ON AUSTRALIAN WINE, AND ITS PLACE IN THE AUSTRALIAN DAILY DIETARY.
"WITH TIME AND CARE AUSTRALIA OUGHT TO BE THE VINEYARD OF THE WORLD."--
GREATER BRITAIN.
Were I asked to name the one industry on which the prosperity of
Australia must sooner or later rest, I should unhesitatingly answer,
"On the cultivation of the vine." And this must be so; for while there
is every reason to know that it will be called for from abroad, it is
absolutely certain that it will be required in our own territories. The
chief purpose of this chapter, indeed, is to insist upon the value of
our own wines as the most healthful and the most wholesome drink for
Australian use. It is a strange anomaly this, that at the present
period of our existence a declaration of this kind should be necessary.
Yet it is only in keeping with the rest of our food habits, with their
perpetual challenge to our semi-tropical environment; and hence we are
confronted with the astounding fact that although we are practically
Southern Europe, yet we follow a mode of living suitable only for a
rigorous climate and a land of ice and snow.
Moreover, as I shall attempt to show, the Australian climate and soil
are beyond all question naturally intended for the cultivation of the
grape, so that there is no occasion to overcome the forces of nature;
on the contrary, they are unceasingly giving us the greatest
encouragement. Then, again, think what widespread prosperity the use of
our own wine would bring about. Apart from its beneficial influence on
the national health, it would cover the land with smiling vineyards,
and give to enormous numbers a healthy livelihood; it would
absorb thousands from the fever and fret of city wear and tear into the
more natural life of the country; and lastly, it would relieve the
abnormal congestion of our crowded centres, and do more to bring about
widely distributed employment than any other industry.
The history of the introduction of the grape to Australian soil
deserves more than bare reference to that event It will be remembered
that Captain Cook discovered this territory in 1770; in November 1791,
barely more than twenty years afterwards, the first vine was planted at
Parramatta, near Sydney. Nothing can demonstrate the suitability of the
climate and the soil for its cultivation more than this one fact,
namely, that at the very beginning of Australian settlement it was
plain enough that the land was meant for the grape; and there is an
interesting historical association, well worthy of note, attached to
this circumstance. By order of the Emperor Napoleon, the Great
Napoleon, a voyage of discovery to the Southern Hemisphere was
performed by a fully equipped expedition during the years 1801, 1802,
1803, and 1804. One of the naturalists, M.F. Peron, has given us an
excellent account of his New South Wales experience, and after
referring to the Parramatta vineyards as likely to be followed by the
most excellent results, he goes on to say:--"By one of those chances
which are inconceivable, Great Britain is the only one of the great
maritime powers which does not cultivate the vine either in her own
territories or her colonies, notwithstanding the consumption of wine on
board her fleets and throughout her vast regions is immense." This is
another illustration of the old adage that lookers-on see most of the
game, for this observant Frenchman has recorded an opinion the very
truth of which comes well home to us. His remarks, moreover, open up a
vista of what a great trade might be done with India in
connection with our wines; indeed, it is this interchange of products
which keeps the circulation going in the blood-vessels of commercial
life.
Yet, although the vine was thus early started in Australia, it
has since made but little progress, relatively speaking, in comparison
with the great industry of wool-growing, and it will be appropriate to
make this reference to the grape and the fleece conjointly, for the
same name--that of John Macarthur--is intimately associated with
both. In a small way sheep-breeding had been initiated soon after the
settlement of Australia. But it was John Macarthur, by his introduction
of the merino sheep in 1797, who gave the first impetus which led to
the subsequent creation of the Australian wool trade. It was John
Macarthur, too, who formed the first vineyard in Australia at Camden
Park in 1815; though, as I have already said, the growth of the vine
industry has not advanced with anything like the same rapidity as that
of wool; if it had, Australia would now occupy a position second to
none in the world.
It seems most fitting and opportune also to mention the fact that at
the very time I am writing there is a proposal in the SYDNEY MORNING
HERALD to do something to perpetuate our gratitude to John Macarthur.
It is not often that one man has the opportunity of establishing two
such great industries as wine-making and wool-growing. The benefits to
Australia which have followed from the latter are altogether beyond
calculation; for which alone the name of John Macarthur deserves to
hold a place in the memory of Australians for ever, and if the wine
industry had only been developed in like proportion, Australia's
prosperity would have marvellously increased. Knowing, therefore, what
John Macarthur has done for Australia, it is to be hoped that
before these lines see the light of day what is now proposed will be an
accomplished fact.
The next most notable occurrence in the history of Australian
viticulture is undoubtedly the action of James Busby who in 1828, says
Mr. T.A. Coghlan in his WEALTH AND PROGRESS OF NEW SOUTH WALES,
returned from Europe "with a large collection of cuttings from the most
celebrated vineyards of France, Spain, the Rhine valley, and other
parts of the continent of Europe, and started, on his estate at
Kirkton, in the Hunter River district, a vineyard which has been the
nursery of the principal vineyards of the Colony." This was a more
important event than would be imagined from a bare recital of the fact,
for Busby has conferred upon Australian vines a high quality for all
time to come in this way. His collection of cuttings from the best of
the vineyards in Europe consisted of the choicest varieties or
"cepages," and this has been a matter for congratulation ever since.
