COMMUNICATIONS AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Information channels in 1970 were relatively well developed compared
with those of the pre-World War II period. The press was the most
advanced, although by 1970 a substantial radio network existed.
Throughout the 1960s there was only a single experimental television
transmitter, at the end of 1969, however, the government reportedly
requested the French to install a television system.
The press and radio were indispensable instruments in the efforts of the
Albanian Workers' Party (Communist Party) to revolutionize all aspects
of life. To supplement the formal channels, there were several thousand
Party activists who orally transmitted the Party line to the people on a
more personal and informal level.
The various aspects of culture, such as literature, art, music, and
drama, were also structured to promote the goals of the Party. They have
been used extensively to promote support among the masses for the Party
and its principles, to combat religion, and generally to increase the
political and social consciousness of the people.
The guidelines set forth by the Party for all writers and artists to
follow in their creative endeavors are the principles of socialist
realism. The general definition of this approach to art and literature
is that the form of creative works must be national, but their content
must be socialist. The principle of art for art's sake has been rejected
by the Communist leaders. All cultural developments must reflect the
efforts to create a socialist society.
The information media are controlled by the Party directly or indirectly
through the government and such organizations as labor unions, youth
groups, and cultural societies. Private ownership of such media has been
prohibited since the Communist regime came to power.
NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE INFORMATION MEDIA
The media are invaluable instruments for the achievement of the goals of
the Communist leaders. When the Communist regime came to power in
November 1944, it seized control of all such media, although they were
not formally nationalized until 1946. From the outset, the press and
radio were used to justify and extend Communist rule. In general, the
function of the media has been to propagate Marxist-Leninist ideology,
as modified to relate to the specific conditions in Albania, and to
liquidate the traditional religious, social, and economic beliefs of the
people (see ch. 4, The People; ch. 2, Historical Setting).
The functions of the media have remained essentially unchanged
throughout the twenty-six years of rule by the Albanian Workers' Party.
The leaders have used the media extensively in their efforts to
revolutionize all aspects of the national life. In this connection,
there are many specific functions performed by the press and radio that
generally fall into the categories of education, organization, and
control.
The first functional category has two aspects: the press and radio are
instruments of political and social indoctrination, and they help to
raise the educational and cultural levels of the masses. In practice,
however, these two aspects are often combined--that is, in the process
of education, Marxist-Leninist ideology is usually interjected. In
general, the educational function has been performed by conducting
campaigns against illiteracy and ignorance, encouraging maximum
utilization of the educational and cultural facilities set up throughout
the country, and making literary works accessible to the population (see
ch. 5, Social System).
The media, in the final analysis, are used to saturate the population
with Marxist-Leninist ideology. The content of the media--whether it is
news, music, or literature--is structured to promote the goals of the
Party and designed to further the building of a Communist society. In
order to facilitate ideological indoctrination, content is devised to
appeal to sentiments of Albanian nationalism. The development of
communism, for example, is related to the theme of developing the nation
and preserving its independence; and Enver Hoxha, the Party leader, is
quoted as frequently as are Marx and Lenin.
One of the most important uses of the press and radio, which falls into
the category of organization, has been to mobilize the people actively
to support, and participate in, the implementation of specific policies,
such as the fulfillment of economic plans or antireligious campaigns.
Often, in conjunction with mobilization campaigns, the media are used to
transmit specific information that is necessary for the implementation
of various aspects of the policies. In the economic sphere, for example,
discussions of industrial processes or agriculture often appear in the
press.
The media are also means of Party control over officials at all levels
of the government and the Party hierarchies, as well as over the
population in general. This function is performed primarily through
exposure of corruption, negligence, and inefficiency on the part of
various officials or workers or by issuing warnings against such crimes
and behavior. In addition, the press and radio are channels through
which the top leaders issue directives or communicate changes in the
Party line to the lower level administrators and activists throughout
the country.
The importance of the pervasive role of the press was stressed in the
following statement by Enver Hoxha that was quoted in the December 1965
issue of _Rruga e Partise_ (Party Path): "Without the press there can be
no education of the masses; without the press there can be no
conscientious mobilization of them, organization, nor solution to the
problems of the economic and cultural construction in the new socialist
society." Although the article dealt specifically with the press, it can
be assumed that the role assigned to it also pertains to the other media
of communication.
The functions assigned to the media necessitate strict control over
their operation and content by the Party. Although there appears to be
no formal institution for censorship, an elaborate system was created
whereby the Party leaders could maintain the necessary control either
directly or indirectly through the government and mass organizations.
