There are many gases, the inspiration of which occasions death; some of
these act simply by excluding oxygen, while others exert an absolutely
deleterious action in consequence of the specific powers which they
possess. It is exclusively to the first species that our attention is at
present to be directed; the latter will constitute matter for future
consideration, under the title of _Aërial Poisons_.
It is a fact too well established to require any discussion, that
_oxygen_ is the only principle which is capable of producing the
necessary changes in the blood, during its transmission through the
lungs; and that, accordingly, whenever atmospheric air is deprived of
this principle, it is no longer capable of supporting life, and the
animal immersed in it instantly dies. It is thus that death takes place
from exposure to the fumes of charcoal[47], to those of lime-kilns, to
the atmosphere of cellars, caverns, wells, and dungeons.[48]
The asphyxia from privies, drains, and common sewers, depends upon a
different cause, and will be considered under the head of _Sulphuretted
Hydrogen_, in the history of poisons.
The fatal effects of confined air in a small and crowded room, were
fully exemplified in the year 1742, when twenty persons were crammed in
a part of St. Martin’s round-house called the _hole_, during the night,
several of whom died; the surgeons on that occasion gave it as their
opinion, that when the doors and windows were shut, the place could not
support twenty persons for three hours without danger of their lives. A
trial took place at the Old Bailey in consequence; but we have not been
more successful than _Dr. Gordon Smith_ in our search for its report.
The medical jurist would be called upon, on such an occasion, for his
opinion as to the nature of the deteriorated air, the causes of its
accumulation, and whether it was adequate to the production of the
alleged effects; and possibly, whether the fatal consequences might not
have been averted by judicious caution, or active exertion. The most
awful exemplification of the fatal effects of confined air is, however,
recorded in the interesting narrative of what happened to the English in
the _black hole_ at Calcutta; and which we shall briefly relate in this
place; as it involves some physiological phenomena to which we shall
hereafter have occasion to refer.
It was in the month of June, 1756, that the Viceroy of Bengal laid siege
to Fort William, the English factory at Calcutta. _Mr. Holwell_,
assisted by the factors and the garrison, defended this post with
extreme bravery; but was at length obliged to surrender. There were at
this time remaining in the fort, an hundred and forty-five men and one
woman. The whole of this unfortunate company, many of whom were wounded,
and several very dangerously, were shut up the same night in a small
prison only eighteen feet square. This prison, which is now better known
in England by the name of the _black hole_, was enclosed by strong
walls, and had only two small windows at one end, secured by iron
grates. In this confined situation, which allowed only a space of about
eighteen square inches to each individual, the heat and want of fresh
air soon excited the most horrible effects; the prisoners, in a state of
despair, began by attempting to force open the door, but in this they
were unsuccessful. Mr. _Holwell_, who was placed near one of the
windows, was more at his ease than the rest, and was consequently more
cool and tranquil; and he recommended his companions to be quiet and
orderly, and not to exhaust their strength by useless efforts. This
advice produced some little calm, interrupted, however, by the groans of
the wounded and the dying. The heat increased every moment. Mr.
_Holwell_ recommended them to strip off their cloaths, as a means of
acquiring more space; this was accordingly done, but with no great
relief; they attempted to improve this by fanning the air with their
hats, but even this was too painful a task for men who were worn out by
the fatigue of the siege, and the heat of this dungeon. Another of the
company was for their kneeling down, that they might have more air. They
all readily agreed to do this; and to rise together in order to avoid
confusion. This was done several times, but every time the signal was
given to rise, the number of those who had strength enough to obey it
diminished. There were constantly some remaining on the floor, who were
unable to get up, and these were trodden to death by the survivors. All
this happened during the first hour of their imprisonment. At nine
o’clock in the evening they began to complain of excessive thirst, and
to renew their efforts to open the prison door, and to tempt the
centinels to fire upon them. Some of those who were farthest from the
window became at once furiously delirious. The cry for water was
unanimous. The guards brought water, and _Holwell_ and two of his
wounded friends received it at the window in their hats, and were going
to pass it on to the rest; but so eager and tumultuous were the efforts
of the crowd to get at this water, that _Holwell’s_ two friends were
suffocated, the water was spilt, and _Holwell_ saw himself surrounded
with dead bodies, who had either been crushed to death, or died for want
of fresh air.