Fuller reference, however, will be made to this important subject a
little farther on. what is certainly interesting also is that Busby was
so impressed with the future of the Australian wine industry that in
1830 he published his MANUAL OF PLAIN DIRECTIONS FOR PLANTING AND
CULTIVATING VINEYARDS, AND FOR MAKING WINE, IN NEW SOUTH WALES; and, as
I have just said, the high qualities of our wines are due to him alone,
so that the name of James Busby must always be gratefully remembered by
all Australians.
It makes one think that these sturdy pioneers of former times had a
greater belief in Australia and her possibilities, and more energy and
foresight, than are apparently possessed nowadays. But while I am on
the subject of the literature of Australian viticulture I must not
forget to mention an excellent little pamphlet by James King in 1807,
entitled, AUSTRALIA MAY BE AN EXTENSIVE WINE-GROWING COUNTRY.
Indeed, James King was another of those far-seeing men who were
convinced that there was a great future for the Australian wine
industry; moreover, he did a good deal in the way of developing it by
cultivating the grape and by making wine.
Now, there are certain figures connected with vine-growing and the
consumption of wine which possess a great value in relation to
Australian viticulture, inasmuch as they enable us to see more clearly
its relative progress, and, what is more, they indicate its future
possibilities. It is only by methods of this kind that we are enabled
to form an accurate estimate of the condition of any industry. And
besides this, too, they act as a--stimulus to increased exertion. But
it will be still more interesting and instructive to make a comparison
between the little which has been done in wine production and the
almost incredible proportions of our wool industry. And when it is
remembered that there was nothing to prevent the wine trade from
attaining a magnitude very like to that of wool, it will be seen what
magnificent opportunities have thus far been practically thrown away.
At present the whole of Australia annually produces only a little more
than three million gallons of wine, while the yearly yield of France is
795; of Italy, 798; of Spain, 608; of Hungary, 180; and of Portugal,
132 million gallons. And another thing is that the whole of the five
colonies of Australia and Tasmania have altogether no more than 48,099
acres under vine cultivation. The total amount of wine made in the six
foregoing colonies for the year ending March 31st, 1892, was only
3,604,262 gallons. The city of Paris itself requires nearly 300,000
gallons of wine daily, so that this single city would consume in 12
DAYS all the wine which the whole of Australia takes 12 MONTHS to make.
So far back as 1875 the production was 1,814,400,602 gallons.
And lastly, there is just one more fact worth remembering which is that
the approximate value of the 1890 vintage to France was nearly
40,000,000 l. sterling.
Let us see, on the other hand, the gigantic strides on the part of
wool. In 1805 the amount of wool exported from Spain was 6,895,525
lbs., and from Australia NIL. In 1811, however, Australia exported the
modest quantity of 167 lbs. In 1861 the exportation from Spain had
fallen to 1,268,617 lbs., while from Australia it had increased to
68,428,000 lbs. In 1891 New South Wales alone produced 357,096,954
lbs., representing a value of 11,036,018 l. And lastly, the wool
exportation of Australia and Tasmania (not reckoning New Zealand) for
the same year reached the enormous figures of 593,830,153 lbs., with a
value of 20,569,093 l.
The disproportion between the attention which has been given to
viticulture and that which has been bestowed upon wool-growing is well
brought out in the following table:--
TABLE showing the value of the total amount of WINE produced in the
FIVE COLONIES OF AUSTRALIA (including both that for local use and that
for export) for the year ending March 31st, 1892; and the value of WOOL
(only that exported, and therefore irrespective of that locally
required) for the FIVE AUSTRALIAN COLONIES and TASMANIA alone, and not
including that exported from NEW ZEALAND, for the year 1891:--
Pounds (value).
Total value of Australian wine (local use as well as export)
produced for the year ending March 31st, 1892, only about..........800,000
Value of wool exported from Australia and Tasmania alone in 1891
(and therefore irrespective of the additional value of that
locally required), not less than................................20,569,093
From the foregoing, therefore, it will be apparent that the
whole subject of Australian viticulture is one of tremendous
importance; and I am strongly of opinion that practical results will
only be brought about by awakening in the mind of the Australian public
an active interest in everything connected with this, though yet
undeveloped, great wine industry. With that object in view, therefore,
it will be my endeavour to bring forward those main points of
viticulture which it is most desirable should be widely known. But such
an attempt, to be successful, must largely depend upon the arrangement
which is adopted, for it is impossible to do more than take up the
principal matters concerned with the space which is at my disposal. The
scheme which has been devised will, it is hoped, help to a clear
understanding of the subject.
THE CLIMATE.
If there is one reason more than any other why the wine industry should
sorely reach to colossal dimensions, it is that the climate is
naturally adapted for the cultivation of the vine. Although human
effort and human skill can overcome what looked to be almost
insuperable difficulties, they cannot, as we know, fight against
climate. Hence, having a climate created, as it were, for the growth of
the grape, there can be no possible excuse offered for its neglect.
Indeed, as I have already shown, the suitableness of the climate for
this purpose directly attracted the attention of the first arrivals,
and as a consequence the vine was actually planted a few years after
the discovery of Australia.
There are three constituents, namely, heat, light, and moisture, which
in varying proportions make up what is known as climate. The first two,
heat and light, are derived from the same source--the sun--and may,
therefore, be conveniently considered together. The more heat and light
a vine receives the more vigorously it grows. What is more
important, however, is that the wine from it becomes stronger. It gains
in strength because the percentage of glucose increases in the must:
the must being the juice pressed from the grape, but in which
fermentation has not commenced. Accordingly we find that the wines of
the warmer regions in new South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia
are much stronger than those from the cooler parts.