Fragmentary information suggests that the Party leaders have several
mechanisms for the maintenance of control over the dissemination of
information. Within the Party there is a hierarchical organization that
implements decisions made by the Party leaders concerning public
information and propaganda activities. It is headed by the Directorate
of Agitation and Propaganda, which is directly under the Central
Committee of the Party. The directorate is divided into various
functional sectors, for example, one dealing with the press. Throughout
the Party and government hierarchies, as well as in the mass
organizations, there are sections for agitation and propaganda that are
directed by the central directorate.
The Political Bureau (Politburo), the highest decision-making body of
the Albanian Workers' Party, formulates policy concerning ideological
indoctrination and the use of the media of mass communication. The
Directorate of Agitation and Propaganda coordinates the implementation
of such policy (see ch. 6, Government Structure and Political System).
Perhaps the most effective control mechanism is that which is built into
the Party structure and in the Party's relationship to the government
and to society in general. The media are formally owned and operated by
the government with the exception of the Party press and publications of
the mass organizations. Since all government officials are members of
the Party or its front organization, the Democratic Front, and since the
mass organizations are dominated by Party members, Party supervision of
all publications is assured. Radio broadcasters, film directors and
editors, administrators and editors of the publishing houses,
journalists, and newspaper editors are also Party members.
Thus all individuals who work with the mass media, either directly or
indirectly, are subject to Party discipline. Failure to adhere to
directives from the Politburo is a crime against the Party, and
punishment for such crimes can be severe (see ch. 6, Government
Structure and Political System).
To supplement the formal media of communication, there are about 25,000
Party agitators who propagandize among the masses. These agitators work
in factories, villages, neighborhoods, and on farms with the objective
of bringing the Party line to every individual. Besides explaining the
content of the press and radio to the people, the agitators conduct
courses, present lectures, and guide discussions on Party history, the
oppressiveness of religion, friendship with Communist China, Soviet
revisionism, and other such topics. For example, in the weekly meetings
held for women, emphasis is placed upon how religion causes
discrimination against them.
In the factories the agitators explain the Party line to their coworkers
and rally them to compete to outproduce each other, a practice called
socialist competition. Agitators in rural areas are usually of peasant
origin and consequently are better able to gain the trust of the
peasantry. They explain the Party line to them in a manner that is
relevant to local conditions and mobilize them to produce their quotas.
The agitators also sponsor cultural and sports activities, such as
organizing trips to museums and arranging for athletic events. When new
laws are passed, the agitators explain them to the masses in terms that
they will understand. Before elections the agitators mobilize the people
to go out and vote, even though there is only one candidate on the
ballot.
To aid the agitators in their work, the _Agitators' Notebook_ is
published monthly listing the various points of the Party line which do
change from time to time. The agitators also have books, pamphlets,
pictures, and films to facilitate the indoctrination of the masses. In
addition to the activities of the agitators, the Statutes of the
Albanian Workers' Party require that all Party members work to educate
the masses in Marxist-Leninist ideology. The same requirement is made
of the members of the Union of Albanian Working Youth.
THE PRESS
The press is the most developed of the information media. According to
official statistics, in 1967 there were nineteen newspapers and
thirty-four periodicals as compared with six and fifteen, respectively,
in 1938. Circulation figures per issue for all newspapers and
periodicals are not available, but the government statistics indicate
that total circulation for newspapers increased by about sixteen times
between 1938 and 1967, and the figures for periodicals indicate a
sixfold increase for the same period.
Most publications originate in Tirana, although during the 1960s the
regime began to establish local newspapers. Information on the press is
sparse, and it is difficult to ascertain how many publications were in
circulation in 1970; there are indications that new publications were
added, while others were consolidated after 1967.
There are three daily newspapers, all of which are published in Tirana
(see table 7). _Zeri i Popullit_ (The Voice of the People) is published
by the Central Committee of the Albanian Workers' Party, and in 1967 it
had a daily circulation of 86,000. _Bashkimi_ (Union) is published by
the Democratic Front and is the mouthpiece of the government. It had a
daily circulation of 20,000 in 1967. _Puna_ (Work) is the daily
newspaper of the Central Council of the United Trade Unions of Albania.
In 1967 it reportedly had a circulation of 18,000. _Zeri i Rinise_ (The
Voice of Youth), a twice weekly newspaper of the Central Committee of
the Union of Albanian Working Youth, had a circulation of 36,000 in
1967.
Circulation figures do not necessarily give an accurate picture,
however, because many of the subscriptions are held by institutions,
libraries, and cultural houses rather than by individuals. Factories,
farms, schools, and other institutions have reading rooms with
subscriptions to newspapers and magazines. In addition, the Party
agitators frequently read articles aloud to groups. Thus there is
greater exposure to the press than the circulation figures indicate.
Local newspapers are all published by the local Party committees.
