INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SECURITY
The armed forces in 1970 were under the Ministry of People's Defense,
and all elements were included within the People's Army. Total personnel
strength was about 40,000. Most troops were acquired by conscription,
and about one-half of the eligible young men were drafted, usually at
age nineteen. All of the tanks, aircraft, and vehicles used by the armed
forces were of Soviet design, but since 1961 all external assistance has
been provided by the Communist Chinese. Military ranks were abolished in
1966, but the force organization at lower levels in all service
components was conventional.
The modern armed forces grew out of the partisan units of World War II,
during which they fought against the Italians, the Germans, and each
other. By the time of the German evacuation of Albania in November 1944,
the Communist-led National Liberation Front held the dominant position
among the partisans and was able to assume control of the country
without fighting any major battles.
The Albanian Workers' Party (Communist Party) had an active organization
within the services. All or nearly all officers in the regular services
were Party members in 1970. All cadets over eighteen years of age in the
officer candidate military schools were also Party members. Younger
cadets were members of the Union of Albanian Working Youth. Probably
only a very few of the conscripts were Party members, but nearly all
were members of the youth organization. In addition to the influence
exerted by Party cells, political commissars throughout the armed forces
structure enforced ideological conformity.
The Albanian fighting man has had an excellent reputation for 2,000
years but, with the exception of Skanderbeg, the fifteenth-century
national hero--he was born Gjergi Kastrioti and renamed Skanderbeg after
Alexander the Great--the military forces of the country have disclaimed
any heritage antedating the partisan activities of World War II.
Skanderbeg gained brief independence for the country during his
opposition to the Turkish invaders, but his exploits in support of
nationalism stood almost alone over the entire period between Roman
times and the twentieth century.
Moreover, national independence in 1912 did not result from a major
military victory. National feelings, aroused late in the nineteenth
century, became more intense during the early 1900s but, although there
were clashes between fairly sizable armed groups of Turks and Albanians,
freedom was not attained from armed struggle involving organized
military forces. Rather, in the interests of the balance of power the
greater European powers recognized the declared independence of Albania
(see ch. 2, Historical Setting).
Police and security forces were under the control of the Ministry of the
Interior. They were organized into three directorates: the Directorate
of State Security, Frontier Guards, and the People's Police. Except for
the fact that they were subject to the same system of military justice,
they were entirely separate from the armed forces of the Ministry of
People's Defense. The Albanian security police in 1970 were believed to
exert more rigid controls over the population than was exercised by
similar forces in any other East European Communist country or in the
Soviet Union.
The Directorate of State Security contained the internal security
police. Organized to protect the Party and governmental system, they
were responsible for suppressing resistance to, and deviation from,
Party ideology, and for combating crimes that had a national character.
Frontier Guards, as their name implies, accomplished border security.
The People's Police were the local or municipal police, with the typical
routines and local interests of such forces.
It is difficult to ascertain the overall effectiveness of the various
police and security forces in the maintenance of public order because no
official crime statistics are published. Official statements in the
press provide little or no information on the extent of crime other than
the inordinate coverage of those crimes that are political in nature and
considered threatening to the Party or the state. Statements by the rare
Western visitors to the country concerning the police state atmosphere
have led to the assumption that public order is rigidly maintained.
Although military and security forces were small in proportion to the
size of the military age male population, they were nearly double the
per capita average maintained by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) or by Warsaw Pact nations. Whether or not the people recognized
the armed forces as a burden, the country has never had the industrial
or economic base to maintain them. Since World War II it has relied, in
turn, on Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union, and Communist China for aid.
Chinese assistance since 1961 has been sufficient to maintain equipment
previously furnished by the Soviet Union and to replace some of the
older weapons as they became obsolete.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The free-spirited and hardy Albanian mountaineers have had excellent
reputations as individual fighters. The Romans recruited some of their
best soldiers from the regions that later became Albania. In succeeding
periods many Albanians became famous in the military service of the
Ottomans.
Nationalism was rarely necessary to motivate these men. Before 1912 the
country had independence for only one brief period. It was gained then
by the national hero, Skanderbeg, and freedom evaporated almost
immediately upon his death in 1468. The history and legends attached to
him make up a large part of the national military tradition. Other than
in his day, freedom was rarely fought for except in the context of
defense of tribal areas against the incursions of marauding neighbors.
There were few occasions when Albanians rose up against occupying
foreign powers. Conquerors generally left the people alone in their
isolated mountain homelands and, as a feudal tribal society persisted,
there was little if any feeling of national unity in the country (see
ch. 2, Historical Setting).
Organized military action also played an almost negligible part in
attaining independence. Some revolutionary activity occurred during the
rise of national feeling in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries. There were clashes between insurgents and Turkish forces as
early as 1884 but, at the same time that the Albanians were resisting
Turkish practices they considered oppressive against themselves, they
were defending the Turks in their hostilities with the Greeks or the
Slavs. They continued to be recruited into, and to serve in, the Turkish
army.
By 1900 about 8,000 armed Albanians were assembled in Shkoder, but they
were unopposed, and a situation resembling anarchy more than revolution
prevailed in the country during the early 1900s. There were arrests,
incidents of banditry and pillage, and many futile Turkish efforts to
restore order. Guerrilla activity increased after about 1906, and
several incidents occurred, which produced martyrs but which were not
marked by great numbers of casualties. Nevertheless, although it was
unorganized and never assumed the proportions of a serious struggle, the
resistance was instrumental in maintaining the pressure that attracted
international attention and led the great powers, when they intervened
after the Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913, to recognize the independent
state of Albania.
World War I began before the country could establish a viable
governmental body--much less form, train, and equip a military
establishment. During the war years it was occupied by the warring
parties, and the last of them remained into 1920.
Ahmet Zogu--as minister of the interior and minister of war until 1922
and prime minister from 1922, except for a brief exile in 1924, until he
became King Zog in 1928--created the first national forces of any
consequence. Before 1925, so that he would have some assurance of their
loyalty, these consisted of about 5,000 men from his home tribal
district. Starting in about 1925 with Italian assistance and a
considerable degree of Italian control over the forces, men were drawn
through universal conscription. The first drafts called about 5,000 to
6,000 annually from the approximately 10,000 young men who became
eligible for the draft each year. Italian aid equipped the forces, and
Italian officers provided most of the training and tactical guidance, to
the point that they had effective control over their employment.
At about the same time the Gendarmerie was formed with British
assistance. It had an Albanian director, a British general who served as
its inspector general, and a staff of British inspectors. The
Gendarmerie became an effective internal security and police
organization. It had a commandant in each of the ten prefectures, a
headquarters in each of the subprefectures (up to eight per prefecture),
and a post in each of the nearly 150 local communities. Its
communications network was for many years the most complete telephone
system in the country.
Although the Italians objected strenuously, King Zog used the
Gendarmerie as a safeguard against the possible consequences of Italian
domination of his regular armed forces. He kept the force under his
direct control and retained its British advisers until 1938. Zog also
retained a sizable armed group from his old tribal region.
King Zog's efforts to reduce Italian control over his forces were
insufficient to save them from quick humiliation before World War II.
The Italians attacked on April 7, 1939, and, although annual
conscription had created a trained reserve of at least 50,000 men, it
was never called. Resistance was overcome in about a week. Later in 1939
the Italians incorporated Albanian units into their forces. Little
benefit was derived from the Albanians, who could see little point in
fighting for the Italians, even against their traditional enemies, the
Greeks. They deserted in large numbers (see ch. 2, Historical Setting).
Resistance to the occupation grew rapidly as signs of Italian weakness
became apparent. At the end of 1942 guerrilla forces had numbered no
more than perhaps 8,000 to 10,000. By the summer of 1943, when the
Italian effort collapsed, almost all of the mountainous interior was
controlled by various resistance groups.
The Germans took over the occupation from the Italians and inflicted
near-decisive defeat upon the guerrillas in January 1944. Resistance
grew again, however, as final defeat for the Axis powers appeared
certain, and by the end of 1944 guerrilla forces probably totaled about
70,000 men. In addition, by their count, they had suffered about 28,000
casualties. The Communist-controlled National Liberation Movement had
then solidified its hold over the guerrilla groups and was able to take
over the country after the war. Enver Hoxha had been the chief political
commissar of the General Staff that was created in July 1943. From that
post he rose rapidly to leadership of the group and through it became
the head of the Communist government that took over at the end of World
War II.
Albania's first Communist military forces were equipped, trained, and
modeled after Yugoslavia's. When Yugoslavia embarked on its separate
road to socialism in 1948 and was expelled from the Communist
Information Bureau (Cominform--see Glossary), Albania aligned directly
with the Soviet Union. This did not involve an immediate change in
materiel, organization, or training because the Soviet Union and
Yugoslavia had had much the same relationship before their break.
Soviet aid included advisory personnel, a considerable amount of modern
conventional armament, a few small World War II naval vessels, and a
number of aircraft. This aid was halted entirely in 1961. The Soviet
submarine flotilla that had been based on Sazan Island, off Vlore,
passed Gibraltar in June 1961 on its way back to northern Soviet ports.
Communist China succeeded the Soviet Union as Albania's ally. Albania
can provide China with little of tactical importance, but its value as
an ally from a political standpoint has been sufficient to warrant
continuation of aid in quantities sufficient to maintain the armed
forces at about the same levels of personnel strength and equipment that
they had achieved when they were supported by the Soviet Union, although
interruptions in training are believed to have caused a deterioration in
technical skills and know-how.
THE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT
Position in the Government
The People's Army, which encompasses the ground, naval, and air arms of
the regular armed forces, is under the Ministry of People's Defense,
which, in turn, is within the Council of Ministers. The ministers are
selected from the People's Assembly which, with its Presidium, is at
the top of the governmental structure (see ch. 6, Government Structure
and Political System).
In mid-1970 the minister of defense, Beqir Balluku, was also a deputy
prime minister and a member of the Political Bureau (Politburo) of the
Albanian Workers' Party. Balluku had a military career background and
held the rank of colonel general in the army before its ranks were
abolished in 1966. As defense minister he exercised direct operational
and administrative control over all elements of the military
establishment.
The People's Army
The army claims no antecedents in the forces of the pre-Communist
regimes and dates itself from July 10, 1943, when a General Staff was
formed within the guerrilla forces resisting the Italian occupation.
