cylindrical
structure, not unlike a small cartridge. They commence hatching in
March, but it requires a range of temperature above 60º F. to bring them
to maturity, and under such conditions they become fledged in
thirty-three days, and in from three to five days after they enter upon
their migratory flight.
"Their instincts are very strong. When food becomes scarce at one point,
a portion of them migrate to new localities, and this movement takes
place simultaneously over large areas. In their progress they stop at no
obstacle they can surmount. In these excursions they often meet with
other trains from an opposite direction, when both join in one.
"The insects are voracious, but discriminating in their choice of food,
yet I know of no plant they reject if pressed by hunger; not even the
foliage of shrubs and trees, including pine and cedar."
[Illustration: 264. Seventeen Year Locust, Eggs and Pupa.]
During this month the Seventeen-year locust (Cicada septendecim of
Linnæus, Fig. 264) has disappeared, and only a few Harvest flies, as the
two other species we have are called, raise their shrill cry during the
dog-days. But as certain years are marked by the appearance of vast
swarms in the Middle States, we cannot do better than to give a brief
summary of its history, which we condense in part from Dr. Harris' work.
The Seventeen-year locust ranges from South-eastern and Western
Massachusetts to Louisiana. Of its distribution west of the Mississippi
Valley, we have no accurate knowledge. In Southern Massachusetts, they
appear in oak forests about the middle of June. After pairing, the
female, by means of her powerful ovipositor, bores a hole obliquely to
the pith, and lays therein from ten to twenty slender white eggs, which
are arranged in pairs, somewhat like the grains on an ear of wheat, and
implanted in the limb. She thus oviposits several times in a twig, and
passes from one to another, until she has laid four or five hundred
eggs. After this she soon dies. The eggs hatch in about two weeks,
though some observers state that they do not hatch for from forty to
over fifty days after being laid. The active grubs are provided with
three pairs of legs. After leaving the egg they fall to the ground,
burrow into it, and seek the roots of plants whose juices they suck by
means of their long beaks. They sometimes attack the roots of fruit
trees, such as the pear and apple. They live nearly seventeen years in
the larva state, and then in the spring change to the pupa, which
chiefly differs from the larva by having rudimentary wings. The damage
done by the larvæ and pupæ, then, consists in their sucking the sap from
the roots of forest, and occasionally fruit trees.
Regarding its appearance, Mr. L. B. Case writes us (June 15) from
Richmond, Indiana: "Just now we are having a tremendous quantity of
locusts in our forests and adjoining fields, and people are greatly
alarmed about them; some say they are Egyptian locusts, etc. This
morning they made a noise, in the woods about half a mile east of us,
very much like the continuous sound of frogs in the early spring, or
just before a storm at evening. It lasted from early in the morning
until evening." Mr. V. T. Chambers writes us that it is abounding in the
vicinity of Covington, Kentucky, "in common with a large portion of the
Western country." He points out some variations in color from those
described by Dr. Fitch, from New York, and states that those occurring
in Kentucky are smaller than those of which the measurements are given
by Dr. Fitch, and states that "these differences indicate that the
groups, appearing in different parts of the country at intervals of
seventeen years, are of different varieties." A careful comparison of
large numbers collected from different broods, in different localities,
and different years, would alone give the facts to decide this
interesting point. Mr. Riley has shown that in the Southern States a
variety appears every thirteen years.
Regarding the question raised by Mr. Chambers, whether the sting of this
insect is poisonous, and which he is inclined to believe to be in part
true, we might say that naturalists generally believe it to be harmless.