Examples of such newspapers are: _Jeta e Re_ (New Life), published in
Shkoder; _Perpara_ (Forward), published in Korce; _Pararoja_ (Vanguard),
published in Gjirokaster; and _Adriatic_, which is published in Durres.
These newspapers have been assigned the function of explaining Party
policies in relation to the specific conditions found in the various
localities. They also propagandize against religion and such so-called
crimes as laziness and indifference. Local newspapers give a great deal
of attention to the economic, social, cultural, and political problems
that are specific to their districts.
_Table 7. Selected Albanian Newspapers, 1967_
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Newspaper Frequency Publisher Circulation
--------------------------------------------------------------------
_Zeri i Popullit_ daily Central Committee 86,000
(The Voice of the of the Albanian
People) Workers' Party
_Bashkimi_ do. Democratic Front 20,000
(Union)
_Puna_ do. Central Council 18,000
(Work) of Albanian Trade
Unions
_Zeri i Rinise_ twice Central Committee 36,000
(The Voice of the weekly of the Union of
Youth) Albanian Working
Youth
_Jeta e Re_ n.a. Shkoder Party n.a.
(New Life) Committee
_Perpara_ n.a. Korce Party n.a.
(Forward) Committee
_Pararoja_ n.a. Gjirokaster Party n.a.
(Vanguard) Committee
_Adriatic_ n.a. Durres Party n.a.
(Adriatic) Committee
----------------------------------------------------------------------
n.a.--not available.
In addition to the local newspapers there are wall newspapers, or flash
bulletins, as they began to be called after the 1966 initiation of the
so-called Cultural Revolution in the Party drive to rekindle among the
people a Marxist-Leninist revolutionary spirit. These wall newspapers
are usually single sheets that are posted on bulletin boards in
factories, farms, schools, offices, cultural houses, and other such
places. They are usually written by either the Party agitators or
members of the youth organization, and they serve the same purposes as
the formal press--that is, agitation for increased productivity by
workers and peasants, antireligious campaigns, and so on (see ch. 6,
Government Structure and Political System).
The periodical press is as important as the newspaper press and is
slightly more diversified. The number of periodicals published grew from
fifteen in 1938 to thirty-four in 1967. In 1967 there were almost twice
as many periodicals published as newspapers. Thus it is possible to
design many of the periodicals for consumption by specific audiences.
The Party, many government ministries, and each of the various mass
organizations publish periodicals (see table 8). _Rruga e Partise_
(Party Path) is the theoretical journal of the Party and is published by
its Central Committee. _Ylli_ (Star) is the monthly illustrated review
that supplements _Zeri i Popullit_. It was first published in 1960.
_Table 8. Selected Albanian Periodicals, 1967_
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Title Publisher
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
_Arsimi Popullor_ Ministry of Education and Culture
(People's Education)
_Bujqesia Socialiste_ Ministry of Agriculture
(Socialist Agriculture)
_Buletin i Shkencave High Agricultural Institute
Bujqesore_
(Bulletin of Agricultural
Sciences)
_Drita_ Union of Albanian Artists and Writers
(Light)
_Fatosi_ Central Committee of the Union of
(The Brave One) Albanian Working Youth
_Hosteni_ Union of Journalists
(The Goad)
_Kultura Popullore_ Ministry of Education and Culture
(People's Culture)
_Llaiko Vima_ Democratic Front (in Greek)
(The People's Voice)
_Luftetari_ Ministry of Defense
(The Warrior)
_Mesuesi_ Ministry of Education and Culture
(The Teacher)
_Nendori_ Union of Albanian Artists and Writers
(November)
_Pionieri_ Central Committee of the Union of
(The Pioneer) Albanian Working Youth
_Rruga e Partise_ Central Committee of the Albanian
(Party Path) Workers' Party
_Shqiperia e Re_ Committee for Foreign Cultural Relations
(New Albania) (in Albanian, Chinese, English, French,
and Russian)
_Shqiptarja e Re_ Union of Albanian Women
(The New Albanian Woman)
_Sporti Popullor_ General Council of the Union of the
(People's Sport) Federation of Sports of Albania
_Teknika_ Ministry of Industry
(Technology)
_Tregetija Popullore_ Ministry of Commerce
(People's Trade)
_Ylli_ Central Committee of the Albanian
(Star) Workers' Party
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Adapted from _Europa Year Book, 1969_, London, pp. 457-458.
The Albanian Telegraphic Agency (Agjencia Telegrafike Shqipetare) is
government controlled and the only source of news, both domestic and
foreign. It supplies all national and local newspapers with news items,
as well as radio stations and the single television station. The agency
has agreements with foreign news agencies for the exchange of news
items.