Petrit Dume, its chief of staff in 1970, had commanded the People's Army
for about twenty years. He was second only to Balluku in the defense
hierarchy and was also a candidate member of the Politburo of the Party
organization. Enver Hoxha, first secretary of the Albanian Workers'
Party, held the rank of general of the army until rank designations were
abolished but, although he could exercise personal direction of the
armed forces as their commander in chief, he was not considered a member
of the defense establishment.
All of the regular military forces are within the People's Army. The air
and naval arms are usually treated separately because of their
distinctive functions and equipment, but their men are sometimes
referred to as naval and air soldiers. Major subcommands, such as the
army's directorates of Political Affairs and Rear Services (Logistics),
serve all service components. The same is the case with such
organizations as the medical service that have functions applicable to
all of the armed forces.
At lower levels, where the functions of the forces are specialized in
relation to their weapons, organizational patterns appear to be similar
to those in most of the other armed forces throughout the Communist
world. During the post-World War II formative years, force structures
were adapted from those of the Soviet Union. Realignments after 1961 to
cooperate with the Communist Chinese are not believed to have affected
them to any appreciable degree. Some unit designations, such as army
division, are not used in the peacetime organization and, in other
situations, the sizes of units may be scaled down somewhat from normal
international practice.
Rank designations were abolished in 1966. Since then, according to the
governmental decree that effected the change, position in the military
hierarchy is based on the responsibilities stipulated in the relevant
tables of organization of the armed forces. Most of the personnel who
would have fallen into the lower rank categories are acquired by
conscription. Men without highly skilled specialties are retained for
two years; noncommissioned officers and others who receive special
training are required to serve for longer periods.
The stated mission of the armed forces in general and the ground forces
in particular is to defend the country and to secure its governing
system. The stated mission notwithstanding, support of the system is
primarily the responsibility of the security police forces and, against
an external opponent, the armed forces are believed to have only a
defensive capability. Unless Albanian forces engaged an enemy that was
also committed against a third party in a more general conflict, they
would, of necessity, revert to guerrilla fighting. Most of the training
and much of the propaganda directed at the local population indicate
that the leadership anticipates the possibility of guerrilla warfare.
The Party slogan, "the pick in one hand and the rifle in the other,"
also illustrates the dual use of service personnel in peacetime. They
assist in the construction of industrial enterprises and hydroelectric
plants and in land reclamation projects, crop harvests, and the like.
They were used during the early 1960s, for example, in the construction
of the oil refinery at Cerrik; in building a sugar factory, a lumber
combine, and a textile factory; and in the draining of Lake Maliq to
acquire additional agricultural land in a marshy lake district area
north of Korce (see ch. 8, Economic System).
Ground Forces
The ground forces contain about three-quarters of the regular personnel
and are the backbone of the armed forces. Consequently, many of the
People's Army functions that apply to all of the service components are
administered within the ground force organization.
Because the active personnel strength of the ground forces is around
30,000--sufficient to man only about two divisions--the brigade has been
chosen as the basic tactical unit. The brigades are manned with
approximately 3,000 men each, and there are probably one tank and five
infantry brigades. The infantry brigades are believed to contain three
infantry battalions and a lightly equipped artillery regiment. The tank
brigade has Soviet-built weapons. Most of them are World War II T-34
medium tanks, but there are a few of the later model T-54s.
Almost all artillery is light and small caliber, since movement of
heavy equipment is nearly impossible over much of the terrain. In
addition, heavy weapons, their transport, or even their ammunition could
not be produced locally, and little resupply from external sources could
be expected in any lengthy conflict. In so small an area the rapid
movement of forces would serve little purpose. The minimal amount of
transport equipment available includes small numbers of Soviet-designed
armored personnel carriers, command cars, and a few types of trucks.
Before 1961 training was based on Soviet methods, and specialized
schools were scaled-down copies of those in the Soviet army. Training
manuals were translated from the Russian. Although external support of
the forces has been transferred from the Soviet Union to Communist
China, the Chinese have apparently not required basic changes in the
training programs. Most conscripts have been exposed to a considerable
amount of drill and elementary basic training in school and in Communist
youth organizations, permitting the forces to concentrate on tactical
exercises. These consist mostly of small unit activities and involve
fighting techniques appropriate to the defense of the mountainous
interior. Physical conditioning, tactics involving light weapons, and
operations using a minimum of materiel support are emphasized on a
continuing basis. Political indoctrination, conducted or supervised by
the political commissars, is heavily administered in all training
programs.
Naval Forces
Naval units are subordinate to the Coastal Defense Command which,
although a part of the People's Army, is operationally responsible
directly to the Ministry of People's Defense. None of the pre-World War
II navy survived the occupation and, as with the other branches of the
service, the navy forgets any earlier ancestry and celebrates August 15,
1945, as its founding date. The senior naval officer is commander of
naval forces, a deputy commander of coastal defense, and deputy minister
of defense for naval affairs. In late 1969 Ymer Zeqir held these
positions. As deputy commander of coastal defense he coordinated naval
operations with those of the air defense and ground forces that would
participate in defense of the coastal area. As deputy minister of
defense he represented the naval forces in national defense planning and
coordinated personnel, logistic support, and matters that are common to
other branches of the armed forces.
Naval forces are divided into three commands: the Submarine Brigade, the
Vlore Sea Defense Brigade, and the Durres Sea Defense Brigade. All
combat ships are assigned to one of the three. The Submarine Brigade is
based at the Pasha Liman anchorages south of the city of Vlore, at the
extreme southwestern point in the bay. Main facilities of the Vlore Sea
Defense Brigade are located on the island of Sazan, in the mouth of the
bay about ten miles west of Vlore. This was the site of the Soviet
submarine base before 1961. The Durres Sea Defense Brigade controls the
units stationed at Durres and those that are locked within Lake Scutari.
The Buene River is navigable between Lake Scutari and the Adriatic, but
only the smallest of the ships in the lake can pass beneath the Shkoder
city bridges.
The officially stated mission of the naval forces is to provide for the
military security of coastal waters; to prevent smuggling; to prevent
submarines from approaching the coast or harbors; to lay and sweep
mines; to intercept enemy forces; to escort convoys along the coastline;
and, together with police patrol boats, to control entries to, or exits
from, the country. Original Soviet support for the navy was provided in
order to secure a submarine and minelaying base with access to the
Mediterranean Sea.
Forces available are considerably weaker than those of any one of the
potential enemies and, with the exception of Vlore, Albanian harbors
provide little natural protection. It is therefore probable that the
leadership thinks in terms of peacetime shore patrols and would hope, in
wartime, to use what units they were able to preserve to prevent totally
uninhibited use of the seas adjacent to the country.
In mid-1970 naval ships included three or four submarines, eight
minesweepers, twelve motor torpedo boats, one or two oilers, and perhaps
twenty-five or thirty more ships, about one-half of which were classed
as coastal patrol and one-half as auxiliary types. The submarines are
obsolescent medium-range boats. Two of the minesweepers are oceangoing
vessels; the other six can sweep harbors or inshore seas only. Most of
the miscellaneous vessels were formerly Italian, of World War II and
earlier vintages. Albanian sources claim that a dozen newer torpedo
boats have been supplied by the Chinese, six of them hydrofoil types.
Naval personnel number approximately 3,000. Since many of the ships put
to sea infrequently, many of the navy men do part-time fishing or
agricultural work. Familiarity with ships helps a new conscript get a
naval assignment, and many of those drafted are from the vicinities of
Vlore or Durres and may serve their three years being only rarely out of
sight of home. Their morale is only fair.
Officers are required to have a general education that includes at
least some university credits. They receive specialized courses before
going to sea. Before 1961 most officers and some of the higher
noncommissioned officer ratings received some training in the Soviet
Union. Without this training or a Chinese substitute for it, there has
probably been some degradation in the technical capabilities of the
officer and noncommissioned officer personnel.
Air Force
The Albanian Air Force is the youngest of the service branches, founded
on April 23, 1951. As is the case with the navy, the air force is also a
part of the People's Army, having organizational and logistic
individuality only insofar as its equipment is different and requires
different techniques and skills in its use. Arif Hasko, chief of the air
force in mid-1970, was also a deputy minister of defense and, as was the
case with his naval counterpart, advised on problems peculiar to his
force and coordinated on matters of general interest to all branches of
the service.
Air defense artillery and missile units are usually included with the
air force and account for about two-thirds of its 5,000 to 7,000
personnel. Air defense units received Soviet equipment between 1948 and
1961, including that required at a few surface-to-air missile sites.
Their Guideline missiles were paraded in Tirana on Army Day of 1964 and
have been shown on occasion since. The original missiles supplied by the
Soviets would have outlived their storage lifetimes by 1970. If a
surface-to-air missile capability did exist at that time, the Chinese
would have supplied the necessary replacements.
Aircraft in 1970 included sixty to seventy fighters and fighter-bombers
and about the same number of transports, trainers, and miscellaneous
noncombat types. All were of Soviet design. Fighter-bombers or ground
attack aircraft were the jet MiG-15s and MiG-17s provided by the Soviet
Union before 1961. Spare parts necessary to keep them operating since
then have been supplied by Communist China. MiG-19s for the air defense
interceptor role have also been furnished by the Chinese.
It is believed that the 1970 force included four ground support
squadrons and probably two interceptor squadrons, with about ten or
twelve aircraft per squadron. Air-to-air missiles are an integral part
of the MiG-19 armament and are presumably being furnished in small
quantities by the Chinese. Transport squadrons contain a few
Soviet-built piston-engined Il-14s and AN-2s, some Soviet-built
helicopters, and possibly a few helicopters built by the Chinese.
The five principal airbases are located near Tirana, Shijak (about
twenty miles west of Tirana), Vlore, Sazan Island (at the mouth of Vlore
Bay), and at Stalin (about forty miles south of Tirana). The base on
Sazan Island that was built and used by the Russians has been used
intermittently, if at all, since the Russians evacuated it in 1961.
Helicopter bases have been, or are being, constructed at several inland
cities as well as at Tirana, Shkoder, and as a part of the major base at
Vlore. The forces had no surface-to-surface missile capability in 1970.