It is important to remember that the unripe berries of the grape
contain several acids, notably tartaric, citric, and malic acids. As
the fruit begins to ripen, these acids act upon the various substances,
namely, starch, gum, dextrine, lignine, cellulose, &c., also contained
within it, and grape sugar or glucose is formed in consequence with the
advent of ripening, therefore, the fruit becomes richer in sugar and
poorer in acids; part of the acids, in addition, is neutralised by the
mineral salts which are absorbed by the roots. These acids, however,
are not so thoroughly neutralised in a cooler climate, and as a result
the wine has often a sour, crude taste. The warmer the climate the more
alcohol the wine will contain; indeed, it may become too strong. On the
contrary, the cooler the climate the more of acid there will be, and it
may possess in consequence a crude, sharp taste. But these are matters
which can be rectified by choosing the right varieties of grape for the
different localities, and by their proper cultivation.
The third element concerned in the climate, namely, moisture, has now
to be considered, and it is important from the fact that in a moister
climate the percentages both of glucose and of acids in the grape are
diminished. It is also important for another reason, namely, that while
heat and light are unalterable, moisture may be produced by irrigation.
This constitutes one of the vexed questions connected with viticulture,
and the most diverse opinions have been expressed about it.
Some believe that irrigation is of great value, while others cannot say
enough against it. But it would seem that when judiciously employed it
is of unquestionable advantage. It renders the cultivation of the grape
possible in places where it would otherwise be impossible; it largely
increases the yield; and, what certainly must not be forgotten, it
enables a lighter wine to be produced in the warmer regions. And
another argument in favour of irrigation is this, that there is far
more fertilizing matter in river water than in rain water. Hence it is
that irrigation greatly enriches the land and increases the yield. It
is thus a powerful aid, and because its advantages have been abused,
that is no reason why it should not be made use of in a rational and
scientific manner.
There is still another matter connected with this question of climate,
namely, the aspect of the vineyard, which should be referred to because
many different views are held upon it. But, as in all similar cases
where there are such decidedly antagonistic opinions, it will be found
that the arguments are not maintained from the same standpoint. So in
this case the importance or non-importance of the aspect depends
altogether upon the climate, and upon the locality--whether it be
level or hilly. On level ground the aspect is not nearly so important.
On hilly land it makes a considerable difference, from this
circumstance, that in Australia the northern side of a hill is always
hotter than that facing the south. In the hot regions, therefore, a
hill slope facing towards the south is preferable; while in the cooler
districts, since more warmth is required, a situation with a northern
aspect is necessary. It is often said that hilly ground is better for
the cultivation of the vine than level land. This is certainly true as
far as cold localities are concerned, because a warmer aspect can then
be chosen, and there will also be more shelter and better drainage.
THE SOIL.
People as a rule run away with the idea that the soil for the grape
must necessarily be of a rich character. Even the farmer, thinking of
wheat growing, and the market-gardener, thinking of his turnips, are
apt to entertain a similar belief. But the truth is that the vine is a
hardy plant and will grow in almost any place that is not water-logged
or otherwise unsuitable. In America the definition of a soil adapted
for the grape is expressed in the following phrase:--"Land that is
suitable for vine-glowing is land that is not suitable for anything
else." This is of course an extravagant way of stating the matter,
still it is worth recalling. We may say this much, however, that almost
any soil will do for the vine, provided that it does not bake and crack
in the summer, nor get wet and boggy in the winter. A simple test is
said to be adopted by the vine-growers of the Rhine. A specimen of the
soil is put into an earthenware vessel into which boiling water is
poured to cover it, after which it is undisturbed for three days. If
the water on being tasted gives a mouldy or salty taste, the soil is
believed to be unsuitable.
In considering the soil we must pay heed to its physical and its
chemical characters. By its physical characters we mean its looseness
or stiffness, its depth, and its colour. This looseness is a matter of
much importance. It fulfils the great indication required in a soil for
grape-growing; that is, a soil which will not remain damp after having
been well wet. There is a marked difference between a stiff clayey soil
which dries up and cracks in summer, and a loose soil which is always
moist a little below the surface.
The depth of the soil is a matter that varies in accordance with the
climate. In warm districts the vine requires more room for development,
and goes deeper. In the cooler regions it has a sufficiency of
moisture, and can content itself with a shallower soil. The colour of
the soil, like its depth, is a matter of consequence according to the
climate. A dark soil absorbs heat, becoming hotter consequently, while
it reflects but little on the plant above. On the other hand, a
light-coloured soil absorbs very little heat, but reflects almost the
whole of the rays upwards upon the vine. From this it follows that a dark
soil is better in a cooler climate, because there is generally an
excess of moisture; while a light colour is more suitable in the warm
regions, for the moisture is then retained.
The chemical constituents of the soil play no inconsiderable part in
assisting the development of the vine. Of these, however, there are
only five--namely, nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, calcium, and iron--
to which it is necessary to draw attention. For the successful
cultivation of wheat and other cereals a richly nitrogenous soil is
invaluable; for turnips and maize one rich in phosphorus is of great
advantage; but for the vine potash is of considerable importance. It is
true that nitrogen and phosphorus are necessary for the production of
the vine wood, but it is for the fruit itself that the potash is so
much required. As it is well known, the deposit known as winestone or
"cream of tartar," on the inside of the cask by the fermentation of
wine, is really tartrate of potash. In a similar way the potato is a
plant which requires a supply of potash, and without it there is a
manifest diminution in the crop. But in the case of the vine, unless
there is a sufficiency of potash, the leaves do not attain to their
full development; the stem is stunted to one-fourth of its natural
size; and there is little or no fruit at all. Calcium or lime has a
marked effect in increasing the strength of the wine. For this reason,
therefore, this element is more necessary in the cooler than in the
warm regions. And finally, there is that other chemical
constituent of the soil, which deserves a brief notice, and it is iron.