RADIO AND TELEVISION
The radio is another important instrument of political and social
indoctrination. It was barely in existence when the Communist regime
came to power. In 1945 there were only two radio transmitters in the
entire country. Since that time the radio system has been developing
rapidly, although it still lags behind the press. In 1969 there were
fifty-two radio transmitters, and in 1968 there were 150,000 receivers.
The radio system is under the jurisdiction of the Directorate of
Radiobroadcasting, which is under the Council of Ministers. In
actuality, however, the Party is in control because the members of the
directorate, as well as all personnel involved in radio broadcasting,
are Party members.
All but eight of the transmitters are shortwave, which is indicative of
the emphasis placed upon transmitting propaganda abroad. Broadcasts from
mediumwave transmitters, however, are directed to the countries of
Eastern Europe, parts of the Soviet Union, Italy, and some Arab
countries. Shortwave is used for domestic programs in cases where the
mountainous topography creates an obstacle to the mediumwaves.
There are only six radio stations in Albania (see table 9). Radio Tirana
is the largest, with four mediumwave transmitters and forty-one
shortwave transmitters. Radio Gjirokaster and Radio Korce each have only
one mediumwave transmitter. Radio Kukes and Radio Shkoder each have one
mediumwave and one shortwave transmitter. Radio Stalin has only one
shortwave transmitter. Radio Tirana broadcasts all of the programs
directed abroad and has the most powerful transmitter (50,000 watts) for
domestic programs, whereas local transmitters usually have only 200-watt
power. Quite possibly the local stations simply relay programs from
Radio Tirana.
The domestic service is on the air 13-1/2 hours daily and 17 hours on
Sundays. In 1969 domestic programs were scheduled between 4:30 and 7:00
A.M. and 11:00 A.M. to 10:00 P.M. daily. The Sunday schedule was from
5:00 A.M. to 10:00 P.M. Included in the domestic programs were twelve
daily newscasts, children's programs, theatrical presentations,
operettas, and other types of cultural programs.
Foreign broadcasting is done in seventeen different languages and on
five beams directed to Latin America, North America, Africa, Asia, and
Australia. Besides Albanian, the foreign broadcasts are made in Arabic,
Bulgarian, Czech, English, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Indonesian,
Italian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, and
Spanish.
_Table 9. Albanian Radio Stations, 1969_
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Total Number of
Station Transmitters Shortwave Mediumwave
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Radio Gjirokaster 1 ... 1
Radio Korce 1 ... 1
Radio Kukes 2 1 1
Radio Shkoder 2 1 1
Radio Stalin 1 1 ...
Radio Tirana 45 41 4
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Adapted from Foreign Broadcast Information Service,
_Broadcasting Stations of the World_, Part I: Amplitude
Modulation Broadcasting Stations According to Country and City,
Washington, September 1, 1969.
As late as the end of 1967 the Albanian government reportedly was not
jamming broadcasts from abroad. This probably was not because of a
relaxed attitude on the part of the ruling elite; rather, it was more
likely because of the lack of technology necessary for jamming
operations and the expense involved.
In 1964 the Albanian government published statistics on the distribution
of radio receivers by social composition. The categories of "workers,"
"employees," and "peasants" were not explicated; however, it can be
assumed that workers refer to blue-collar workers or manual laborers and
that employees refer to white-collar workers or office, administrative,
and professional personnel. In 1963, out of a total of 70,913 radio
receivers, 28,672 were owned by workers, 30,391 were owned by employees,
and 6,303 were owned by peasants. Clubs and institutional enterprises
held 1,236 receivers, and 4,311 were listed under the heading "other."
The Albanians opened their first television station for experimentation
in May 1960. At the end of 1969 they were still experimenting,
transmitting programs three times a week. The government had reportedly
asked the French to install a television network at the end of 1969. At
that time there were about 2,100 television receivers in the country.
BOOK PUBLISHING AND LIBRARIES
There were three book-publishing enterprises in 1970, all of which were
located in Tirana. Ndermarja e botimeve ushtarake (Enterprise for
Military Publications) was operated by the Ministry of National Defense.
N.I.S.H. Shtypshkronjave "Mihal Duri" (State Printer "Mihal Duri") was
operated by the Party, and Shtepia Botonjese "Naim Frasheri" (State
Publishing House "Naim Frasheri") was directed by the Ministry of
Education and Culture. Ndermaja Shteterore Tregetimit te Librit (The
Book Selling State Enterprise), located in Tirana, had a monopoly over
the distribution of books under the direction of the Ministry of
Education and Culture.
According to official Albanian statistics, there were 628 books
published in 1967, with a total of 5,605,000 copies printed. This is a
great increase over the number published in 1938: 61 books with a total
of 183,000 copies printed.