No hemiptera are known to be poisonous, that is, to have a poison-gland
connected with the sting, like that of the bee, and careful dissections
by the eminent French naturalist, Lacaze-Duthiers, of three European
species of Cicada, have not revealed any poison apparatus at the base of
the sting. Another proof that it does not pour poison into the wound
made by the ovipositor is, that the twig thus pierced and wounded does
not swell, as in the case of plants wounded by Gall flies, which,
perhaps, secrete an irritating poison, giving rise to tumors of various
shapes. Many insects sting without poisoning the wound; the bite of the
mosquito, black fly, flea, the bed bug, and other hemipterous insects,
are simply punctured wounds, the saliva introduced being slightly
irritant, and to a perfectly healthy constitution they are not
poisonous, though they may grievously afflict some persons, causing the
adjacent parts to swell, and in some weak constitutions induce severe
sickness. Regarding this point, Mr. Chambers writes: "I have heard--not
through the papers--within a few days past of a child, within some
twenty miles of this place, dying from the sting of a Cicada, but have
not had an opportunity to inquire into the truth of the story, but the
following you may rely on. A negro woman in the employment of A. V.
Winston, Esq., at Burlington, Boone County, Ky., fifteen miles distant
from here, went barefooted into his garden a few days since, and while
there was stung or bitten in the foot by a Cicada. The foot immediately
swelled to huge proportions, but by various applications the
inflammation was allayed, and the woman recovered. Mr. Winston, who
relates this, stands as high for intelligence and veracity as any one in
this vicinity. I thought, on first hearing the story, that probably the
sting was by some other insect, but Mr. Winston says that he saw the
Cicada. But perhaps this proves that the sting is _not_ fatal; that
depends on the subject. Some persons suffer terribly from the bite of a
mosquito, while others scarcely feel them. The cuticle of a negro's foot
is nearly impenetrable, and perhaps the sting would have been more
dangerous in a more tender part." It is not improbable that the sting
was made by a wasp (Stizus) which preys on the Cicada. Dr. Le Baron and
Mr Riley believe the wound to be made by the beak, which is the more
probable solution of the problem.
A word more about the Seventeen-year Cicada. Professor Orton writes us
from Yellow Springs, Ohio, that this insect has done great damage to the
apple, peach, and quince trees, and is shortening the fruit crop very
materially. By boring into twigs bearing fruit, the branches break and
the fruit goes with them. "Many orchards have lost full two years'
growth. Though the plum and cherry trees seemed exempt, they attacked
the grape, blackberry, raspberry, elm (white and slippery), maple, white
ash, willow, catalpa, honey-locust and wild rose. We have traces of the
Cicada this year from Columbus, Ohio, to St. Louis. Washington and
Philadelphia have also had a visitation."
[Illustration: 265. Hop Vine Moth and Young.]
[Illustration: 266. Humble Bee Parasite.]
We figure the Hop-vine moth and the larva (Fig. 265) which abound on
hops the last of summer. Also, the Ilythia colonella (Fig. 266, a,
pupa), known in England to be a parasite of the Humble bee. We have
frequently met with it here, though not in Humble bees' nests. The larvæ
feed directly upon the young bees, according to Curtis (Farm Insects).
The Spindle-worm moth (Gortyna zeæ), whose caterpillar lives in the
stalks of Indian corn, and also in dahlias, flies this month. The
withering of the leaves when the corn is young, shows the presence of
this pest. The beetles of various cylindrical Bark borers and Blight
beetles (Tomicus and Scolytus) appear again this month. During this
month the Tree cricket (Oecanthus niveus, Fig. 267) lays its eggs in
the branches of peach trees. It will also eat tobacco leaves.
[Illustration: 267. Tree Cricket.]
We figure (268) the moth of Ennomos subsignaria, the larva of which is
so injurious to shade trees in New York City. It is a widely diffused
species, occurring probably throughout the Northern States. We have
taken the moth in Northern Maine. We have received from Mr. W. V.
Andrews the supposed larvæ of this moth. They are "loopers," that is,
they walk with a looping gait, as if measuring off the ground they walk
over, whence the name "Geometers," more usually applied to them. They
are rather stout, brown, and roughened like a twig of the tree they
inhabit, with an unusually large rust-red head, and red prop-legs, while
the tip of the body is also red. They are a little over an inch long.
[Illustration: 268. Ennomos subsignaria.]
_The Insects of September._
Few new insects make their first appearance for the season during this
month. Most of the species which abound in the early part of the month
are the August forms, which live until they are killed by the frosts
late in the month. From this cause there is towards the end of the month
a very sensible diminution of the number of insects.