Now, the presence of iron therein has a distinct effect in deepening
the colour of a wine. This is without doubt the reason why our
Australian wines, as a general rule, are so rich in colour.
"CEPAGE," OR VARIETY.
Many words connected with viticulture are of French origin, as might be
expected considering that it is a land where the wine industry is such
a source of wealth. The term "cepage" (pronounced say-pazh) is one of
these, and it possesses quite a distinctive and particular
significance, so that a little explanation is necessary. The vine
family is divided into several species, of which the ordinary grape
vine, VITIS VINIFERA, is the most important. Of the VITIS VINIFERA
there are many, more or less distinct, sorts of "cepages"; and the
value of the word lies in the fact that it serves as a means of
distinguishing all these different varieties. Originally a native of
Asia Minor, there are now over a thousand sorts of European vines. Of
these quite a number are already cultivated in Australia, and a brief
reference to a few will help to a better understanding of the term
"cepage."
Of the red grapes the following may be instanced:--The Carbenet
(pronounced Car'-ben-ay); of which-there are two varieties, the GROS or
large, and the SAUVIGNON or smaller kind. The latter is perhaps the
choicest of all the red wine grapes, and has a characteristic flavour,
with delicious bouquet and perfume. It forms the basis of all the best
vineyards of Bordeaux, and is largely cultivated in Australia, for it
does well in the cooler parts. And it will be just as well to take this
opportunity of referring to the word "Carbenet," as in Australia it is
much too often erroneously spelt "Cabernet." The best authorities,
however, are all in favour of "Carbenet" as the proper mode of
spelling. In the same way an unfortunate orthography in the case of
Riesling, which was given as "Reisling" in the London
exhibition of 1886, gave a writer in the SATURDAY REVIEW the
opportunity of a tirade against Australian wine-makers.
The Pinot (pronounced Peen'-o) Noir or Noirier will serve excellently
to demonstrate the significance of the word "cepage." This is the
dominating grape of the best vineyards of Burgundy, and enters into the
composition of many famous wines, such as Romanee-Conti Chambertin,
Corton, &c.; just as the Carbenet Sauvignon belongs to the renowned
clarets of Bordeaux, Chateau Margaux, Chateau Lafitte, and Chateau
Latour. This black Burgundy does well in our cooler regions, and is
usually pruned short, although it gives far better results with long
pruning.
Shiraz (pronounced Shir-az') is another red variety which is
extensively cultivated in Australia. It is the grape from which the
celebrated Hermitage red wine of France is made, and was first planted
by a monk, who brought the cuttings from Shiraz, in Persia. It is one
of our most reliable red varieties, and prospers best in a moderate
temperature. But the white varieties will perhaps afford us a better
idea of the expression "cepage," for three different varieties may be
adduced, whose characteristics are well known. First of all there is
Riesling (pronounced Rees'-ling, but too often, as I have just
mentioned, erroneously spelt Reisling), whose prototype is that
delicate Riesling of the Rhine, from which those famous wines of the
Rheingau, namely Steinberg, Marcobrunner, Johannisberg, as well as
Hock, are made. It is probably the best of our white wines, and does
well in the cooler districts. But it should be borne in mind that long
pruning is indispensable for it, as it gives very poor crops when
pruned short.
Then we have Tokay (pronounced Tok'-ay), so nearly corresponding to the
Furmint, which is the chief grape grown in the well-known Tokay
vineyards of Hungary. It yields a most excellent wine, and does well in
the same regions as the preceding. And lastly, Verdeilho (pronounced
Ver-dell'-o) deserves to be referred to amongst the white wines. It is
the principal white variety grown in Madeira, and Madeira is a wine
that is especially held in repute. It is better suited for the warm
districts, and requires to be completely ripe before vintage.
It was a most fortunate thing for Australia, therefore, that her
pioneers in viticulture were men like James Busby, who obtained
their plants from the finest "cepages" in Europe. And this is a
magnificent legacy which must inevitably exercise a powerful influence
for ever on the Australian vine. Mr. Hubert de Castella drew special
attention to this very fact in his paper read before the Royal Colonial
Institute, London, in 1888: so that a beginning was made under the most
auspicious conditions.
There are some interesting facts in connection with the different
"cepages" which are certainly worth noticing. If the climate and the
soil in one place be similar to the climate and soil in another, each
variety--LE CEPAGE--of the grape will always produce the same wine.
Thus some vineyards on the Yarra, Victoria, having a similar climate
and similar soil to one of the great Bordeaux districts of France,
produced a wine hardly to be distinguished from that of the latter.
Then, again, one vine may produce a choice wine in one locality, but
only an indifferent growth in another; and, conversely, a different
"cepage" which does well in the latter region is almost a failure in
the former. For instance, in France, the Gamay in the Beaujolais
district, in which the soil is granitic, gives a superior wine to the
Pinot; but, on the other hand, the Pinot in the Burgundy country, where
there is a limestone formation, gives forth a world-famous wine, whilst
the Gamay is nowhere in comparison.