The missions assigned to the combat elements of the air force are to
repel an enemy at the borders and to prevent the violation of Albanian
airspace. Because the force is small, could not easily be resupplied,
has exposed bases, and possesses no appreciable area to retreat into,
however, it could not be expected to contribute significantly to any
sustained combat effort. It serves mainly to provide the regime with
ostensive evidence of its power and technological progress.
Mobilization Potential
In the event of total mobilization there are just under 500,000 males
between the ages of fifteen and fifty. Of the total group approximately
75 percent, or nearly 375,000, are physically fit. More than half of
these have had some military service, and a sizable group participates
in military reserve activities (see ch. 4, The People).
Information as to how the existing establishment would be expanded is
not available. Units active in 1970 could be enlarged to about double
their peacetime strengths because all units are usually maintained at
considerably below combat readiness strengths. New units would probably
be created in infantry or guerrilla forces. Additional tank, air, and
naval units would require more of their special equipment before they
could become operational. Some women probably would be mobilized. The
national economy, however, could not provide logistic support for the
number of male personnel available, and external support would be
necessary.
Political Indoctrination
At the time of the Communist takeover in 1944 and in the years
immediately thereafter, political commissars were an integral part of
the military organization. They were considered essential in order to
assure that ideological beliefs were constant and were adhered to
without deviation. As the years passed they lost their early importance
and were eventually done away with, but they were reinstated in 1966
when alignment with Communist China brought renewed revolutionary
fervor.
How much their organization and operations in 1970 differed from what
they were in 1944 is not clearly understood, but the fact that they were
still called political commissars was a strong indication that they
performed basically the same functions. There is no question but that
the justification for their existence was the same--that is, to ensure
that the ideological and political orientation of the troops and of
their leaders did not deviate from the Party line. The decree that
reinstated the commissars stated that they would be assigned in all
units, subunits, and military establishments. This presumably means that
there are commissars in all base organizations and in tactical units
down at least to the company level.
It is also known that Political Directorates in both the Ministry of
People's Defense and the Ministry of the Interior control the commissars
in the armed forces and the security forces, respectively. Political
commissars are carefully selected from the standpoint of ideological
reliability. Those appointed since 1966 must have had five years of
unblemished Party membership. Those in the armed forces who are attached
to the lower levels of the organizational structure are responsible to
the Political Directorate and the Party organization rather than to
superior officers within the military command channels. Hito Cako was
chief of the People's Army Political Directorate in 1970.
In addition to the military court system, discipline is enforced as part
of the educational and ideological training program by the political
workers who act in conjunction with the Party organizations in service
units. They are invited to take measures necessary against individuals
whose attitude or conduct is considered harmful to the effectiveness of,
or discipline within, the army.
Military Schools
Other than those that are set up for specialized training, there are
three military schools providing curricula aimed at producing officer
personnel or offering advanced military theory. The Skanderbeg military
school is a secondary or preparatory school. It is attended by children
of top Party, government, and military leaders and prepares them for
entrance into the Enver Hoxha United Army Officers School. The Hoxha
school is the oldest military educational institution in the country. It
started a formal curriculum in 1945 but, according to Party claims, was
in operation before the World War II occupation forces left the country
in 1944. It is the military academy that provides a university level
curriculum and whose students become commissioned officers upon
graduation.
The Mehmet Shehu Military Academy is named for the man who in 1970 was
premier (chairman of the Council of Ministers) and also a member of the
Party Politburo. Shehu was a lieutenant general before 1966 and was
considered one of the country's most capable military leaders. The
academy is the advanced military institution that offers career training
equivalent to that of command and staff or war college institutions in
Western military establishments.
Military Medicine
The medical services were organized during the 1950s along the lines of
those in the Soviet and East European Communist forces in order to
facilitate cooperation among them. Although there has been no such
cooperation since 1961, the basic organization was unchanged in 1963 and
probably remained basically the same in 1970.
The head of the medical establishment has the title of chief, Albanian
Armed Forces Medical Service. He is responsible to the chief of the Rear
Services, which is one of the unified directorates directly beneath the
Ministry of People's Defense. Naval, air force, and ground force staffs
are responsible to him, but the naval and air force groups appear to
have a largely advisory capacity, except as they work to secure the
services required by their branches of the service. The hospital,
pharmaceutical, and personnel sections, however, are operated by the
deputy chief of medical services, who is also head of the ground forces'
medical department.
Albanian sources state that there is close cooperation between the
military medical service and the Ministry of Health. The forces' medical
personnel, facilities, equipment, and medicines have been used to
improve sanitary and medical conditions in less developed areas and to
provide assistance in flood, earthquake, and other emergency situations.
Decorations
Recognition for high standards of conduct, exceptional effort, or
noteworthy accomplishment is bestowed lavishly. Highly prized
decorations include the Partisan Star, Order of the Albanian Flag, Order
of the National Hero, and Order of Skanderbeg. Other decorations that
are worn by a few of the highest military and Party officials include
the Memorial Medal, the Order of Liberty (or Order of Freedom), the
Liberation Medal, Order of the People's Hero (or Hero of the People),
and Order of Valor. Some of the decorations, including the Partisan Star
and Order of Skanderbeg, are awarded in three classes. This group of
decorations is usually awarded individually, but on rare occasions some
can be presented to a group.
The Order of Labor (or Hero of Socialist Labor) and the Red Flag Order
(or Red Banner) may be presented to individuals, usually civilians, but
are most frequently reported when awarded to a group or an enterprise.
Typical recipients would be a factory for overfulfilling its quotas, a
ship after completing an unusual voyage, or a military unit that had
performed well in some civic project or in an emergency relief
situation.
Paramilitary Training
In November 1944, when partisan resistance forces were at their peak
strength of about 70,000, about 6,000 of them were women and 1,000 were
boys under fifteen years of age. Formal paramilitary training was
undertaken in 1945, shortly after the Hoxha regime gained control, and
was made obligatory for all young people in 1953. Training has been
developed to the point that fifteen- to nineteen-year-old youths can be
organized into their own auxiliary units in emergencies.
Major revisions to the secondary school and university military training
programs were announced in 1969 in preparation for implementation during
the ensuing school year. The extent of training, what it would include,
and aims of the new program were given wide publicity throughout 1969 in
order to ease the transition. The purpose of the programs is to provide
the armed forces with conscripts who are in good physical condition and
who have sufficient basic military training to permit them to step
directly into a military unit and perform usefully with a minimum of
adjustment and little additional training.
Beginning in 1970 the secondary school year was to consist of 6-1/2
months of academic work, 2-1/2 months of physical work in agriculture or
industry, 1 month of military training, and 2 months of relaxation.
According to official guidance, however, the youths are encouraged to
use their relaxation period for "ideological and physical steeling." The
university year would consist of 7 months of academic work, 2 months of
military training, 1 month of physical work, and 2 months of ideological
and physical steeling.
Physical training of the type that contributes most to future military
service is encouraged. Specific goals to be derived from it are basic
physical improvement in speed, agility, strength, and resistance and the
moral attributes of bravery, strong will, and personal discipline. Light
sports, such as volleyball, are discouraged. Track, wrestling, and body
contact sports are advised. Swimming and skiing are also considered to
have military applications. It is recommended that calisthenics and
physical culture activities be carried on in large groups.
Military instruction includes close order drill, crawling and obstacle
penetration, storming techniques, and hand-to-hand combat. Academic
courses in the military area train in the care and use of various types
of weapons, the theories of military art, and the techniques of
conventional and guerrilla warfare. Schools organize marches and
excursions that are combined with tactical military exercises to give
them a wholly military character. Most of these are designed to teach
guerrilla warfare tactics. Overnight stalking exercises feature searches
for intruder groups, a simulated target demolition, or some such
objective. Girls as well as boys are required to participate. Tirana
press photographs have shown some groups of girls engaged in mortar
training, others in target shooting. In the 1969 Tirana May Day parade
girls, in ranks of fifteen abreast, carried submachineguns.
When the programs have been completely implemented, students in the
first and second years of secondary schooling will receive all of their
physical and military training at their schools. It will be supervised
by teachers and military officers assigned to the schools. Third- and
fourth-year students will have part of the training at their schools,
but with entire day or week periods devoted to the program. They will
also spend a part of the allocated month in military units to which the
school is attached for the purpose.
Facilities are not adequate in many schools, and in many areas military
units are not immediately available to assist in training. It will be
several years before the complete revised programs can be implemented.
The first year's effort, however, involves about 10,000 university
students and about 170,000 other people. The latter figure includes
schoolteachers, military personnel who cooperate in the training, and
others who provide miscellaneous voluntary or part-time assistance, in
addition to those who receive the training. Students in the program have
been compared with those in the Communist Chinese Red Guard, but the
organization of the Albanian program is designed to keep it closely
aligned with the school curriculum and with active military units to
prevent large-scale independent action by youth groups.
Paramilitary programs of Party-sponsored youth organizations are similar
in many ways to those in the school system. Pioneers take children, both
boys and girls, between the ages of seven and fourteen. A group of these
young Pioneers carried rifles and submachineguns in the 1968 Tirana May
Day parade. From ages fifteen to twenty-five they may belong to the
Union of Albanian Working Youth, frequently called the Communist Youth
Movement. The Union of Albanian Working Youth had 210,000 members in
1967. Nearly all personnel drafted into the armed forces fall within the
youth movement's age brackets, and its units within the services are
active. Political and ideological indoctrination is intensive in these
organizations and prepares the youth for possible membership in the
Party in later years (see ch. 6, Government Structure and Political
System).
Military Justice
There is no distinction between the civil judicial order in general and
the military order in particular, but military crimes are treated in a
separate chapter of the penal code. That chapter treats those acts,
committed by persons under the jurisdiction of military courts, that are
directed against military discipline, military orders, and the like.
They include a broad variety of violations against persons, property, or
the state.
A military crime, in the Albanian system, has two characteristics
distinguishing it from nonmilitary crimes. The crime is committed
against regulations established for the performance of military service,
and the defendant is a member of the armed forces. For criminal justice
the security forces under the Ministry of the Interior and all local
police are considered armed forces and are subject to military law and
to trial in military courts, as are reservists or persons called to
military or police duty for short periods. Also, military violations are
believed to include a variety of crimes against the state that might not
be classed as military in Western countries, including some in the
so-called socially dangerous category. As is the case in the Soviet
Union, persons who fail to report on others committing crimes are
themselves liable.