The early frosts warn these delicate creatures of approaching cold.
Hence the whole insect population is busied late in the month in looking
out snug winter quarters, or providing for the continuance of the
species. Warned by the cool and frosty nights, multitudes of
caterpillars prepare to spin their dense silken cocoons, which guard
them against frost and cold. Such are the "Spinners," as the Germans
call them, the Silk moths, of which the American Silk worm is a fair
example. The last of September it spins its dense cocoon, in which it
hibernates in the chrysalis state.
The larvæ of those moths, such as the Sphinges, or Hawk moths, which
spin no cocoon, descend deep into the earth, where they transform into
chrysalids and lie in deep earthen cocoons.
The wild bees may now be found frequenting flowers in considerable
numbers. Both sexes of the Humble bee, the Leaf-cutter bee, and other
smaller genera abound during the warm days.
One's attention during an unusually warm and pleasant day in this month
is attracted by clouds of insects filling the air, especially towards
sunset, when the slanting rays of the sun shine through the winged
hosts. On careful investigation these insects will prove to be nearly
all ants, and, perhaps, to belong to a single species. Looking about on
the ground, an unusual activity will be noticed in the ant-hills. This
is the swarming of the ants. The autumnal brood of females has appeared,
and this is their marriage day.
The history of a _formicarium_, or ant's nest, is as follows: The
workers, only, hibernate, and are found early in the spring, taking care
of the eggs and larvæ produced by the autumnal brood of females. In the
course of the summer these eggs and larvaæ arrive at maturity, and swarm
on a hot sultry day, usually early in September. The females, after
their marriage flight, for the small diminutive males seek their company
at this time, descend and enter the ground to lay their eggs for new
colonies, or, as Westwood states, they are often seized by the workers
and retained in the old colonies. Having no more inclination to fly,
they pluck off their wings and may be seen running about wingless.
Dr. C. C. Abbot gives us the following account of the swarming of a
species in New Jersey: "On the afternoon of Oct. 6th, at about 4 P. M.,
we were attracted to a part of the large yard surrounding our home, by a
multitude of large sized insects that filled the air, and appeared to
be of some unusual form of insect life, judging of them from a distance.
On closer inspection these creatures proved to be a brood of red ants
(Formica) that had just emerged from their underground home and were now
for the first time using their delicate wings. The sky, at the time, was
wholly overcast; the wind strong, southeast; thermometer 66º Fahr.
Taking a favorable position near the mass, as they slowly crawled from
the ground, up the blades of grass and stems of clover and small weeds,
we noted, first, that they seemed dazed, without any method in their
movements, save an ill-defined impression that they must go somewhere.
Again, they were pushed forward, usually by those coming after them,
which seemed to add to their confusion. As a brood or colony of insects,
their every movement indicated that they were wholly ill at ease.
"Once at the end of a blade of grass, they seemed even more puzzled as
to what to do. If not followed by a fellow ant, as was usually the case,
they would invariably fall down again to the earth, and sometimes repeat
this movement until a new comer joined in the ascent, when the
_uncertain_ individual would be forced to use his wings. This flight
would be inaugurated by a very rapid buzzing of the wings, as though to
dry them, or prove their owner's power over them, but which it is
difficult to say. After a short rest, the violent movement of the wings
would recommence, and finally losing fear, as it were, the ant would let
go his hold upon the blade of grass and rise slowly upwards. It could,
in fact, scarcely be called flight. The steady vibration of the wings
simply bore them upwards, ten, twenty or thirty feet, until they were
caught by a breeze, or by the steadier wind that was moving at an
elevation equal to the height of the surrounding pine and spruce trees.
So far as we were able to discover, their wings were of the same use to
them, in transporting them from their former home, that the 'wings' of
many seeds are, in scattering them; both are wholly at the mercy of the
winds.
"Mr. Bates, in describing the habits of the Saüba ants (Oecodoma
cephalotes) says,[33] 'The successful _début_ of the winged males and
females depends likewise on the workers. It is amusing to see the
activity and excitement which reign in an ant's nest when the exodus of
the winged individuals is taking place. The workers clear the roads of
exit, and show the most lively interest in their departure, although it
is highly improbable that any of them will return to the same colony.