Next, it is necessary to remember that the effect of a warmer climate
is to increase the alcoholic strength of a wine. At the same time,
however, it must not be forgotten that this effect is greater in some
varieties than in others. One "cepage," giving in a cool region a wine
of 18 per cent. of alcohol, when transported to a warmer locality may
show an increase to 26 per cent. of alcohol. Another "cepage," showing
20 per cent. in the lower temperature, may only develop 23 per cent. in
the hotter districts.
It will be evident from the preceding that the greatest
discrimination is necessary in the selection of the variety for any
particular region; and from the knowledge at present at the vine-grower's
command he can do no more than form an approximate opinion of
the "cepage" likely to suit his locality best. It is recommended,
therefore, that new planters, before starting their vineyards, should
carefully observe what varieties are giving the best results at any
neighbouring vineyards; if some appear to be doing better than others,
they should stick to the successful kinds. And again, it is advisable
that they should be chary of what plants other wine-growers extol, when
perhaps the latter are in another part of the country altogether and
under totally different conditions of climate and soil. Instead of
committing themselves to a large purchase, therefore, they should plant
a selection of several varieties, and find out those which are the most
suitable.
THE GROWING OF THE GRAPE--THE PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.
It is not my purpose to enter fully into the entire subject of
grape-growing, for that is too extensive to be dealt with here;
nevertheless, there are many points about it of Australian concern, over
which there has been considerable discussion. This shows that our
vignerons, instead of placidly following out old lines, are determined to
find out for themselves the methods which will give the best results. That
such a spirit is in active existence is unquestionably a source of
satisfaction to those who have the welfare of Australian viticulture at
heart, for it is only by a determination to find out the best course to
be pursued in the many points connected with grape-growing, and more
especially with wine-making, that we can hope to reach perfection.
And although we have the climate, and the soil, and everything
in our favour, yet it must be recollected that there are vignerons of
the very highest excellence in the old wine-making countries, and that
it will only be by surpassing them that we can hope to secure the
markets of the world. As I have already said, my own belief is that the
best way of infusing vigour into our wine-making industry is to arouse
public interest in the subject; and with that object in view,
therefore, I shall endeavour to bring forward those matters which are
of Australian viticultural importance.
Even at the outset we come against a disputed point, about which there
has been, and is still, considerable diversity of opinion. It is to
what depth the ground should be cultivated. On the one hand, there are
some who affirm that a shallow depth of 8 or 9 inches, or even of 6
inches, is quite a sufficient penetration of the soil for most land;
but, on the other, there are many who, while conceding the fact that a
superficial cultivation like this may be successful for a few years,
are strongly opinioned that a deeper working is eventually necessary.
More than this, they contend that, even admitting good results were
obtained by simple ploughing, yet they would have been still better
with a deeper working. It would seem, however, that climate has a good
deal to do with the matter. In the hot districts the vine attains a far
greater development than in the cooler parts, and the roots require a
deep soil. And besides this, in the warm regions the wine is naturally
too strong, and the deeper the soil is worked the lighter the wine will
be.
But there is one thing in particular which should not be overlooked,
and it is that the land should be in a state of fine sub-division. One
American writer insists that the ground before planting should be "as
fine as bolted flour." This expression serves very well to show the
importance of a thorough pulverisation of the soil; and the
best results are certainly obtained .where this is energetically
carried out.
THE GROWING OF THE GRAPE--LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD.
The next thing in order is that of laying out the vineyard, in which it
will be desirable to consider what distance apart the vines are to be
planted. This matter of spacing the vines is one about which there is
still considerable disagreement; and the question as to whether they
should be planted near to one another, or far apart, is yet unsettled.
But the truth is no inflexible rule can be laid down, as the climate,
the soil, and the "cepage" all exercise a controlling influence. It
seems to be generally admitted that in the warm districts the vines
should be planted farther apart than in the cooler regions.
In a hot climate the vigour of the plant is increased by the great
amount of light and heat which it receives. The must will be too
strong, therefore, and it is only by planting the vines at a greater
distance apart than usual, and also by pruning very long, that the
resulting wine will be rendered sufficiently light in strength. In a
cooler region, on the other hand, where the vigour of the plant is
less, the crop on each vine must be reduced by short pruning, so as to
increase the percentage of glucose in the must and ensure a good wine.
And where the size of the plant is lessened by this method of pruning,
the vines must be placed closer together in order to make use of all
the available soil. This latter itself has also to be thought of in
this matter of spacing the vines. In a rich soil, where the vigour of
the plant is increased, the vines should be placed farther apart; in a
poor soil, on the contrary, they should be planted closer together.
Mr. Francois de Castella, formerly Expert to the Board of Viticulture,
the author of THE HANDBOOK ON VITICULTURE FOR VICTORIA, and who is now
the proprietor of the Tongala vineyard, in an instructive article on
viticulture in Victoria lays down the following rules with regard to
the spacing of vines:--"THERE IS FOR EACH LOCALITY, WITH THE SAME
CONDITIONS OF SOIL AND CLIMATE, A CERTAIN DISTANCE, WE MAY CALL THE
OPTIMUM, AT WHICH VINES WILL THRIVE BEST; IF THIS DISTANCE BE INCREASED
THEY WILL NOT IMPROVE, AND MAY EVEN DETERIORATE. Unless this be a
distance which cannot conveniently be worked by horse labour, it would
evidently be a waste of land to plant any wider, and would entail the
use of unnecessary labour for its cultivation. It would be just as
foolish to plant vines any closer than this, as it would give
unnecessary pruning, disbudding, tying up, &c.--that is, if the
climate be such that grapes will ripen satisfactorily.