Military courts are selected by the People's Assembly or by its
Presidium when it is not in session. Members are military personnel and
ordinarily serve on a court for three years. Each court has a chairman,
vice chairman, and a number of members called assistant judges. The
chairman and at least one of the assistant judges must be military
superiors of the defendant.
In exceptional circumstances the People's Assembly may appoint a special
court for a particular case or a group of cases. A special court may be
all or only partially military. Such a court was appointed, for example,
when Vice Admiral Teme Seyko, commander of the naval forces, was accused
in 1961 of "having been in league with the imperialist Americans, Greek
monarcho-fascists and Yugoslav revisionists." The admiral was executed.
When crimes are committed during military operations, sentences are
heavier than when the same offenses are committed under conditions where
duress is not a factor. During combat or wartime circumstances,
legislative acts call for the most severe penalties.
THE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
According to official government pronouncements relating to the state
budget, 471 million leks (5 leks equal US$1) were appropriated for
defense expenditures in 1970. That amount is 9.2 percent of the total
planned expenditures of 5,110 million leks, or about 225 leks per
inhabitant during the year. Whether or not all expenses that would fall
within the defense category in Western countries are included in these
figures is not known. It is the practice in some Communist governments
to distribute peripheral defense costs among other agency appropriations
(see ch. 8, Economic System).
The defense budget was increased drastically in 1969 and 1970 over the
levels of earlier years, apparently in reaction to the Soviet invasion
of Czechoslovakia. The midyear calculated expenditures for 1969
represented an increase of about 38 percent over those of 1968, and 1970
projections showed another 12.2 percent anticipated increase over 1969.
The burden represented by 225 leks per person can be illustrated by
relating it to income and costs of living. In 1967, for example, a
typical head of family worker earned about 7,200 leks per year. The
average family group consisted of between five and six persons, and
about 90 percent of its earnings was required for food and housing. In
the preponderant majority of situations where there was only one wage
earner per family, therefore, per capita defense costs exceeded
everything that the family had available for all uses except food and
shelter.
The 50,000 men in the regular and security forces represent about 2.4
percent of the population, but each annual draft takes a number that is
equal to roughly one-half of the young men that become nineteen years
old during the year. There is no reliable information as to how
willingly the average citizen performs his military service or whether
or not his contribution is appreciated by the remainder of the people.
The controlled-communications media do everything possible to promote
good morale among those in the service and to show that the public
supports them.
FOREIGN MILITARY RELATIONS
Small, underdeveloped, and suffering continually from an unfavorable
balance of trade, Albania has always needed assistance to maintain even
a small military force. Accepting aid from Italy before World War II
resulted in a severe curtailment of national initiative in the
employment of the forces and probably contributed to their immobility at
the time of the Italian invasion in 1939.
Between 1945 and 1948 Yugoslavia's control over Albania's forces was
tighter than Italy's had been. In addition to technical advisers and
instructors in regular service units, the Communist Party organization
provided an effective vehicle for controlling the reliability of
personnel, particularly the military leadership.
Because the Soviet Union, like Italy, was physically separated from the
country it was a more desirable ally than neighboring Yugoslavia had
been. It was nonetheless able to maintain tighter controls over Albanian
forces than either Yugoslavia or Italy had achieved. General Petrit
Dume, who was commander of the People's Army during its dependence on
the Soviet Union and still was in 1970, had said in November of 1952
that his force was an integral part of the Soviet Army.
Albania became one of the original Warsaw Treaty Organization members in
1955. Separated from the other signatories, its forces were unable to
participate in the pact's field exercises and after 1961, because of its
rift with the Soviet Union, was not invited to attend the organization's
meetings. In 1968, protesting the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia,
Albania formally withdrew from the pact.
Communist China was Albania's only military ally in 1970. In 1970 the
Chinese were believed to be enabling Albania to maintain its forces at
approximately the same levels that had been reached by 1960 with Soviet
assistance (see ch. 6, Government Structure and Political System).
SECURITY FORCES
Albanian sources publish little concerning the security police except
for some articles expressing gratitude for their services and a
smattering of information relative to their responsibilities. Few of the
observers who have visited the country since 1945 have been in positions
to see, or have been qualified to judge, their actual performance. It is
undoubtedly true that the Albanian leadership emulated many of Joseph
Stalin's techniques for controlling the population, that it modified its
attitudes and practices less than did the other East European Communist
countries after Stalin's death, and that it has maintained a high degree
of Stalinism since its break with the Soviet Union and alignment with
Communist China (see ch. 6, Government Structure and Political System).
There is probably credibility in reports stating that no other Communist
country has as extensive a police and security organization relative to
its size as that which operates in Albania. Hoxha has regarded the
security police as an elite group, and they have been the mainstay of
his power. By 1961, although arrests had tapered off from earlier
levels, fourteen concentration or labor camps were still in use. Foreign
visitors in Tirana have reported that it is impossible to move around
the city without escorts and that conversations with ordinary citizens
are discouraged. Local police, servicemen, and security police are in
evidence everywhere.
All security and police forces were responsible in the governmental
structure to the Ministry of the Interior. The minister in 1970 was
Kadri Hasbiu. Each organization--the Directorate of State Security, the
People's Police, and the Frontier Guards--constituted a separate
directorate of the ministry. The total regular uniformed security
personnel numbered approximately 12,500. This figure did not include the
plainclothes security police, informers, or the citizens who were
performing their two months of mandatory auxiliary duty attached to
local police units.
A larger proportion of personnel in the security forces are Party
members than is the case in the regular military forces. In the state
security organization, nearly all of those who serve in important
positions are believed to be Party members. In the Frontier Guards the
officers and many of the men are Party members.
The Directorate of State Security
The Directorate of State Security (Drejtorija e Sigurimit te
Shtetit--commonly abbreviated to Sigurimi) is organized into four
battalions and has more plainclothes personnel than uniformed. It
celebrates March 20, 1943, as its founding day and is credited by Hoxha
and others of the Party leadership as having been instrumental in the
victory of his faction of the partisan effort. Actually the People's
Defense Division, from which the Sigurimi evolved, was formed in 1945.
Composed at that time of some 5,000 of the most reliable of the
resistance fighters, it was headed initially by Koci Xoxe, who was
executed as a Titoist four years later. Mihalaq Zicishti was its chief
in 1970.
The stated missions of the security police are to prevent
counterrevolution and to eliminate opposition to the Party and
government. Its interests are directed toward political and ideological
opposition rather than crimes against persons or property unless such
crimes appear to have national implications.
In the late 1950s the Sigurimi had seven sections: political,
censorship, public records, prison camp, two sections for
counterespionage, and a foreign service. The political section's primary
function was the penetration of opposition political factions. One of
the counterespionage sections was specialized and had only a
responsibility for eliminating underground organizations. The censorship
section operated not only with the press, radio, publications, and other
communications media but with cultural societies, schools, and
schoolteachers. The public records section was also charged with
ideological supervision of economic agencies.
Sigurimi personnel at labor camps attended to the political reeducation
of the inmates and evaluated the degree to which they remained socially
dangerous; camp guards were local police. The foreign service section
placed its personnel as widely as possible in order to maintain contact
with aliens or foreigners in the country and in diplomatic and visiting
groups.
Sigurimi personnel may be conscripts called during the annual draft or
may be career volunteers. Personnel are screened, and the conditions of
service are made sufficiently attractive to secure as reliable and
dedicated men as possible.
Frontier Guards
The Frontier Guards are organized into five battalions. Individual units
are manned with fewer personnel than Sigurimi battalions, however, and
the total strength of the force is lower. Although the force is
organized strictly along military lines, it is under the Ministry of the
Interior and is more closely associated with the security police than
with the regular armed forces.
The stated mission of the Frontier Guards is to protect the State's
borders and to take action against spies, criminals, smugglers, and
infiltrators along the boundaries. In the process they also prevent
Albanians from leaving the country.
Frontier Guards personnel, like those of the Sigurimi, may be acquired
during the annual conscription. Career personnel are often those who
have served tours in the regular services. A guards' school was
established in 1953 in Tirana. Its students, as well as others allowed
in the force, are carefully screened for political reliability.
People's Police
The People's Police has five branches--the Police for Economic
Objectives, Communications Police, Fire Police, Detention Police, and
General Police. The Police for Economic Objectives serve as guards for
state buildings, factories, construction projects, and similar
enterprises. Communications Police guard bridges, railways, and wire
lines. Firefighting is a police function, accomplished by the Fire
Police. Detention Police are prison and camp guards. The fifth branch,
the General Police, attend to traffic regulation, local crime, and other
duties usually performed by local or municipal police.
General Police functions overlap those of the security police to some
extent, but the force operates in the local, as opposed to the national,
environment. Headquarters in the larger towns have security sections
that maintain records on suspected anti-Communists, an alien section
that maintains contact with Albanians outside their own districts as
well as aliens, and a political commissar who is so placed as to assure
the proper political orientation of all other personnel.
Citizens are required to carry identification cards. These contain
family and employment data and, as they are needed even for intervillage
travel, constitute an effective control over movement of the population.
Minimum service on the police force is for three years. Individuals with
earlier service in the armed forces, security police, or Frontier Guards
are preferred.
Auxiliary Police
A 1948 law requires that all able-bodied men serve two months assisting
the local police. They perform with the regular People's Police of their
localities, wear the police uniform made distinguishable only by a red
armband, and serve without pay. The auxiliary police program serves a
dual purpose. It provides additional help for the police forces. Of more
overall value, it gives a sizable portion of the population some
familiarity with, and presumably a more sympathetic understanding of,
police activities and problems.
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Publications Research Service (Washington). The following
publications are JPRS translations from foreign sources:
"Abuses of Principle of Compensation According to Labor," by
Dervish Gjiriti, in _Puna_ (Labor), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS:
50,847, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 310, 1970.)
"Advanced Technology: An Important Factor in Surmounting the
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"Against the Handicraft Method of Management in the
Engineering Industry," by Vangjush Gambeta, in _Zeri i
Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS:
47,544, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 92, 1969.)
"The Agricultural Tasks of 1970 Demand Greater Use of
Organic Fertilizer," by Xhemal Barushi, in _Bashkimi_
(Unity), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,065, _Translations on
Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 265,
1970.)