Hitherto the commander and benefactor of these unfortunate people, had
been treated with some degree of respect, but now all distinction began
to be forgotten; the whole company eagerly threw themselves towards the
windows, and seizing the iron bars, some of them got even upon his
shoulders. He was so borne down by this enormous weight, as to be
deprived of all power of motion; he implored the pity of those who were
upon his head and his shoulders, and requested them to let him go and
die at the bottom of the prison; this request was readily complied with,
every one was desirous of succeeding to his place, and without much
difficulty he reached the farther end of the dungeon. The third part of
these unhappy people were already dead, and they who were still alive
pressed so eagerly towards the windows, that _Holwell_ found himself
somewhat freer in his new station; but the air was so corrupted, that
his breathing soon became extremely difficult and painful. Unable
therefore to support this, he attempted once more to make his way to the
windows; and leaning on a heap of dead bodies, he now resolved to wait
patiently for death. In this situation he remained about ten minutes,
and then he experienced such a pain of the breast, and so violent a
palpitation of the heart, that he was obliged to make one more attempt
towards getting a less fatal air. There were five rows of his companions
between himself and the window; his despair carried him through four of
these. The palpitation of his heart now began to abate, but he felt
inexpressible thirst, and cried out for water; but the water seemed to
increase instead of alleviating his thirst; he therefore resolved to
drink no more, and rather chose to suck the moisture from his shirt,
which seemed to afford him some relief. A young man quite naked, who
stood before him, eagerly seized the sleeve of his shirt, and for some
moments deprived him of this salutary refreshment. It was not yet
midnight. The small number of those who were left, were transported to
the greatest excess of rage and despair. They all called aloud for air,
because the water that had been brought to them afforded no relief. Soon
after this the noise suddenly ceased. The greater part who were living
laid themselves down, deprived of all their strength, and peaceably
breathed their last. Others aimed at getting into _Holwell’s_ situation;
a Dutchman mounted on one of his shoulders, and a black soldier on the
other. In this situation he remained till two in the morning, when he
gave up his place to a marine officer, who was soon forced out of it by
the Dutchman. The officer retired with _Holwell_ to the other corner of
the prison, and in a few moments afterwards died. _Holwell_ himself was
soon deprived of sense, and from that time till sun rise we have no
account of what passed. One of those who remained alive, at five in the
morning, drew forth _Holwell_ from the heap of dead, and found in him
some signs of life; about that time the Viceroy inquired whether he was
still alive; he was told, that if the door was immediately opened, it
would, perhaps, be possible to recover him, and orders were accordingly
given for this purpose. But the door of the prison opened inwards, and
they who were within it, and living, were deprived of all their
strength, so that more than twenty minutes elapsed before the dead
bodies were removed, which prevented the door from being opened.
At a quarter after six o’clock, there came out of this melancholy
dungeon three and twenty persons, the remains of the hundred and
forty-six who had entered it on the preceding evening.
Upon the events thus related we have to remark, that no advice could be
more judicious than that given by _Holwell_ to his companions in the
early part of their imprisonment—“to be quiet and orderly, and not to
exhaust their strength by useless efforts.” Nor can we imagine any
measure more calculated to increase the sufferings of their situation
than that which was subsequently proposed, and adopted, by another of
the company, “to fan the air with their hats, and to kneel down and rise
together, by a simultaneous motion.” It has been satisfactorily
established by physiological researches, that the demand for oxygen, in
an animal body, will be in proportion to its expenditure by muscular
exertions.[49] Whenever, therefore, circumstances may render a supply of
air deficient, we shall best economise that which we possess by perfect
quiet. _Lavoisier_ says, that a man, under ordinary circumstances,
consumes 1300 or 1400 cubic inches of oxygen in an hour, but he found
that if he is engaged in raising weights the consumption is at the rate
of 3200 in the hour.
Infants appear to be less able to sustain the deprivation of oxygen than
adults; and in some cases on record, life has been destroyed by
circumstances that we should have _a priori_ considered as hardly
adequate to such an effect. A case is related of a child, who was
suffocated by some drunken men having repeatedly blown out a candle, and
held the smoaking wick under its nose. The faculty of Leipsic
investigated the circumstances, and declared the death to have taken
place in consequence of suffocation. (_Valentini Pand: Med: Legal: Sect:
2._)