"I have come to the conclusion that in our district (Lilydale, a cool
region) the optimum distance is 4 1/2 by 4 1/2 feet, practically 2,000
vines per acre, at least in the poorer soils; and, after careful
observation, I am of opinion that vines planted any wider will not bear
more fruit. This is, however, rather too close to be conveniently
worked by horse labour. I should, therefore, recommend 5 by 5 feet. But
on the Murray (a warm region) this distance would not suit at all, and
I believe that the vine-growers are right to plant 8 by 8, and even 10
by 10 feet, in that district.
"In conclusion, I would advise every vine-grower starting in a new
district to determine by experiment what is his optimum distance. He
can make a pretty good guess from observations of soil and climate, and
for the rest let him, instead of planting all his vineyard on one
scale, plant different blocks at different distances apart, so that if
he wishes to extend his vineyard later on he may know what is
the most suitable way to do so. By a careful consideration of these and
other points which regulate the growth and development of the vine, and
a practical application of the deductions drawn from them, it is
possible for the intelligent vigneron to obtain from his land a maximum
of return with a minimum of labour, and also to regulate the strength
of his wine so as to suit the requirements of trade, thus making
viticulture one of the most remunerative as well as most attractive
branches of agriculture."
In France, especially in the northern districts, the vines are placed
much closer together than ever they are in Australia, and this means
that only hand labour can be employed. But it has to be remembered that
the scarcity of manual labour with us makes it necessary to arrange the
vineyard with enough width between the plants for a horse. rt is
desirable, however, not to go to the other extreme and space the vines
at too great a distance from each other; indeed, in favour of a closer
planting, the following influencing circumstances should be borne in
mind. In the elevated regions, where the rainfall is ample, the vines
may be planted closer together than on the plains or on the lower
slopes; firstly, because there is no fear as to a sufficiency of water;
and secondly, for the reason that the vines, by being nearer together,
protect one another from the inclement weather. Spring frosts also are
very liable to occur in certain localities; and here again the vines,
by being brought closer together, afford shelter to each other from the
direct rays of the sun, which are particularly injurious when coming on
top of a severe frost.
Then again, although some believe that in dry districts it is better to
give each vine plenty of space, yet there are others who are of opinion
that a closer formation is rather an advantage. And on this account:
that since the roots come in contact with one another, they are
compelled to strike deeper in search of water--just in the very place
it is desirable they should go. In addition to the foregoing, it must
not be forgotten that a dark-coloured soil absorbs more of the sun's
heat than one of lighter colour; just as a dark coat is hotter to wear
than a light-coloured one. For this reason, therefore, it is better for
the plants to be closer together in a dark soil, since the shadow of
the vines will then be over the root-producing areas.
In the SOUTH AUSTRALIA VINEGROWERS' MANUAL, which has been prepared by
Mr. George Sutherland, under instructions from the Government of South
Australia, the author expresses this conviction: That a very large
proportion of the new vineyards of South Australia will be planted
wide, especially in the warmer districts and on the lower rises of the
foothills; but that after all 6 feet may be found the most suitable on
more elevated localities, where we shall have to look for some of the
best wines of the claret and hock type. One leading Californian
authority, according, to Mr. Sutherland, was a great advocate for wide
planting. After an exhaustive inquiry into the matter, however,
throughout the wine-producing countries of Europe, he became quite
converted, and believed in closer planting. Mr. Francois de Castella
also records the fact that in a block of vines at St. Hubert's
(Lilydale, Victoria), every second vine was rooted out on one-half of
the block. After ten years it was found that on the whole the closer
wines had done better than those from which every alternate vine was
rooted out.
THE GROWING OF THE GRAPE--WHETHER TO PLANT CUTTINGS OR ROOTED VINES.
There is another somewhat disputed matter connected with viticulture,
which deserves a little notice; and it is the relative merits
of planting cuttings or rooted vines in the vineyard. The majority of
the witnesses examined by the Royal Commission on Vegetable Products in
Victoria, 1889, admitted that cuttings ultimately produced a better
vine. But, as in some of the preceding points at issue, may it not be
that climate and soil have a great deal to do with the results? Signor
Romeo Bragato, the Expert to the Board of Viticulture in Victoria, in
his HINTS TO INTENDING VINE-GROWERS, recommended cuttings, not only for
cheapness, but because if planted in the vineyard at the first they did
not require removal.
In the course of his advice he proceeded to remark:--"The ways used
here and elsewhere by the vine-grower are two--namely, by cuttings,
and rooted vines--but they do not always agree which of the two is the
better. There are many who say that, for the new plantation, rooted
vines must be preferred; others maintain that it is better to plant by
cuttings, because they grow more nourishing and give the vine a longer
life. Both these methods are good and to be recommended; but, in a
general way, I would advise you to stick to the cuttings, and that not
only because by planting them you will have a sensible economy, but
also because if you plant the cuttings in the vineyard you will never
have to more them. If you use rooted vines, it is impossible,
notwithstanding all your care and attention, for you to carry them from
the nursery to the vineyard without hurting their roots, which are very
delicate.
" But if the ground which you intend to plant with vines were loose and
arid, then I would never hesitate to advise you to always use in that
case rooted vines, because the cuttings without roots would not absorb
the rainy water which in such kind of soil runs away in the same time
it takes to fall. This is the reason why, in such a soil, the cuttings
seldom strike.