"Bank Activities and Bank Control as a Component Part of
State Control Must be Improved," by Zeqir Lika, in _Ekonomia
Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 48,892,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial
Affairs_, No. 186, 1969.)
"Concentration and Specialization Cannot be Accomplished
Without a Struggle Against Outdated Concepts," by Fejzo
Rino, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana,
1968. (JPRS: 46,647, _Translations on Eastern Europe,
Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 41, 1968.)
"Control by the Working Class and Problems of Finance and
Accounting," by Mensur Saraci, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice
of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,647, _Translations
on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 41,
1968.)
"The Country's Power Resources and the Ways to Use Them More
Economically," by Harilla Nishku, in _Ekonomia Popullore_
(People's Economy), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,784,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial
Affairs_, No. 305, 1970.)
"Development of the Machine Industry," by Thoma Afezolli, in
_Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969 (JPRS:
48,685, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 171, August 26, 1969.)
"Disappearance and Reduction of Social and General Diseases,
Great Victory of the Party in the Health Field," by Josif
Adhami, et al., in _Shendetesia Popullore_ (People's
Health), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 50,302, _Translations on
Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, 1969.)
"Elements of Internal Democracy in the Agricultural
Cooperatives in Berat District," by Omer Mero, in _Bashkimi_
(Unity), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,439, _Translations on
Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 34,
1968.)
"Expansion of Mechanization in Agriculture," by Xhelal
Shkreta, in _Ekonomia Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana,
1968. (JPRS: 47,515, _Translations on Eastern Europe,
Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 90, 1969.)
"The Extension and Protection of the Forests is the
Responsibility of All the People," by Thoma Dine, in _Rruga
e Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 48,096,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial
Affairs_, No. 129, 1969.)
"For the Implementation of the Tasks Concerning the Further
Revolutionization of Our Schools," by Mehmet Shehu, in _Zeri
i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968 (JPRS:
45,432, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 256, 1968.)
"The Great Revolutionary Transformations in the Development
of Our Socialist Health on the Twenty-fifth Anniversary of
the Victory of the People's Revolution and the Establishment
of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat," by Ciril Pistoli,
in _Shendetesia Popullore_ (People's Health), Tirana, 1969.
(JPRS: 50,345, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Political,
Sociological, and Military Affairs_, No. 207, 1970.)
"Immediate Interests Must be Correctly Combined With
Long-Term Ones," by Perikli Samsuri, in _Bashkimi_ (Unity),
Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,222, _Translations on Eastern
Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 221, 1969.)
"Improper Use of Investment Funds," by Andrea Nako, in
_Bashkimi_ (Unity), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,570,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial
Affairs_, No. 38, 1968.)
"The Improvement of Fodder: A Fundamental Condition of the
Development of Livestock," by Andrea Shundi and Petrit
Disdardi, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People),
Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 49,941, _Translations on Eastern
Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 256, 1970.)
"Increased Savings Deposits: An Index of Growing
Prosperity," by Ramadan Citaku, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice
of the People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,222, _Translations
on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No.
211, 1969.)
"Labor Productivity in Industry Must be Raised," by Jonuz
Drishti, in _Ekonomia Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana,
1968. (JPRS: 46,163, _Translations on Eastern Europe,
Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 21, 1968.)
"Let Us Expand and Perfect Our Labor Force Plans," by Besim
Bardhoshi, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People),
Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,940, _Translations on Eastern
Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 57, 1968.)
"Let Us Further Develop the Struggle for the Mechanization
of Work Processes," by Pjeter Kosta, in _Zeri i Popullit_
(Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969, (JPRS: 48,647,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial
Affairs_, No. 166, 1969.)
"Let Us Further Intensify the Participation of the Working
Masses in Reinforcing the Savings Regimen," by Aleks Verli,
in _Rruga e Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS:
48,349, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and
Industrial Affairs_, No. 143. 1969.)
"Let Us Strengthen the Movement of the Working Class for the
Overall Development of the Villages," by Sotir Kamberi, in
_Rruga e Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815,
_Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological,
and Military Affairs_, No. 9, 1968.)
"Let Us Take All Necessary Measures to Organize Better the
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GLOSSARY
Albanian Workers' Party--The Communist Party of Albania. This name
adopted by the First Party Congress in 1948.
basic party organization--The Albanian Workers' Party unit established
in state enterprises and institutions, on collective or cooperative
farms, and in military organizations. In some Communist states--for
example, the Soviet Union--the equivalent is a primary party
organization.
Bektashi--A dervish order, offshoot of the Shia branch of Islam,
emphasizing abstinence from violence and charity to all people.
_besa_--A pledge to faithfully fulfill an obligation or promise.
Formerly used to effect a truce during hostilities involving clans or
conflicts between individuals.
_bey_--The head of a feudal estate or an administrative official under
the Turks. Became the dominant class after Albanian independence in
1912. Also formerly used as a title of respect.
CEMA--Council for Economic Mutual Assistance; members: Bulgaria,
Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, and the Soviet
Union.
civil war--The hostilities from September 1943 to November 1944 in which
partisans of the Communist-led National Liberation Front fought the two
principal anti-Communist organizations, Balli Kombetar (National Front)
and Levizja e Legalitetit (Legality Movement).
clan--An organization that included several families and provided
controls as stipulated by unwritten codes. In 1945 the clans were broken
up by the Communist regime.
collective or cooperative--An organization in which members retain only
their personal effects; all other belongings become community property.
Production from group efforts goes into a common fund. Members are paid
on the basis of their contribution of work units.
Cominform--Communist Information Bureau. International organization of
Communist parties, established in 1947 and dissolved in 1956.
Democratic Front--The largest and most important social organization
utilized by the Albanian Workers' Party to gain the support of the
masses for their objectives. Its work includes political, economic,
social, and cultural tasks. It succeeded the National Liberation Front
in 1945.
district--The major subdivisions of the country. There were twenty-six
in 1970.
Gegs--The larger of the two subgroups of Albanians. They inhabit the
area north of the Shkumbin River. Differentiated until World War II by
their tribal organization and primitive life style; also have
distinctive physical features.
Kosovo--An autonomous region within the Serbian Republic of Yugoslavia.
This area previously called Kosovo-Metohija and frequently referred to
as Kosmet.
lek--The standard monetary unit. Does not have an international official
exchange rate. Nominally valued in Tirana at 5 leks to 1 United States
dollar; the tourist rate in early 1970 was 12.5 leks to US$1. Devalued
in August 1965 by exchanging 1 new lek for 10 old leks.
Marxism-Leninism--From the Albanian Communist viewpoint, the ideology of
Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin as reflected in the experience of the
Soviet Union until the death of Joseph Stalin.
mass organization--Generally of a social or professional nature with
broad membership designed to link the Party with the masses and to gain
support for Party objectives.
National Liberation Front--Created in 1942; Communist-led; fought
Italian and German occupying forces and immobilized other Albanian
factions to seize power in 1944.
Ottoman--Relating to the Turks or to Turkey. Derived from name of
fourteenth-century founder of the Ottoman Empire.
party cadre--A thoroughly indoctrinated and reliable Party group.
Utilized wherever deemed necessary to maintain efficiency and
performance. Frequently specially trained in management.
_pasha_--A person of high rank; formerly used as a title of respect;
title given to appointed provincial heads during the Ottoman period.
People's Army--The armed forces of Albania. Composed of ground, air, and
navy elements.
People's Council--The highest government organ at district and lower
echelons. Members are elected for three-year terms.
Politburo--The highest and most powerful executive body of the Albanian
Workers' Party. In early 1970 it consisted of eleven full members and
five candidate members.
Presidium of the People's Assembly--Administers and conducts
governmental functions between Assembly meetings. Issues decrees and
judges constitutionality of laws. In early 1970, composed of a
president, two vice presidents, and ten members.
revisionism--As interpreted by Albanian Communists, the actions and
ideologies of Communist states that are inconsistent with Albanian
interpretations of Marxism-Leninism.
Sigurimi--Name applied to state security police under the Communist
regime; derived from the Directorate of State Security (Drejtorija e
Sigurimit te Shtetit).
Sunni--One of the two major branches of Islam.
Tosks--The smaller of the two subgroups of Albanians. They live south of
the Shkumbin River. Differences in social organization between the two
groups lessened under Communist rule. They abandoned their tribal
pattern of life earlier and were more influenced by foreign cultures
before 1945 than were the Gegs.
Zogu, Ahmet--Served as prime minister and president during the early
1920s; then ruled as King Zog from 1928 until 1939. Was leader of
conservative forces composed of landowners, former Ottoman bureaucrats,
and tribal chiefs.