The swarming or exodus of the winged males and females of the Saüba ant
takes place in January and February, that is, at the commencement of the
rainy season. They come out in the evening in vast numbers, causing
quite a commotion in the streets and lanes.' We have quoted this passage
from Mr. Bates' fascinating book, because of the great similarity and
dissimilarity in the movements of the two species at this period of
their existence. Remembering, at the time the above remarks concerning
the South American species, we looked carefully for the workers, in this
instance, and failed to discover above half a dozen wingless ants above
ground, and these were plodding about, very indifferent, as it appeared
to us, to the fate or welfare of their winged brothers. And on digging
down a few inches, we could find but comparatively few individuals in
the nest, and could detect no movements on their parts that referred to
the exodus of winged individuals, then going on.
"On the other hand, the time of day agrees with the remarks of Mr.
Bates. When we first noticed them, about 4 P. M., they had probably just
commenced their flight. It continued until nearly 7 P. M., or a
considerable time after sundown. The next morning, there was not an
individual, winged or wingless, to be seen above ground; the nest itself
was comparatively empty; and what few occupants there were seemed to be
in a semi-torpid condition. Were they simply resting after the fatigue
and excitement of yesterday?
"It was not possible for us to calculate what proportion of these winged
ants were carried by the wind too far to return to their old home; but
certainly a large proportion were caught by the surrounding trees; and
we found, on search, some of these crawling down the trunks of the
trees, with their wings in a damaged condition. How near the trees must
be for them to reach their old home, we should like to learn; and what
tells them, 'which road to take?' Dr. Duncan states,[34] 'It was
formerly supposed that the females which alighted at a great distance
from their old nests returned again, but Huber, having great doubts
upon this subject, found that some of them, after having left the males,
fell on to the ground in out-of-the-way places, whence they could not
possibly return to the original nest!' We unfortunately did not note the
sex of those individuals that we intercepted in their return (?) trip;
but we can not help expressing our belief that, at least in this case,
there was scarcely an appreciable amount of 'returning' on the part of
those whose exodus we have just described; although so many were caught
by the nearer trees and shrubbery. Is it probable that these insects
could find their way to a small underground nest, where there was no
'travel' in the vicinity, other than the steady departure of
individuals, who, like themselves, were terribly bothered with the wings
they were carrying about with them?" (_American Naturalist._)
We have noticed that those females that do not return to the old nest
found new ones. In Maine and Massachusetts we have for several
successive years noticed the swarming of certain species of ants during
an unusually warm and sultry day early in September.
The autumnal brood of Plant lice now occur in great numbers on various
plants. The last brood, however, does not consist exclusively of males
and females, for of some of the wingless individuals previously supposed
to be perfect insects of both sexes, Dr. W. I. Burnett found that many
were in reality of the ordinary gemmiparous form, such as those
composing the early summer broods.
The White Pine Plant lice (Lachnus strobi) may be seen laying their long
string of black oval eggs on the needles of the pine. They are
accompanied by hosts of two-winged flies, Ichneumons, and in the night
by many moths which feed on the Aphis-honey they secrete, and which
drops upon the leaves beneath.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 30: The right side represents the under side of the wings.]
[Footnote
[Footnote 32: See "Proceedings of the Essex Institute," vol. iv, p.
105.]
[Footnote 33: Naturalist on the River Amazons, vol. 1, p. 32.]
[Footnote 34: Transformations of Insects, p. 205.]
INDEX.
Abraxas ribearia, 202.
Acarus, 124.
Acceleration, theory of evolution by, 167.
Achorutes, 145.
Adela, 189.
Agrion, 109.
Agrion, egg-parasite of, 164.
Agrotis, 197.
Alternation of generations, 168.
Alypia, 57, 197.
American tent caterpillar, 187.
Amnion, 166.
Ancestral forms, 151.
Andrena, 31, 45, 192.
Angle worms, 189.
Annelida, 161, 170.
Anopheles, 189.