"On the selection of the cuttings depends the future of the
vineyard, but of this the vine-growers are not sufficiently persuaded,
because they do not pay all the attention required for this delicate
operation. In fact, when in the vineyards in order to cut the cuttings,
they take the thin and thicks--those growths on the new wood and on
the old--without making any distinction, and without knowing if the
old vine gives fruit or not. Many also, without other care, leave their
cuttings in the vineyard for months exposed to the air, sun, and rain;
not thinking that the very porous wood gets dry very quickly, and
becomes weak near the buds. Others, again, buy their cuttings without
knowing to what variety of vine they belong, and how they were
preserved. It is not surprising, therefore, that these negligent
vine-growers, after having incurred great expense in preparing the soil
and planting the vineyard, besides having their vineyard planted with so
many varieties, are compelled to pull up a great number of cuttings
that have not struck, or, having struck, do not carry fruit."
THE GROWING OF THE GRAPE--THE HEIGHT OF THE VINE ABOVE THE GROUND.
The young vine takes about four years to reach its fruit-bearing stage.
During this time the plant requires to be properly trained so as to
obtain the best results from the growing grape. Now, although there are
many different systems of rearing vines, yet in the main they consist
of an upright stem or trunk, and an upper part or crown--the latter
varying considerably in shape. Thus we have the "gooseberry-bush"
style, which is employed for those vines requiring short pruning. Then
there is the "trellising" style, for the long-pruned varieties, in
which the vine is trained to a great distance along a wire. Indeed,
these two methods may be taken to represent the two main styles
of training the vine; although the different modifications used in
various countries are almost endless.
There is, however, one important point which requires attention, no
matter what system is adopted, and it is the height of the vine above
the ground. The nearer a vine is to the ground, the more radiated light
and heat it receives, and as a consequence its resulting nine is
stronger. In vines so near the ground, also, the alkaline dust arising
from the soil neutralises the natural acid of the fruit, and
prejudicially affects the fermentation of the wine.
As a matter of fact the earthy taste--GOUT DE TERROIR--which is
sometimes present in wine, is believed to be caused by a certain amount
of soil being present on the grapes during fermentation. This must be
looked to, especially in the warmer districts, where by giving the wine
a greater distance above the ground, a lighter, more delicate, and
better wine, quite free from the foregoing demerit, is produced.
The testimony of experts throughout Australia is unanimously in favour
of raising the vine sufficiently above the ground, so as to keep the
grapes well off the soil, and also to provide for the free circulation
of air beneath. It is true that in some parts of the Continent the
practice for ages has been to keep the vines well down against the
earth. But this is done to secure the advantages of the radiated heat,
and enable the grapes to ripen. In Australia, however, even in the
elevated districts, the sun is usually warm enough to ripen the grapes
without this being necessary.
THE GROWING OF THE GRAPE--ON PRUNING.
Before leaving these references to the growing of the grape I purpose
making a few remarks upon pruning, a subject which is as interesting as
it is important. The objects of pruning are manifold. By it the
cultivation of the wine is facilitated; the best results are obtained
from each variety of grape; the yield is increased; the product is more
uniform in character; and the quality of the wine is vastly improved.
But a great deal of the work of pruning is so entirely technical that
it would utterly fail to possess any attraction for the general reader.
Consequently I shall attempt no more than to briefly refer to those
particular matters which are of Australian concern.
Now, it is laid down as a rule for pruning that some vines should be
pruned short, while others require long pruning; that is to say, one
variety of wine requires to be repressed, as it were, and in another
the branches have to be kept long to produce a superior quality of
wine. The explanation is that while the sap is on its way through the
roots, the stem, the branches, and the shoots of the vine, for the
production of fruit, it is distilled out, so to speak, during its
passage from the earth to the fruit. As Mr. George Sutherland prettily
puts it, the grape is, in fact, the crowning product of the whole
plant. In this way, the farther the sap has to travel through the whole
vine on its way to the growing fruit, the better will the resulting
wine be.
To a certain extent this is true of all vines, but more especially so
in the case of Shiraz and some of the Pinots. In various districts of
France, in order to bring the grape to perfection, the vine-growers
will train out their main branches along trellises to a length of 50
and even 60 feet, so as to give the sap the longest possible distance
to travel; and, further, for the purpose of concentrating into the
fruit the whole result of the wine, all the buds and little shoots,
which would distract therefrom, are carefully taken away. This gives to
the vine a very curious look, but it serves well to illustrate how
greatly wines differ as to whether they require short or long pruning.
It also helps to a better understanding of the two main styles of
training the vine already mentioned, namely, the "gooseberry bush" and
the "trellising."
The fact that this elaboration of the sap in long-pruned vines requires
a long distance to intervene between the roots and the fruit itself, is
one of considerable importance. It is necessary to remember, however,
that cultivation of this kind requires additional labour. Moreover, one
of the principal reasons why the short-pruned vine has become such a
favourite in Australia is that it is a labour-saving vine, and
therefore its adoption is almost a necessity. But, as Mr. Sutherland
remarks, "there is no doubt that Australia can never hope to produce in
any quantity the finest qualities of wine until the vignerons attend
more to those practices which depend essentially upon the fundamental
fact that the sap flows with different habits through different
varieties of vines; and, therefore, that some vines require short
pruning, while it is even more important to remember that others will
only yield satisfactorily under a system of long pruning."