INDEX
Abazi, Dede (religious leader): 98
administrative divisions: vii, 33, 34 (fig. 3), 35
adult education: 87, 88, 90-91
agas: 95
agrarian reform: 15, 16, 75; law, 21, 96
agreements. _See_ treaties and agreements
agriculture (_see also_ collective farms, crops, state farms):
deterrents to goal attainment, 145;
exports, 151, 174;
five-year plans, 145, 152, 155-59 _passim_;
imports, 173;
investment, 167;
land use, acreage, 152;
mechanization, 146, 152;
new methods, 145, 152;
pattern of organization, 146, 151, 153;
production, 145, 151-52, 155-56 (tables 10, 11), 157-59;
productivity, 149;
share of labor force, 147;
summary, viii
aid, foreign (_see also under specific country and under_ Communist
countries): 3, 4;
economic, 146, 169-71;
military, 175-79 _passim_, 190;
summary, ix
air force: 180, 184-85; chief, 184
air transport: ix, 46-47
airbases: 184-85
Albanian (language): 55-56, 137
Albanian Party Political Bureau. _See_ Politburo
Albanian Telegraphic Agency (news agency): 131-32
Albanian Workers' Party (_see also_ Central Committee, Central Commission
on Education, Directorate of, Politburo, Secretariat): v, 1;
activists and agitators, 107, 125, 128, 129;
book publishing, 134;
communication channels, 125;
Conference, 114;
Congress, 113;
control over people and institutions, 2, 93-94, 111, 135, 137, 140, 142,
146, 147, 176, 185-86, 192-93, 194;
and the courts, 107;
discipline, 114;
economic goal, 145;
founded, 17;
institutes, 117;
mass organizations as levers of, 117-18;
members in security forces, 193;
membership, 115;
national and regional organization, 111-15;
operations, 115-16;
organization within armed forces, 175;
political power, 103-04, 106;
religious policy, 100;
schools, 116-17;
slogan, 181;
Stalinist methods, 121;
statutes, 113-14, 115, 116, 118, 128
Albanian Writers' Union: 56
Ali, Hafez Musa Haxhi (religious leader): 98
Alia, Ramiz (Politburo secretary): 111, 112
alphabet, Albanian: 49, 56, 83
American Agricultural School (Kavaje): 84
American Junior Red Cross: 84
American Technical School (Tirana): 84
anti-Communists:
organizations, 18;
records on, 195
Antoniu, Kristaq (singer): 142
Apponyi, Geraldine (wife of Zog I): 16
area: vii, 1, 25
armed forces (_see also_ People's Army): chief of staff, 180;
civilian activities, 152, 181;
decorations, 187-88;
defense budget, 191;
equipment, 175, 179, 181-82, 183, 184;
foreign aid, 175-79 _passim_, 190;
historical background, 177-79;
medical services, 187;
military courts, 108;
military schools, 186-87;
mission, 181;
mobilization potential, 185;
Party control of, 111, 185-86;
Party organization within, 115, 175;
political indoctrination of, 185-86, 190;
rank designations, 175, 180;
resistance to Italian occupation, 178-79;
strength, 175, 181, 183, 184;
summary, ix
Army of National Liberation: 18, 64, 111
arts, fine: 142-43
Asdreni, ---- (poet): 139
Austria-Hungary: 14
authority:
under communism, 68;
traditional attitude toward, 67, 71
automobiles: 65
Bajraktari, Muharem (chieftain): 72
_bajraktars_ (tribal chieftains): 67, 71, 74
balance of trade, 171
Balli Kombetar (National Front): 18, 74, 139;
supporters, 72
Balluku, Beqir (min. of defense): 111, 180
banking: 168-69
_Bashkimi_ (newspaper): 129, 130 (table 7)
Bektashi (religious group): 97, 98
Belishova, Liri (former Politburo member): 23
_besa_ (pledge): 53
_beys_: 2, 5, 10, 13, 17, 72, 73, 74;
creation of the class, 95;
during civil war, 74;
seizure of their land, 21;
social position, 67, 70, 73
bibliography: 197-207
bicycles: 65
birth rate: 51
books: publishing and distribution, 133-34
boundaries: 25, 26, 31-33;
border security (_see_ Frontier Guards);
potential for dispute, 4, 9, 31;
settlement (1913), 14, 25
Broz, Josip (Tito): 19, 21, 22, 122
budget (_see also_ expenditures, revenue, taxes): 164-67;
defense, 191;
responsibility for preparing, 106;
social and cultural sectors, 58
Buene River: 39, 47, 183
Bulgaria: aid and trade, 170, 172
Byron, Lord: 96
Cako, Hito (chief, Army Political Directorate): 186
capital goods: output, 160-61
Carcani, Adil (Politburo member): 112, 120
Central Commission on Education: 92, 94, 112
Central Committee: 92, 94, 105, 113, 116, 117, 127;
composition, 77, 112;
functions, 114;
and labor situation, 147, 148, 149;
members in Council of Ministers, 106;
publications, 129, 131
Charles I of Anjou: 11
children: welfare provisions, 64
China, Communist: aid, economic, 122-23, 160, 170, 171, 172;
aid, military, 175, 176-77, 179, 184, 190;
debt to, 171;
economic effect of alignment with, 146;
education and training in, 92;
influence, 23;
jointly owned shipping line, 47;
relations with, v, 3, 104, 121-23;
trade, 172, 174
Christianity: introduction, 11, 95
chrome: 44
Churchill, Winston: 19
Ciano, Count (Italian Foreign Min.): 16
Cikuli, Ziza (poet): 140
cities: growth, 75; population, 49, 50, 51, 56
civil war (1943-44): 18-19;
fate of anti-Communists, 74
clans. _See_ tribes and clans
clergymen: 73;
Communist actions against, 96, 97-98, 99-101
climate: vii, 4, 26, 35, 36 (table 1), 37
collective farms: 145, 146, 151;
basic features, 153-54;
labor force, size, 147, 148;
number and size, 154-55;
patriarchalism, 80;
personal income, 153-54;
private plots, 154, 157, 159, 166;
work performance, 151-52
Cominform. _See_ Communist Information Bureau
communications (_see also_ press, radio, television): 125-35;
ownership, 110;
summary, ix
Communist Information Bureau (Cominform): 21, 179
Communist countries:
aid, 21, 169, 170;
education and training in, 91;
trade, 172
Communist Party. _See_ Albanian Workers' Party
Communist regime:
attitudes toward population growth, ethnic differences, and blood feuds,
51, 53;
consolidation of power, 20-23;
efforts to alter social structure, 67-69, 73-83;
gains claimed, 6, 45, 50, 53, 58, 59, 75, 91, 94, 145, 149, 151, 155,
159, 165-66;
goals, 2;
installation date, 9;
policy toward religious groups, 96, 97, 100
Communists: seizure of power, 17-20
concentration camps. _See_ labor camps
cooperatives: agricultural, 136
copper ore: export, 44
Conference of Peze (1942): 17
Constituent Assembly: People's Republic proclaimed by, 20
constitution:
first Communist, 20, 74, 86, 96, 113;
independence, 14;
provisions, 101, 104-08 _passim_
consumer goods: output, 161
cotton: 151, 155, 156 (table 10)
Council for Economic Mutual Assistance (CEMA): 21;
member, 121
Council of Ministers: 132, 134, 150, 164, 179;
description, 106;
and religious control, 97
courts: 107-08;
military, 108, 190;
summary, viii
crime: 79, 128, 176;
military, 190
crops (_see also specific crop_):
industrial, 151;
production, 155, 156 (table 10);
yields, 41
culture:
achievements, 137-38;
development, 135-43;
dominant themes under communism, 136;
indoctrination through institutions, 135;
Party control of activities, 135, 137, 140, 142
currency: viii, 167-68
Czechoslovakia: 123;
aid, 170;
trade, 172
Dako, Kristo (school founder): 84
death rate: 51
defense: budgetary expenditures, 166
Deljana, Thoma (Min., Education and Culture): 88
Democratic Front: 1, 103, 109, 117;
described, 118-19;
newspaper, 129;
NLF renamed, 19
Dhrami, M. (artist): 143
diet: 62
Directorate of:
Agitation and Propaganda (Agitprop), 112, 127;
Cadres and Organizations, 112;
Education and Culture, 92, 94, 112;
Mass Organizations, 112;
Radiobroadcasting, 132;
State Administrative Organs, 112;
State Security, 111, 176, 193-94
disease: 59-60
divorce: 79-80
doctors: 61
drainage. _See_ lakes, rivers
Drin River: 37, 39, 47, 160, 164
Dume, Gen. Petrit (army chief of staff): 180, 192
Durres (port): 11, 183;
facilities, 47;
population, 51, 57;
transportation, 46
East-West conflict: position in, 2, 121
economic planning: Communists view of, 110
economic plans (_see also_ Five-Year Plans): responsibility for
preparation, 106
economy:
major objective, 7;
status of, 146;
summary, viii
education (_see also_ schools): 83-94;
discrimination, 77;
eight-year, obligatory, 88-89;
first objective, 69;
function of information media, 126-27;
indoctrination of youth, 69;
medical training, 61;
military, 88, 90;
Party control, 93-94;
pre-Communist period, 83-85;
reform, 88;
and social mobility, 69;
status of, 6;
summary, viii;
system, 87-89 (fig. 5), 90-94;
technical, 86-87
Educational Reform Law (1946): 86
Elbasan (city): 46, 49, 57
elections: 1, 19, 20;
Assembly representatives, 105;
candidate selection, 103, 104, 107, 109, 116-17;
character and procedure, 108-09;
mobilization of voters, 128
electricity. _See_ power, electric
elite: Party, 64, 69, 77, 78, 106;
ruling, 2, 10, 68, 73, 96, 121
employment: 147
ethnic groups: 5, 6, 9, 49, 52-55; minor, 54-55
European nations: relations with, 123; trade, 174
expenditures: 165, 166-67; defense, 191
exports: 172, 173-74;
agricultural, 151, 174;
industrial, 161, 162, 174;
principal, 44;
summary, viii
Faja, Baba. _See_ Martaneshi, Baba Mustafa Faja
family:
under communism, 74;
efforts to revolutionize, 68, 81-83;
rate of increase in number of, 75;
role in politics, 77;
as social force, 6;
traditional organization, 67, 70-71
farm credits: 169
farms. _See_ collective farms, state farms
Fejzo, Baba (clergyman): 98
fertilizer: 160
feuds, blood: 6, 53-54, 71
Fier (city):
oil refinery and power plant, 160;
population, 49, 57
Filce, Gjorgjija (singer): 142
films: 141
finance (_see also_ currency, banking, budget): 164-69;
summary, viii
Five-Year Plans:
First (1951-55) and Second (1956-60), 159;
Third (1961-65), 145, 149, 165, 170;
Fourth (1966-70), 145, 152, 155-59 _passim_, 165, 171, 172;
Fifth (1971-75), 164, 171
Floqi, Kristo (playwright): 140
food:
prices, 64;
processing, 162
foreign aid. _See_ aid, foreign
foreign relations: 121-23
forests: 26, 41-42
France:
relations with, 23;
trade, 173
Franciscans: 97, 100, 139
Frasheri, Midhat (political leader): 18, 139
Frasheri, Naim (writer): 139
Frasheri, Sami (playwright): 140
Frontier Guards: 111, 176, 194
fruit:
citrus, 30;
exports, 174;
production, 151, 155, 156 (table 10)
Fuga, Myqerem (Institute head): 117
gas: reserves, 44
Geg (language): 56, 137
Gega, Lira (former Politburo member): 22
Gegs (ethnic group): 6;
ethnic characteristics, 53;
population, 52;
social structure, 70-72
Germany: resistance to occupation by, 179
Germany, East: aid and trade, 170, 172
Gjata, Fatmir (writer): 140
glossary: 209
government:
appointment of officials, 116;
character of, 1, 103, 104, 108;
local, 106-07;
Party control of, 103, 104, 106;
structure, 104-07;
summary, vii
grain: bread grain production, 151, 155, 156 (table 10)
Great Britain: 178
Greece:
Albanians living in, 55;
boundary claim, 14, 26;
relations with, 9, 123;
shared border, 25, 31, 32;
trade, 173
Greeks (ethnic group): 54
gross industrial product (GIP): minerals share, 44
gross national product (GNP): per capita, 50
Gypsies: 54, 55
harbors: 183
Hasbiu, Gen. Kadri: 77, 111, 193
Hasko, Arif (air force chief): 184
health and medicine:
facilities, 61;
military medicine, 187;
mobile medical teams and equipment, 61;
personnel and training, 61;
services, 58;
status of, 6, 50, 59-62;
summary, viii
history: 9-23
Hitler, Adolf: 17
holidays: 10, 78
hospitals: 61
houses: description, 63
housing:
investment, 167;
loans, 169;
status, 51, 62-63
Hoxha, Enver (Party first secretary): 1, 3, 11, 17-23
_passim_, 53, 62, 77, 80, 84, 88, 100-05
_passim_, 111, 115-27
_passim_, 136, 142;
relation to defense establishment, 180;
relation to security police, 193;
rise to leadership, 179
Hoxha (Enver) United Army Officers School: 186
Hoxha, Nexhmije (Party official): 77, 93, 112, 117
Hoxha-Shehu duumvirate: overthrow attempt, 22
Hungary: 172
Hunyadi (Hungarian king): 12
hydroelectric power:
potential, 40, 162, 163;
station, 159, 160, 164
identification cards: 195
illiteracy: 7, 86, 94, 126
imports: viii, 172, 173
income:
collective farm workers, 153-54;
national, major source, 7;
taxes, 165
independence: 2, 3, 9, 10, 13-16, 139, 176, 177;
proclaimed, 14
indoctrination: political and social, 69, 126, 135, 140, 147, 185-86, 190
industry: 146, 159-64;
budgetary expenditures, 166, 167;
construction projects, 159, 160;
deterrents to development, 161;
exports, 161, 162, 174;
five-year plans, 159, 164,170;
imports, 173;
nationalization, 21, 110;
production, 160-63 (table 12);
productivity, 149-50, 161;
progress toward goal, 145;
structure, 160;
summary, viii
infant mortality: 50, 60
information media (_see also_ press, radio, television): functions,
ownership, and control, 2, 125-29
Institute for Economic Studies: 117
Institute of Marxist-Leninist Studies: 117
Institute of Party History: 117
intellectuals: 73, 76-77
interest rate: 169
investment: budgetary expenditures, 167
iron: 44
irrigation: 40, 152, 153
Islam. See Muslim religion
Italy:
aid, military, 178, 192;
and Albanian independence, 13-14;
invasion and annexation by, 3, 9, 16-17;
relations with, 9, 16, 23, 121;
resistance to occupation by, 178-79;
trade, 173
Jakova, Tonin (trade union officer): 120
Jakova, Tuk (former Politburo member): 100
Jesuits: 83, 97
judges: election of, 108
justice (_see also_ courts): summary, viii
Kapo, Hysni (Party official): 77, 82, 112, 117, 118
Kapo, Vito (women's organization head): 77, 119
Kastrioti, Gjergj. _See_ Skanderbeg
Kastrioti, John of Kruje (tribal chieftain): 12
Kellezi, Abdyl (chmn., People's Assembly): 105
Khrushchev, Nikita: 22, 23, 122
Kisi, Archbishop Kristofor: 98
Koliqi, Ernest (playwright): 140
Kominino, Gjergi (poet): 140
Kono, Kristro (composer): 142
Korce (city): 51, 57
Kosmet: disposition of, 18
Kosovo area (Yugoslavia): 31, 33
Kryeziu, Gani bey (chieftain): 73
Kupi, Abas (founder, political organization): 18
labor (_see also_ labor force):
summary, vii;
voluntary, 150-51, 162
labor brigades (youth): 118
labor camps: 20, 74, 77, 98, 193, 194
Labor Code: 110
labor force:
adequacy, 146-47;
attitude toward employment, 148;
attitude toward industrial modernization, 161;
education and indoctrination, 147, 161-62;
effect of socialization of the land, 151;
labor norms, 150;
nonagricultural workers, 73;
Party control over, 146, 147;
productivity and discipline, 147-50 _passim_, 161;
size and distribution, 147-48;
working conditions, 78
lakes: 31, 32, 38 (fig. 4), 39, 47
land:
in agricultural use, 152;
arable, 26, 41;
private plots, 154, 157, 159, 166;
reclamation and melioration, 152;
seizure and redistribution, 21;
socialization, 151
language: 49, 55-56;
foreign broadcasts, 132-33;
official, 56;
summary, viii
League for Defense of Rights of the Albanian Nation: 13
Legality Movement: 18, 74;
supporters, 72
lek (currency): exchange rates, 167
Lenin (V. I.) Institute: 117
Leshi, Haxhi (head of state): 72, 105
libraries: 134-35
life expectancy: 51
limestone: 30, 31, 44
literature: 138-40
livestock and livestock products: 154;
production, 152, 155, 156 (table 11), 157-58
living conditions: 49-50, 58-65
loans and credits: 169, 170-71
machine tractor stations: 146, 153, 165
machinery: 161
malaria: 59
malnutrition: 60
Mana, A. (sculptor): 143
management:
attitude toward industrial modernization, 161;
and productivity lag, 149-50
marriage:
under communism, 74;
customs, 68, 71;
laws and rate, 79
Martaneshi, Baba Mustafa Faja (clergyman): 98
Marxism-Leninism: 67, 68, 104, 121, 122;
teaching of, 86, 87, 88, 94, 117, 119, 126, 128-29, 135
medical services. _See_ health and medicine
midwives: 61
migration: 51, 75, 148
Mijo, Sokrat (theater entrepreneur): 140
Mijo, Vangjush (artist): 142
military training (_see also_ schools, military): in school system, 88, 90
minerals: 30, 31, 44, 160, 173
Ministry of:
Education and Culture, 87, 93, 134, 137, 141, 142;
Foreign Affairs, 134;
Health, 59, 60, 61;
Interior, 115, 176, 190, 193, 194;
National Defense, 134;
People's Defense, 115, 175, 176, 179, 186
Mjeda, Dom Ndre (poet): 139
Mugosha, Dusan (Party founder): 17
Mukaj agreement (political parties): 18
museums: 135
music: 141-42
Muslim religion: 7;
conversion to under Ottomans, 12, 67, 94-95;
number of members, 95
Mussolini, Benito: 16
name of country: vii, 11
National Liberation Front: 1, 175;
seizure of government, 19
National Liberation Movement: 103, 139, 179;
created, 17;
supporters, 72, 73
nationalism: 5, 9, 126, 136, 139, 175, 177
nationalization:
effect on social structure, 75;
of industry, 21, 141;
information media, 126;
of schools, 84
naval forces: 180, 182-84;
commander, 182
Ndoja, Mark (poet): 140
Ndreu, Dalli (former Gen.): 22
Near East Foundation: 84
_Nendori_ (literary monthly): 100, 101
news agency: 131-32
newspapers: 129, 130 (table 7)
Nigris, Monsignor (apostolic nuncio): 99
Nikon, Bishop: 99
Noli, Bishop Fan S.: 15, 16, 73, 139
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): 176
nurseries (day care): 68, 148
nurses: 61
Nushi, Gogo (president, trade unions): 120
nutrition: 62
oil:
production, 163 (table 12);
refinery, 160;
reserves, 44
organizations:
anti-communist, 18;
mass, 117-21
Orthodox Church of Albania: 7, 67, 98;
members, 95
Ottoman rule: 3, 12-13
Paco, J. (sculptor): 143
Paisi, Archbishop: 99
Paluca, Maria (singer): 142
paramilitary training: 188-90
Pasha, Mehmet Ali (governor of Egypt): 12
Pasha, Pasko Vasa (playwright): 140
_pashas_: 2, 5, 13;
creation of the class, 95;
social leadership, 70
Paskal, Odhise (sculptor): 142
pastures: 41, 152
patriarchalism: 67;
efforts to eradicate, 68, 80-83
peasants:
attitude toward collectivism and modern methods, 145, 151, 157, 158,
159;
conditions under communism, 78-79;
religion, 95
People's army (_see also_ air force, naval forces): ground forces, 181-82;
organizational patterns, 180;
position in government, 179-80;
rank designations, 180-81;
strength, ix, 181, 183, 184;
training and paramilitary training, 182-90 _passim_
People's Assembly: 106, 108, 116, 164, 179-80, 190;
aim and sphere of action, 109;
description, 104-05;
power and influence, 110
People's councils:
description, 106-07;
as Party levers, 117-18
People's Police: 111, 176, 195
periodicals: 130, 131 (table 8)
Pioneer organizations: 118
pipeline: xiv (fig. 1), 44, 46
Plasari, Ndreci (institute head): 117
poetry: 139
Poland: 172
police. _See_ Directorate of State Security, Frontier Guards, People's
Police
Politburo: 21, 105, 112, 113;
communication media policy, 127;
composition, 77;
and the educational system, 92;
and the labor situation, 148, 150;
members in Council of Ministers, 106;
Secretariat, 111;
top executive branches, 111
politics:
and creation of the modern state, 15-17;
historical background, 5-6;
locus of power, 2, 103, 108-11 _passim_;
role of family connections, 77;
the system, 108-21
Popovic, Miladin (Party founder): 17
population:
control by Party and police, 2, 93-94, 137, 146, 176, 192-93, 194;
ethnic composition, 1, 5, 6, 9, 49, 52-55;
growth rate, 49, 51;
rural character, 50, 56;
social composition, 76 (table 4);