Ant, 217.
Antenna, origin of, 174.
Antherophagus, 49.
Ant lion, 115, 182.
Ants, 189.
Anura, 136, 145, 147.
Anurida, 146.
Apathus, 47.
Aphis, 151, 203.
Aphis eater, 75.
Aphis of grain, 209.
Apple borer, 208.
Apple insects, 83.
Apple tree borer, 187.
April, insects of, 187.
Agonum, 191.
Aquarium, 195.
Arachnida, ancestry of, 189.
Archetype, 186.
Archetypes in Insects, 150.
Arctia, 197.
Argas, 123.
Argynnis, 193, 197.
Army worm, 55.
Arrhenodes, 206.
Arthropoda, 166.
Aspidiotus, 203.
Assmus, Edward, on parasites of honey bee, 39.
Astoma, 122, 159.
August, insects of, 209.
Band, primitive, 163, 167.
Bark borer, 188, 216.
Bark louse, 203.
Barnacle, 155.
Bed bug, 96, 183.
Bees, 17, 168, 206.
Bee louse, 41.
Beneficial insects, 190.
Billings on Eophyton, 158.
Bird tick, 84.
Black fly, 73.
Blight insect, 203.
Bombardier beetle, 191.
Borer, 187.
Bot fly, 77.
Botrytis, 47.
Brachinus, 191.
Brauer, F., on ancestry of insects, 157.
On two larval forms, 175.
Braula, 41.
Breeze fly, 74.
Brephos, 189.
Bristle tail, 127.
Bruchus, 188.
Buprestis, 206.
Cabbage butterfly, 55, 207.
Caddis fly, 153.
Caddis fly larva, 178.
Caddis worm, 195.
Calendar, Insect, 187.
Caloptenus, 211.
Calosoma, 190.
Campodea, 133, 159, 170, 178.
Campodea-stage of insects, 157.
Canker worm, 187, 201.
Carabidæ, 189, 190.
Carabus, 191.
Carboniferous insects, 158.
Myriopods, 158.
Scorpion, 158.
Carpenter bee, 192.
Carpet fly, 75.
Case worms, 195.
Casnonia, 191.
Caterpillar, origin of, 175, 179.
Cecidomyia, 168, 196, 203.
Cecidomyia tritici, 197.
Centipede, 149.
Ceratina, 24, 192.
Ceresa, 209.
Cestodes, 162.
Cheese maggot, 83.
Cheese mite, 124.
Cheyletus, 119.
Chigoe, 86.
Chinch bug, 55, 203.
Chionea, 85.
Chironomus, 168, 189.
Chloëon, 170, 180.
Chrysobothris, 206.
Chrysopa, 171, 182, 208.
Chrysophanus, 193, 207.
Cicada, 212.
Cicindela, 189.
Clothes moth, 64, 188.
Coccinella, 204.
Coddling moth, 188.
Coleopterous larvæ, 175.
Collembola, 133, 159.
Comprehensive type, 154.
Compsidea, 90.
Conotrachelus, 194.
Copepoda, 167.
Corydalus, mandibles of, 182.
Crab, 155, 156.
Crustacea, differences of from insects, 157.
Currant borer, 204.
Currant worm, 202.
Cut worm, 197.
Cyclops-like stage, 162.
Cynips, 193.
Daddy-long-legs, 194.
Dawson's discovery of fossil myriopods, 159.
Dawson on fossil land plants of Upper Silurian, 158.
Degeeria, 143.
Demodex, 125, 148, 160.
Devil's darning-needle, 106.
Devonian formation, insects in, 158.
Diabrotica, 194.
Dicerca, 206.
Dicyrtoma, 142.
Diplax, 113, 154.
Dipterous gall fly, 196.
Dipterous larvæ, 175.
Dohrn, Anton, on ancestry of insects, 169.
Dragon fly, 106, 171, 195.
Dujardinia, 170.
Dytiscus, 182.
Ear wig, 136.
Echinoderes, 169.
Egg parasites, 201.
Egg parasite of Agrion, 164.
Eggs of canker worm, 187.