According to the latest statistics available, a total of 502 books were
published in 1965, of which 110 were literary works. Another 197 dealt
with the social sciences; 42, with philology; 61, with pure science; 47,
with the applied sciences; and 24, with geography and history. It was
not indicated how many of these titles were first editions or how many
were translations. In 1966, 140 translations from abroad were published,
of which 72 dealt with the social sciences, 57 were literary works, 10
were pure science books, and 1 dealt with applied science.
Because books are an additional channel for propaganda, foreign works to
be translated into Albanian are carefully scrutinized. Literary works
must be of the sort that portray the ills and conflicts within
capitalist societies. Often, although a literary work might be generally
ideologically acceptable, parts of it are unacceptable. In such cases,
the book is carefully edited and abridged before publication in the
Albanian language is permitted.
Scientific and technical literature from abroad, on the other hand, is
actively sought for translation. On December 21, 1967, the Council of
Ministers issued a decision "On the Assurance, Publication,
Organization, and Massive Utilization of Technical-Scientific
Literature" from abroad. In this decision, the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs was called upon to devise new ways for obtaining such literature
through its embassies and through international organizations. Once the
foreign works are obtained, the decision stresses that their
translations must be of the best quality. Such translations are done
under the direction of the Ministry of Education and Culture.
There are numerous libraries of varying sizes throughout the country.
Official sources report that in 1967 there were twenty-nine people's
libraries with a total of 1,367,000 volumes, compared with only five
such libraries in 1938 with a total of 12,000 volumes. The largest of
these libraries is the National Library in Tirana, which in the late
1960s had 450,000 volumes. The second largest library is the University
Library, also in Tirana, which in the late 1960s had 321,680 volumes and
19,640 periodicals.
Each district has at least one library. The local libraries are on a
much smaller scale than those in Tirana in terms of their total number
of volumes. In addition to the district libraries, there are several
hundred houses of culture, cultural circles, and clubs that subscribe to
the libraries in order to make books more accessible to the population.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Intellectual and Artistic Expression
In 1944, when the Communist regime came to power, there was little or no
heritage in the various areas of cultural activity--literature, music,
drama, or painting and sculpture--upon which the Communist leaders could
build. Since the end of World War II, however, a consistent effort has
been made to foster the growth of an Albanian cultural tradition and to
generally raise the cultural level of the people. Writers and artists
are supported by the state, and cultural institutions have been
established throughout the country to ensure maximum cultural exposure
of the masses. In 1967 there were 35 houses of culture in cities, 395 in
villages, and 1,266 cultural circles throughout the country. In
addition, there were 24 national museums and 25 local museums.
The various cultural institutions sponsor plays, concerts, and literary
readings; subscribe to libraries; arrange trips to museums; and direct
other such activities. Often courses in the arts, such as music lessons,
are conducted. The activities of the houses of culture and the cultural
circles are not restricted to cultural recreation, however. They also
have been assigned the general task of educating the masses.
Special cadres of culture are trained to direct the cultural
institutions. Their preparation extends beyond the realm of culture to
Marxism-Leninism, however, and they are generally trained to enable them
to become involved in all aspects of the life of the community. The
various cultural institutions, while genuinely serving to expose the
masses to culture, are also important instruments of political and
social indoctrination.
In practice, the principles of socialist realism require that literary
and artistic works actively promote the goals of the Party and reflect
Communist ideology. Besides generally being "a weapon for the education
of the new man with the ideals of socialism and the principles of
Communist morality," literature, drama, music, and art must inspire
nationalism and allegiance to the Party and stimulate the people to work
toward fulfillment of Party plans, whether they are in the economic or
the social spheres. The criterion used to evaluate cultural works is the
degree to which they further the goals of the Party and socialist
development.
In conjunction with the initiation of the Cultural Revolution, Enver
Hoxha expounded upon the vital role of the various aspects of culture in
a speech to the Fifth Congress of the Albanian Workers' Party in
November 1966. The task set by the Party is that "literature and art
should become a powerful weapon in the hands of the Party for the
education of the working people in the spirit of socialism and
communism; that literature and art should stand at the vanguard of the
struggle for the education of a new generation ideologically and morally
pure; that all artistic creation should be of a high ideological level
and be permeated by both the Party's militant revolutionary spirit and a
healthy national spirit."
Such demands have been made of authors, artists, and musicians since the
inception of the Albanian People's Republic. Since 1966, however, when
the Cultural Revolution was initiated, the importance of culture has
received greater emphasis and the demands for ideological purity of all
creative works have increased. The Cultural Revolution was still in
motion as of the early months of 1970.