statistics, 1, 49, 50-52 (table 3);
summary, vii;
working age, 147
Poradeci, Lasgush (poet): 139
ports: ix; facilities, 47
potatoes: 155, 156 (table 10)
power, electric (_see also_ hydroelectric power):
extent of use, 50, 58, 162, 163 (table 12);
insufficiency, 44;
production, 163 (table 12), 164;
thermal plant, 160, 162
Prennushi, P. Vincenc (poet): 139
Presidium: 108;
description, 105-06, 111;
president, 72, 105
press: 125-28 _passim_, 129-32;
use for Party purposes, 126-27
prices: consumer commodities, 64-65
proletariat: dictatorship of, 108-11
_Puna_ (newspaper): 129, 130 (table 7)
radio:
foreign broadcasting, 132-33;
receivers and stations, 132, 133 (table 9);
use for Party purposes, 126-27
Radio Tirana: v, 132
railroads: ix, xiv (fig. 1), 45-46
rainfall: 4, 26, 27, 29, 35, 36 (table 1), 37
Rama, K. (artist): 143
Red Cross: 61
regions, natural: 26-31
religion (_see also_ clergymen, Orthodox Church, Muslim religion, Roman
Catholic Church): 5;
under Communists, 96-102;
eradication efforts, 7, 69, 96-102;
law to control, 96-97;
summary, viii;
traditional attitudes toward differences, 67, 96;
wealth confiscation, of religious bodies, 96
resources, natural: 41-44;
ownership, 110
revenue: 164, 165-66
rice: 155, 156 (table 10)
rivers: 37, 38 (fig. 4), 39-40 (table 2)
roads: ix, xiv, (fig. 1), 25, 27, 45
Rockefeller Foundation: 59
Roman Catholic Church: 7, 67;
actions against, 99-100;
membership, 95
Romania: aid and trade, 170, 172
_Rruga e Partise_ (Party monthly): 117, 127, 131
Russia: 13, 14
Sako, Zihni (writer): 140
salt: 44
sanitation: 58, 62
Sazan Island:
air base, 185;
Sea Defense Brigade, 183
schools:
Catholic, 99;
enrollment, 91, 92 (table 5), 93 (table 6);
higher institutes, 86, 90, 93 (table 6);
military, 186-87;
nationalization, 84;
number of, 92 (table 5);
paramilitary training, 188-90;
Party, 116-17;
pre-Communist period, 83-85;
secondary, 90
security forces (_see also_ Directorate of State Security, Frontier
Guards, People's Army, People's Police): 175-95;
control of population by, 176, 192-93;
Party control of, 111;
summary, ix
Sejko, Teme (former naval commander): 22, 190
Semen River: 39
settlement: patterns, 4, 49, 56-58
Shehu, Fiqrete (Party school head): 77, 117
Shehu, Mehmet (Prime Minister): 1, 22, 77, 84, 88, 90, 92, 103, 104, 105,
111, 116, 122
Shehu (Mehmet) Military Academy: 187
Shijak: airbase, 184
Shijaku, S. (artist): 143
shipping: 47
Shkoder (city):
population, 51, 57;
theater, 140
Siliqi, Llazar (poet): 140
Skanderbeg (national hero): 5, 10, 12, 138, 175, 177
Skanderbeg military school: 186
Skenderi, Vehbi (poet): 140
social insurance, 63-64
society (_see also_ authority, divorce, elite, family, marriage, peasants,
tribes and clans, women, youth):
character of, 1-7;
under communism, 68, 73-83;
structure, 67-102;
traditional patterns and values, 67, 69-73;
by type of employment, 76 (table 4)
soils: 26, 41
Soviet Union:
aid, economic, 7, 122, 141, 154, 169, 170;
aid, military, 175, 176, 179, 183, 184, 192;
break with, 122;
debt to, 170;
de-Stalinization campaign repercussions, 21;
education and training in, 61, 87, 91;
farm model, 153;
relations with, v, 2, 3, 21, 23, 104, 112, 121, 122, 123;
trade, 172
Spahiu, Xhafer (Politburo secretary): 111
Stalin, Joseph V.: 19, 22, 121, 122, 140, 142, 192, 193
Stalin (formerly Kucove): pipeline from, 44, 46
Stalin-Tito rupture: 21
standard of living: 7, 49-50, 58
state farms: 146, 151, 153;
labor force size, 147;
number and size, 154;
private plots, 154, 157, 159, 166
State Planning Commission: 58, 146, 150
State University of Tirana:
enrollment, 91;
established, 137-38;
Faculty of Jurisprudence, 74;
Faculty of Medicine, 61;
Library, 135;
Linguistics and History Institute, 56;
paramilitary training, 188
status: social mobility, 69
steel-rolling mill: 160
Stratoberdha, Llazi (Directorate head): 112
sugar beets: 151, 155, 156 (table 10)
sugar mill: 159
summary: vii-ix
Sunni (religious group): 97, 98
Tashko, Koco (former Party Leader): 23
Tashko, Tefta (singer): 142
taxes: 164, 165-66;
and property confiscation, 20;
turnover tax, 165, 166
teachers:
number of, 91, 92 (table 5);
Party membership, 94;
training, 83, 87
television: 125, 133
temperature: 36 (table 1)
Tepelena, Ali Pasha (Lion of Yannina): 13
textbooks: 86, 87
textiles:
mills, 159, 160;
production, 163, (table 12)
theater: 140-41
Tirana (capital city):
airbase, xiv (fig. 1), 184;
description, 57;
population, 51, 56, 57;
transportation, 46
Tito. _See_ Broz, Josip
Tittoni-Venizelos Agreement: 15
tobacco: 151, 155, 156 (table 10)
topography: vii, 4, 26-27, 28 (fig. 2), 29
Tosk: official language, 49, 56, 137
Tosks (ethnic group): 6, 52;
characteristics, 53, 54;
social structure, 70-72
tractors (_see also_ machine tractor stations): spare parts, 160
trade, foreign: 146, 171-74;
agreements, 173
Trade Union Workers:
Agriculture and Procurements, 120;
Education and Trade, 120;
Industry and Construction, 120
trade unions (_see also_ United Trade Unions): 120;
administration of social insurance activities, 63;
and control of labor, 147
Trako, Konstantine (composer): 142
transportation:
problems, 4-5;
status, 44-47;
systems, xiv (fig. 1)
treaties and agreements, international:
boundary, 14, 15, 32;
defense, 16;
summary, ix;
trade, 173
Treaty of San Stefano: 13
trials: accessibility, 107
tribes and clans:
description, 70;
social patterns and values, 69-73
tuberculosis: 60
Turkey: Ottoman rule period, 12-13
Union of Albanian Women: 117, 119
Union of Albanian Working Youth: 1, 93, 115, 117, 175;
described, 118;
newspaper, 129;
paramilitary training, 190
Union of Artists and Writers: 137, 142
unions. _See_ trade unions, United Trade Unions
United Nations: Communist China mouthpiece in, v; Relief and
Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA): 59
United States:
Albanians living in, 55;
relations with, 23, 122
United Trade Unions: 1, 117, 129;
description, 120
university. _See_ State University of Tirana
urbanization: 56, 75;
government policy, 50-51, 147-48
values: traditional, 69-73 _passim_
vegetables:
exports, 174;
production, 151, 156 (table 10)
vegetation: 26, 41
Vijose River: 37, 39
villages:
description, 57-58;
electric power, 58;
health services, 61-62;
population, 49, 56
Vlachs (ethnic group): 54-55
Vlora, Ismail Qemal bey (independence leader): 3, 14
Vlore (port):
airbase, 185;
facilities, 47;
pipeline to, 44, 46;
population, 51, 57;
Sea Defense Brigade, 183;
transportation, 46
vocational and technical training: 86-87
Vodica, Pashko (clergyman): 98
voting: constitutional provision, 108
wages: 64
Warsaw Pact: 121, 123, 176, 192
West, the:
East-West conflict, position, 2, 121;
relations with, 23;
trade, 172, 173
Wied, Prince Wilhelm zu: 15
wildlife: 43
Wilson, Woodrow: 15
women and girls:
attitudes toward, 81, 82, 148;
and blood feuds, 6, 71;
mobilization potential, 185;
paramilitary training, 189;
part in production and government, 119;
position in society, 54, 119;
rights, 119-20;
social changes under communism, 68;
union of women, 117, 119;
welfare benefits, 64
workers' compensation: 64
World War I: 3, 15, 32, 121, 177
World War II: 45, 50, 62-63, 175, 178-79
Xoxe, Jakov (writer): 140
Xoxe, Koci (government official): 21, 22, 193
_Ylli_ (periodical): 131
youth (_see also_ Pioneer organizations, Union of Albanian Working Youth):
antireligious mission, 100, 118;
attitudes toward, 82;
organizations, 118;
paramilitary training, 188-90
Yugoslav Communist Party: 17, 18, 19
Yugoslavia:
aid, economic, 169;
aid, military, 176, 179, 192;
Albanians living in, 55;
influence, 21;
relations with, v, 2, 3, 9, 22, 23, 104, 121, 122, 123;
shared border, 25, 32;
trade, 173
Zengo, Androniqi (artist): 142
Zeqir, Ymer (commander, naval forces): 182
_Zeri I Popullit_ (Party's official daily): 80, 81, 91, 121, 129
_Zeri i Rinise_ (newspaper): 129, 130 (table 7)
Zicishti, Mihalaq (chief, State Security): 193
Zogu, Ahmet (King Zog I): 15, 16, 70, 72, 73, 178
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| Transcriber's Note: |
| |
| Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the |
| original document have been preserved. |
| |
| Page 109 In the paragraph starting "All meetings |
| for the selection of candidates" the second |
| line from the end is a misprint. No correction |
| is available. |
| |
| Typographical errors corrected in the text: |
| |
| Page 4 county changed to country |
| Page 11 thorfare changed to thoroughfare |
| Page 12 Christiandom changed to Christendom |
| Page 14 Adriatric changed to Adriatic |
| Page 29 stablized changed to stabilized |
| Page 39 Semen changed to Seman |
| Page 46 Skhoder changed to Shkoder |
| Page 55 be changed to by |
| Page 70 ancester changed to ancestor |
| Page 84 scare changed to scarce |
| Page 96 At changed to As |
| Page 102 plenun changed to plenum |
| Page 134 Shtypshkonjave changed to Shtypshkronjave |
| Page 162 hydrolectric changed to hydroelectric |
| Page 178 Ahmed changed to Ahmet |
| Page 184 betweeen changed to betweeen |
| Page 186 dicipline changed to discipline |
| Page 197 Drejte changed to Drejta |
| Page 198 Rezhep changed to Rexhep |
| Page 199 Metejshme changed to Metejshem |
| Page 201 Furthur changed to Further |
| Page 202 Bardhosi changed to Bardhoshi |
| Page 202 Pjetar changed to Pjeter |
| Page 214 Bektash changed to Bektashi |
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