Elm tree insects, 90.
Embryology, comparative. 167.
Embryology of Podura, 140.
Ennomos, 216.
Ephemera, 154, 194.
Ephydra, 174.
Eruciform larva, 175.
Euphorberia, 158.
Evolution theory, 152.
Eyes of insects, 185.
Fabre on hyper-metamorphosis, 43.
Fall weaver, 197.
Fire fly, 202.
Flea, 86.
Forceps Tail, 171.
Forficula, 136.
Fossil insects, 158.
Myriopods, 158.
Scorpion, 158.
Foul brood, 40.
Gad fly, 74.
Galley worm, 149.
Gall flies, 193.
Gall fly, 72, 203.
Gall fly, two-winged, 196.
Gamasus, 120.
Ganin on embryology of insects, 161.
Gegenbaur on tracheæ, 172.
Generalized types, 154.
Generation, alternate, 168.
Gerris, 210.
Gerris, egg-parasite of, 166.
Gills of insects, 172.
Gnat, 71, 189.
Gonocerus, 204.
Gordius, 46.
Gortyna, 215.
Grain Aphis, 209.
Grape insects, 57.
Grape leaf roller, 205.
Grape saw fly, 207.
Grapta, 189, 204, 207.
Grasshopper, 181, 211.
Green head, 74.
Grimm on parthenogenesis, 168.
Hæckel, Ernst, on ancestry of insects, 156.
Hairs of insects, 185.
Hair worm, 46.
Halictus, 31, 192.
Handily, A. H., on Thysanura, 133.
Hartt's discovery of fossil insects in New Brunswick, 158.
Harvest bugs, 122.
Haustellate insects, 183.
Hawk moth, 194, 200.
Head of insects, mode of formation of, 174.
Heart, iv.
Hemiptera, 209.
Hemipterous larvæ, 175.
Hessian fly, 72, 196.
Heteropus, 126.
Hibernation of insects, 192.
Hirudo, 166.
Histolysis, 168.
Histriobdella, 166.
Histriobdella stage of Polynema, 164.
Hop vine moth, 215.
Horse tick, 84.
House fly, 80.
Humble bee parasite, 215.
Humming bird moth, 194.
Hunt on organic life in the Laurentian period, 158.
Hylobius pales, 188.
Hylurgus terebrans, 188.
Hymenopterous larvæ, 175.
Hyper-metamorphosis of insects, 166.
Hyphantria, 204.
Hypodermis, 163.
Ichneumon, 161, 201.
Illinois, fossil insects of, 159.
Ilythia, 215.
Injurious insects, 190.
Insects, ancestry of, 150.
Insects, archetypes of, 150.
Insects, beneficial, 190.
Insect calendar, 187.
Insects, embryology of, 154, 155.
Insects, flight of, ix.
Insects in the Devonian formation, 158.
Insects, metamorphosis of, 166.
Insects, origin of, 156.
Insects, reason in, 30, 37.
Insects, respiration of, 171.
Insects, senses of, xiii.
Insects, sexes in, 52.
Insects, transformations of, xiv, 50.
Insects, wingless, 171.
Intestinal worms, 161.
Isotoma, 140, 143.
Itch mite, 125.
Ixodes, 117, 123.
Japyx, 132.
Jaws of insects, origin of, 174.
Jelly fishes, 168.
Joint worm, 55.
Julus, 149, 169.
Julus, embryology of, 164.
July, insects of, 206.
June, insects of, 200.
Kowaleusky's researches on embryology of worms, 169.
Labium, vi, 165.
Lachnosterna fusca, 202.
Lachnus, 220.
Lady bird, 208.
Larva, ernciform, 175.
Leptiform, 175.
Two kinds of, 175.
Larval skin of crustacea, 166.
Leaf cutter bee, 26, 206.
Leaf roller, 188, 197, 205.
Leeches, 166.
Legs of insects, 173.
Leidy, J., on internal parasites of insects, 39, 46.
Lepidocyrtus, 144.
Lepidopterous larvæ, 175.
Lepisma, 128.
Leptiform larva, 175.