The dominant themes of Albanian culture under communism have concerned
the history of Albania, the struggle of the Communist-led partisans
during the War of National Liberation, and the transformation of the
backward, superstitious society into one that is modern and governed by
progressive, socialist principles. In the mid-1960s, however, the Party
called upon writers and artists to go beyond these themes and to portray
the contemporary struggles for the creation of socialism. Party guidance
stipulates that it is not enough to describe the past struggles and
achievements. The ongoing hardships faced by the peasants and workers
must be reflected in artistic works. The heroes are to be workers,
peasants, and engineers, as well as the partisans.
Throughout the period of the Cultural Revolution, artists and writers
have been going to the mountain villages, industrial centers, and
agricultural cooperatives to live for varying lengths of time. Living
and working with the people provides the writers and artists with
insights into the life and problems that the various types of people
must face. These experiences are designed to help them create themes
that reflect the contemporary developments more accurately and to make
cultural works more relevant to the masses.
Given the influential role of culture in society, it was imperative that
the Party establish strict control over all creative activities.
Authors, dramatists, musicians, and artists must belong to the Union of
Artists and Writers. This organization is nominally independent of the
Party, but in reality it is firmly under Party control. Another source
of control is the Ministry of Education and Culture, which has close
ties with the Directorate of Education and Culture under the Politburo
of the Party. Furthermore, all individuals involved in cultural pursuits
are dependent upon the state for their income as well as for the
financing of their various projects.
The twofold task of the Party leaders in the cultural field--that of
fostering cultural development while maintaining control over the
content of the cultural works--was difficult in many respects and easy
in others. The lack of a firmly established tradition in many cultural
fields, as well as the lack of a substantial cultural community,
facilitated the establishment of Party control. Writers and artists who
received their training under the Party's tutelage know only the
socialist realist approach. On the other hand, the lack of experience
and personnel in many fields, such as drama, meant that the developments
in these areas would be slow. Furthermore, the leaders were dependent
first upon the Yugoslavs and, after 1948, on the Soviets to train people
in the areas that were totally lacking in Albania's cultural heritage.
The paucity of artistic and intellectual achievements, compared with
those of other nations throughout the world, was basically the result of
Albania's long history of foreign domination and of the rugged
topography of the country, which facilitated the isolation of many
communities for centuries. During the several centuries of Turkish rule,
the Albanians were forbidden to develop a written language. Furthermore,
there were no schools that conducted classes in the Albanian language;
there were only Turkish schools for the Muslim population and Greek
schools for the Orthodox population. To compound these difficulties,
there are two major dialects of Albanian--Geg, spoken in the north, and
Tosk, in the south. Albania did not have a uniform alphabet until
November 1908, when a congress of intellectuals agreed upon the use of
the Latin alphabet. It was not until the Communist regime came to power
that it was decided that Tosk would be the official literary dialect
(see ch. 2, Historical Setting; ch. 3, Physical Environment; ch. 4, The
People).
An additional obstacle to the development of a substantial intellectual
and artistic community and tradition was the fact that until 1957 there
were no universities in the country. The State University of Tirana,
Albania's only university, was not established until that year. Before
World War II Albanian students went abroad, primarily to Western Europe,
in the pursuit of higher education. After World War II students were
usually sent to the Soviet Union or other Eastern European countries to
attend universities and other institutions of higher learning (see ch.
5, Social System).
In 1970 there was still evidence that the Communist leaders were not
entirely satisfied with the cultural works produced in the past
twenty-six years. There were also indications that many creative works
were not ideologically pure. Few cultural works produced during the
Communist period are known in the West owing to Albania's virtual
isolation. Evaluation of literature, drama, music, and art can only be
made on the basis of criticism and praise of such works that appear in
the press.
Literature
Albania has a strong tradition of folklore, which had been transmitted
orally for several centuries. At the end of the nineteenth century and
in the early twentieth century, much of this lore was written down in
anthologies and collections. The folklore consists of heroic songs,
lyrics, tales, and proverbs. The predominant themes are the heroic feats
of the mountain tribes in the north against the Slavs across the border,
the important role of the Albanians in the Ottoman Empire, and the
glorious resistance led by the country's national hero, Gjergi
Skanderbeg, against the Turks in the fifteenth century. There are also a
large number of love songs and wedding songs found in the folk
tradition.
An oral tradition was also developed by the Albanians who had left their
homeland in the second half of the fifteenth century, during and
immediately after the wars against the Turks led by Skanderbeg. The
songs and poetry of the Italo-Albanians reflect fifteenth-century
Albanian society. The most important theme is the heroic resistance
against the Turks. There are also lyric songs that portray love for
one's mother and wife. Lyric songs were also developed in the Albanian
settlements in Greece, although less is known about them. There were no
heroic songs from this area until the nineteenth century when the
Albanian communities fought to preserve their independence and Orthodox
Christianity against Muslim incursions.