Leptus, 120, 155, 159.
Lespès, on sense of hearing in insects, xiv.
Leucania, 55.
Leuckart on embryology of Hirudo, 168.
Parthenogenesis, 168.
Libellula, 107, 195.
Linden tree insects, 90.
Linguatula, 160.
Lipura, 145.
Lithobius, 178.
Locust tree insects, 93.
Louse, 96, 154.
Lubbock's discovery of Pauropus, 149.
Lubbock, Sir John, on Thysanura, 133;
on the origin of insects, 159, 173.
Machilis, 128.
Macrodactylus, 206.
Macrosila cluentius, 184.
Maggot, origin of, 175, 178.
Mandible, vi.
Mandibles of moths, 183.
Mandibulate insects, 183.
Mange mite, 125.
Marey on the flight of insects, ix.
Mason bee, 192.
Maxillæ, vi.
Maxilla of moths, 184.
May beetle, 202.
May fly, 194.
May, insects of, 192.
Mazonia, 158.
Meat fly, 82.
Meek's discovery of fossil insects in Illinois, 158.
Megachile, 26.
Melipona, 18.
Melitæa, 193, 207.
Melitæa Phaeton, 204.
Meloë, 21, 42.
Metamorphosis of insects, 166, 175;
origin of, 179.
Miastor, 168.
Microgaster, 49.
Mites, 116, 149.
Mosquito, 68.
Mosquito hawk, 195.
Mouth-parts of insects, origin of, 173.
Mucor, 47.
Mud dauber, 207.
Müller, Fritz, on ancestry of insects, 156, 169.
Müller, J., on sight in insects, xiii.
Murray's discovery of Eophyton in America, 158.
Musca, 80, 168.
Muscardine, 47.
Mycetobia, 73.
Myobia, 169.
Myriopoda, 149.
Ancestry of, 159.
Nannophya, 114.
Nauplius, 155, 160.
Nebalia, 182.
Nephelis, 166.
Nephopteryx, 49.
Neuropterous larvæ, 175.
New Brunswick, fossil insects of, 158.
Newport, on embryology of Julus, 164.
Nicoletia, 131.
Nomada, 38.
Notonecta, 209.
Nova Scotia, fossil insects of, 159.
Ocypete, 159.
Odynerus, 207.
Oecanthus, 216.
Oil beetle, 188.
Onion fly, 49.
Ophioneurus, embryology of, 165.
Orchesella, 143.
Ornithomyia, 84.
Orthopterous larvæ, 175.
Osmia, 27.
Otiorhynchus, 199.
Ovipositor of Cicada, 185.
Palpus, vi.
Origin of, 174.
Pangus, 191.
Panorpa, 171, 209.
Paper wasp, 207.
Papilio Asterias, 200.
Papirins, 142.
Parasite of insect eggs, 164.
Parsnip butterfly, 200.
Parthenogenesis, 168.
Pasteur on the silk worm disease, 63.
Pauropus, 149, 154, 158, 171.
Peach borer, 206.
Pear slug, 207.
Pea weevil, 188.
Peck, W. D., on the habits of Stylops and Xenos, 45, 46.
Pelopæus, 207.
Pentastoma, 148, 160.
Peripatus, 161.
Perla, 154.
Phora, 40.
Phymata, 211.
Phytocoris, 211.
Pickle worm, 57.
Pieris, 55, 197, 207.
Pieris brassicæ, egg parasite of, 165.
Pine plant louse, 220.
Pine weevil, 188, 199.
Piophila, 83.
Pirates, 210.
Pissodes strobi, 188.
Plan of structure, 186.
Plant louse, 220.
Platygaster, embryology of, 161.
Plum weevil, 194.
Podura, 133, 135, 144, 153, 154, 159, 170.
Catch of, 139.
Spring of, 137.
Podurids, the ancestors of the true insects, 157.
Poisonous insects, 214.
Polynema, embryology of, 164.
Poplar tree insects, 92.
Potato insects, 63.
Prelarval stage of ichneumons, 168.
Primitive band, 163, 166.
Primitive insects, 175.