The first written literature found in Albania dates back to the
fifteenth century. Until the nineteenth century such literature was of a
religious nature. Nationalist literature was not developed until the
nineteenth century and, because of the restrictions imposed by the
Turks, such literature first appeared in the Albanian settlements
abroad. The most outstanding writer of the nineteenth century was Naim
Frasheri, who played an important role in the awakening of Albanian
nationalism.
The literature of the early twentieth century also was produced outside
Albania. The writers were instrumental in the development of the
movement for Albanian independence, and their works were increasingly
nationalistic. After independence was achieved in 1912, Albanian writers
were able to return to their country to work. Several volumes of lyric
poetry were produced by such people as P. Vincenc Prennushi, Dom Ndre
Mjeda, and Asdreni. Bishop Fan S. Noli lived in the United States most
of his life but made important contributions to Albanian literature. In
1907 he published a three-act play entitled _Israelites and
Philistines_, and he later translated several world renowned literary
works into Albanian, including Shakespeare's _Macbeth_, _Hamlet_, and
_Othello_; Ibsen's _Inger of Ostrat_; and Cervantes' _Don Quixote_.
In the 1920s and 1930s Albanian literary and philosophic periodicals
appeared both at home and abroad. The journal _Djaleria_ (Youth) was
published in Vienna by Albanian students. It was in this journal that
the poetry of Lasgush Poradeci first appeared, and his works made a
tremendous impact on Albanian youth. Two periodicals appeared in the
1930s, _Illyria_ and _Perpjekia Shqiptare_ (The Albanian Effort), which
reflected the intellectual fervor of the decade. New ideas were spread
throughout the country by students who returned from universities in
Italy, France, and Austria. The depression and Italian penetration of
Albania also incited intellectual ferment.
During World War II the Balli Kombetar (National Front), a democratic
resistance movement, was founded by Midhat Frasheri, a prominent
nationalist writer. The first resistance literature to be openly
published, however, was found in the periodical _Hylli i Drites_ (The
Star of Light), published by the Franciscan Brothers in Shkoder. The
Fascist occupation forced the publication of this review to cease in
1941. Beginning in 1942, clandestine resistance literature began to
increase in volume. It was published by the Balli Kombetar and by the
National Liberation Movement (Communist front organization).
After World War II literature came under the control of the Communist
regime and, consequently, all literary works were made to conform to the
principles of socialist realism. The predominant theme of literary works
in the early postwar period was the War of National Liberation. A few
works also dealt with the reconstruction after the years of ravaging
war. Among the writers of the early Communist period were the poets
Mark Ndoja, Llazar Siliqi, Gjergi Kominino, Ziza Cikuli, and Vehbi
Skenderi. Zihni Sako, Fatmir Gjata, and Jakov Xoxe wrote short stories.
During the 1944-48 period translations of Serbo-Croatian works were
published, and several books were translated from Russian. At the end of
1949 the Soviet Union and Stalin, in particular, became additional
themes for Albanian literature; after 1960 the Chinese were substituted
for Soviet heroes.
Theater and Cinema
There were no professional theaters before 1945. Sokrat Mijo, an
Albanian who had studied drama in Paris, tried to set up a professional
theater in the 1930s but was unable to generate interest in the project.
Occasionally, amateur groups performed plays, but that was the extent of
theatrical experience before the Communist era. The people objected to
the presence of women on the stage, and in most amateur performances men
played the feminine parts. The plays performed by the amateur groups
were primarily of a romantically patriotic nature.
The absence of repertory theaters did not inhibit the emergence of
Albanian playwrights and, although their works were rarely performed,
they did have readers. The first playwright to appear on Albanian
territory was Pasko Vasa Pasha, who wrote _The Jew's Son_. Pasha was
able to write in his native land because he lived in the city of
Shkoder, which was the only area to enjoy some immunity from the rigid
restrictions imposed by the Turks against cultural activity in Albania.
His play was produced in 1879 by an amateur group at Xaverian College.
Several playwrights emerged in the Albanian settlements abroad, and a
few within Albania, but their works had to be published abroad before
1912. Two of the most prominent of these writers were Sami Frasheri, who
wrote _Besa_ (The Pledge), and Kristo Floqi, who wrote _Religion and
Nationality_. Ernest Koliqi made significant contributions to Albanian
dramatic literature after independence was won.
The potential of the theater as an instrument of political and social
indoctrination was recognized by the Communist leaders, and in 1945 they
invited the president of the Society of Yugoslav Actors to come to
Albania to establish a professional theatrical group. With the aid of
Sokrat Mijo, who had become the director of the school of drama in
Tirana, such a group was formed. Their first performance, in September
1945, was a presentation of _The Lover_, which was adapted from a play
written by Yugoslav playwrights.