Prionus, 93.
Procris, 60.
Protoleptus, 172, 174.
Pseudoneuroptera, 178.
Ptinus fur, 200.
Putnam, F. W., on habits of the bees, 19, 26.
Pyrrharctia, 207.
Ranatra, 210.
Rat-tailed fly, 76.
Reduvius, 210.
Reproduction, virgin, 168.
Respiration of insects, 171.
Retardation, theory of evolution by, 167.
Rose beetle, 206.
Rose saw fly, 196.
Rose slug, 207.
Rotatoria, ancestors of crustacea, 169.
Salpa, 168.
Saperda, 91, 208.
Sarcoptes, 125.
Saw fly, 196, 207.
Saw of saw fly, 185.
Schiödte on the mouth-parts of the louse, 96.
Scolopocryptops, 149.
Scorpion, fossil, 158.
Scudder on fossil insects of New Brunswick and Illinois, 158.
Seira, 143.
Selandria, 207.
Selandria rosæ, 196.
September, insects of, 216.
Sesia, 194.
Seventeen year locust, 212.
Sexes, origin of, 152.
Sheep tick, 85.
Shrimp, 155.
Siebold, T. von, on the ears of grasshoppers, xiv.
Siebold on parthenogenesis, 168.
Silk worm, 51.
Silver witches, 128.
Simulium, 73.
Sitaris, 44.
Smith, F., on stingless bees, 18.
On parasitic bees, 37.
Smynthurus, 142.
Species, origin of, 152.
Sphinx, 194, 197, 200, 207.
Spider, 155.
Spider fly, 85.
Spindle worm, 215.
Spinneret of caterpillars, 183;
of spiders, 185.
Spring, insects of, 187.
Spring of Podura, 185.
Spring tail, 127.
Squash beetle, 194.
Squash bug, 204.
Sting of bee, 185.
Sting, origin of, 165.
Stylops, 21, 45, 152, 179, 188.
Sucker of insects, 183.
Sugar mite, 124.
Swarming of ants, 217.
Syllis, 170.
Syrphus, 75.
Tabanus, 74.
Tachina, 39, 189.
Tailor bee, 26.
Tardigrade, 150, 160.
Teleas, embryology of, 166.
Templetonia, 143.
Tent caterpillar, 187.
Tenthredo, 207.
Tettigonia, 209.
Thanaos, 197.
Thecla, 197.
Thorax of insects, 173.
Thysanura, 127, 154.
Ticks, 116.
Tinea, 64, 188.
Tipula, 194.
Tomicus, 199.
Tomocerus, 137, 143.
Tongue of insects, 183.
Torell's discovery of Eophyton in Sweden, 158.
Tortrices, 205.
Tortricidæ, 188.
Trachea, iv.
Tracheæ, absence of in Polynema, 165.
Tracheæ, origin of, 171.
Tree cricket, 216.
Trichocera hyemalis, 189.
Trichodes, 42.
Trigona, 18.
Trochilium tipuliforme, 205.
Trombidium, 120, 159.
Trouvelot, L., on amount eaten by silk worms, vii, 60.
Turnip butterfly, 197.
Uhler, P. R., on habits of the dragon fly, 107, 110.
Verrill, A. E., on the parasites of man and the domestic animals, 84.
Vine dresser, 59.
Virgin reproduction, 168.
Wasp, 206.
Water bear, 150.
Water boatman, 166, 209.
Waterhouse, G. R., on habits of Osmia, 27.
Weevil, 179, 188, 194.
Weismann on growth of insects, 164.
West, Tuffen, on the foot of the fly, viii.
Wheat midge, 197.
Wine fly, 83.
Wingless insects, 171.
Wings of insects as respiratory organs, 165.
Wings, origin of, 172.
Worthen's discovery of fossil insects in Illinois, 158.
Worms, the ancestors of insects, 160, 169.
Wyman, Jeffries, on the cells of the honey bee, 17.
Xenos, 46.
Xylobius, 159.
Xylocopa, 21.
Zaddach on development of worms, insects and crustaceans, 169.
Zoëa, 156.
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