In 1949 a professional theater was created in Shkoder, and in 1950
another theater was founded in Korce. Since then numerous professional
and amateur groups have sprung up throughout the country. They perform
serious drama, comedies, variety shows, and puppet shows, the themes of
which must conform to the principles of socialist realism. In 1964 it
was reported that there were twenty-two professional drama and variety
theaters.
There is evidence that the lack of experience in the theatrical field
created problems for the political leaders' efforts to foster its
development. Periodically, articles appear in the press that criticize
various shortcomings in the production of drama and variety shows. The
targets of criticism range from content to the skills of the performers
to the management of the stage and theater.
Cinematography is another field that was not developed until after World
War II. There had been a joint Italian-Albanian company established in
Tirana during the Italian occupation that produced mostly documentary
films, but the film industry did not actually begin to develop until
1949 and 1950. The Soviet Union was instrumental in the foundation of
this industry, and it initially provided the Albanians with the
necessary equipment. Since that time great efforts have been made to
increase the number of films produced and to expand facilities for
showing them to the public.
A few full-length, artistic films are produced each year, and a greater
number of short films and documentaries are completed annually. Often
literary works are made into art films. Figures are not available as to
the exact number of each type of film produced. Films are also imported,
under the direction of the Ministry of Education and Culture, mostly
from Communist countries, although a few Western films are shown after
careful editing. The foreign films are usually dubbed into Albanian.
Few, if any, Albanian productions have been seen in the West.
The film industry has been nationalized since its inception. The
Ministry of Education and Culture controls the exhibition and
distribution of motion pictures. In 1967 there were 50,000 performances,
which were attended by about 8.25 million people.
Music
Albania has a rich tradition in folk music. Heroic and lyric songs,
usually accompanied by folk instruments, were passed down from
generation to generation over the centuries. In the mountains of the
north the _lahute_ (lute), which is a stringed instrument, is popular.
Other Albanian folk instruments are the _roja_, which is a bagpipe, and
the _tupan_, which is similar to a tambourine. Orchestras, called
_saze_, are found in many towns in the southern part of Albania. These
are usually composed of about five instruments and often provide music
for folk dances at weddings and on other special occasions.
Western music was first spread throughout the country in the 1920s by an
Albanian brass band that had received training in the United States.
After touring the larger towns, it established itself in Korce, giving
regular popular and classical concerts. The Royal Band was later
established in Tirana, whose repertoire consisted of Western music but,
generally, indigenous music predominated and Western music made little
impact.
Western-trained Albanian singers appeared in the mid-1930s. Tefta
Tashko, Gjorgjija Filce, and Maria Paluca were well-known sopranos who
sang both operatic music and folk tunes. Kristaq Antoniu began his
career as a tenor before World War II and continued it under the
Communist regime. Filce and Paluca also remained musical stars after
World War II.
Kristro Kono was the only composer of significance in pre-World War II
Albania. He remains a highly rated composer under the Communist regime.
In the 1950s he wrote several songs, some of which were dedicated to
Enver Hoxha and Stalin. Some of his orchestral pieces are "Fantazi
Shqiptare" (Albanian Fantasies) and "Agimi" (The Dawn). Konstantine
Trako is another popular composer of the Communist period.
The predominant musical creations are songs with lyrics because they are
effective means of inspiring patriotism and pro-Communist sentiments.
All activity in the musical field is controlled and supported by the
Party, primarily through the Union of Artists and Writers and the
Ministry of Education and Culture. There are state-supported music
academies and institutions for training in this field. Besides the many
local musical groups, there are the state-supported Opera and Ballet
Theater of Tirana and the Song and Dance Ensemble of Tirana (see ch. 5,
Social System).
Fine Arts
The first art school was established in Tirana in the 1930s. The
curriculum of this school did not go beyond the fundamentals of art and,
consequently, talented students had to go abroad. Vangjush Mijo and
Androniqi Zengo were the first to introduce modern art to Albania in the
form of impressionism. Mijo had studied in Italy and Zengo in Greece.
Odhise Paskal was the only notable sculptor of prewar Albania. He had
received his training in Florence. His creations include the Skanderbeg
monument in Tirana and the National Warrior monument in Korce. Paskal
and Zengo continued to work under the Communist regime.
Courses in the fine arts have increased since the end of World War II.
Artists and sculptors are supported by the state, and the main themes of
their creations are workers, peasants, partisan heroes, youth working on
agricultural and industrial projects, soldiers, and liberated women in
their various activities. Examples of artistic creations praised in the
Albanian press are: "High Revolutionary Spirit" by M. Dhrami, "The Adult
of the Republic" by K. Rama, and "The Partisans of the Revenge
Battalion" by S. Shijaku. Besides Paskal, J. Paco and A. Mana have been
cited as distinguished sculptors.