In a paper on viticulture, at Mildura, which was drawn up for the Royal
Commission on Vegetable Products in 1890, Mr. Francois de Castella, a
former expert to the Board of Viticulture, Victoria, has condensed so
much knowledge within a small compass that I have quoted the following:--
"Most of the settlers I met told me that they intended to prune their
vines short. Now, in my opinion, they could not make a greater mistake
--for wine-growing, at least; as for raisin-growing I have never taken
any interest in the subject, and, having no experience, do not wish to
express an opinion on it. I must say that all the settlers I had
occasion to speak to were raisin-growers, but I should warn any future
wine-grower at Mildura, who may chance to read these few notes, to
beware of short pruning.
"Most of our vineyard labourers come from the cold parts of Europe,
such as Switzerland, where grapes ripen with difficulty under ordinary
circumstances, and where the vine does not take any considerable
development. There, short pruning has to be resorted to in order to
make a drinkable wine. When these men arrive in Australia they bring
all their old habits and prejudices with them, and tell the
inexperienced vineyard proprietor that long pruning weakens the vine.
The proprietor, thinking that they know more about the subject than he
does, allows them to do as they like, and they set to work to cut the
vine down to such an extent that, unable to take advantage of the
genial climate to which it has been transplanted, it gives only one-eighth
or one-tenth of the quantity of grapes it could be made to bear
with intelligent pruning, besides being much weakened; whereas
long-pruning strengthens a vine if the climate be favourable to its
development.
"Another disadvantage of short pruning in warm climates is the well-known
fact that the less grapes you have on the vine, the more glucose
the must will contain; therefore, instead of making much more per acre
of a drinkable wine, which they easily could do, they content
themselves with a much smaller quantity per acre of a wine which
ferments so badly that alcohol has to be added to prevent the
production of lactic acid, resulting from the excessive temperature
reached during fermentation favouring the development of this
particular germ.
"The resulting wine, a curious mixture of alcohol, sugar, lactic acid,
and water, is most unpalatable, sour, uninviting, and unwholesome.
besides ruining the name of Australian wine when sold as such.
"I may here warn vine-growers against the advice given to them by some
would-be authorities, who tell them they can make a light wine by
picking grapes before they are ripe. This is absurd. The unripe grape
contains a certain percentage of vegetable acids, such as tartaric,
malic, &c., &c. some of which are themselves converted into glucose
during the process of ripening, whilst others are eliminated after
helping to transform the starch of the vegetable tissues into glucose.
It stands to reason that if the fruit be picked before complete
maturity, these acids, which are not capable of fermenting, will be
found unchanged in the wine produced, thereby rendering it acid and
undrinkable. It is, of course, necessary, in warm climates, to pick the
grapes before they get over-ripe or shrivel up; but it would be just as
foolish to rush to the other extreme, and pick the fruit too soon.
"If, instead of blindly following the mode of culture which has been
adopted in a cold climate, the vine-grower would listen to the dictates
of reason, and were to try a few inexpensive experiments, he
would soon find out his mistake, and confer a boon on himself as well
as on his neighbour, not to speak of the consumers of his wine.
"Even in the cooler districts of Victoria, such as the Yarra Valley, I
do not know of any variety of vine which is weakened by long pruning,
even in a series of years; while certain varieties are so influenced by
short pruning as to bear no fruit at all. If this be the case on the
Yarra, how much more must it be so on the Murray?"
Mr. de Castella then referred to some other matters connected with the
practices followed at Mildura, and concluded with these encouraging
words:--
"I contend that no other culture will give such magnificent returns, do
so much good to a country, or have greater attractions for the happy
proprietor of the vineyard, as there is no branch of agriculture which
presents such a vast field for experimental research, or which is so
extensively benefited by the practical application of scientific laws
and principles, as viticulture."
THE MAKING OF THE WINE--THE CELLAR.
Up till this time our whole attention has been taken up with everything
that has to do with the production of the grape. But with the gathering
of the crop a complete change has taken place, for nature no longer
exercises such a controlling influence. At this stage the art of
winemaking really begins, and the climate, the soil, and all the other
factors that have so much to do with the growth of the grape assist us
no longer. From the moment that the grapes are gathered till the wine
is ready for bottling is a most eventful period; for, during this
important time, under proper treatment, wine may be made to reach
perfection.
Indeed, it is only by paying the most minute attention to all the
details connected with the making of wine that Australian vignerons
will succeed in placing our wines before all others; because it is very
important to remember that the must produced in Australia is
equal, if not superior, to any in the world. Now, all that follows this
portion relates to wine-making alone; and it should for that very
reason, therefore, possess a special interest for us. Moreover, it will
be a good thing for the wine industry, for Australia, and for her
people, when such an interest becomes part of our daily life.
Naturally the first thing to suggest itself, therefore, in the making
of the wine, is the place in which it is made. There is no doubt that
in Australia the importance of a proper cellar has never been
sufficiently appreciated. But the French have a proverb, "the cellar
makes the wine," showing that it plays no inconsiderable part in the
production of good wine. As Mr. Walter W. Pownall, the representative
of the Australian Wine Company, explained before the Vegetable Products
Commission in Victoria, a knowledge of cellar routine and cellar work
would aroid the spoiling of much good wine. A man thinks when he has
grown the wine that is all that is necessary. But the fact is, a
wine-grower has never done with his wine till it has passed out of his
hands.
There was a valuable pamphlet on Australian wines written by the late
Doctor Bleasdale, of Melbourne, in 1876. It is now out of print, and
regrettedly so, for the worthy Doctor was one of the best connoisseurs
of wine Australia ever had. Mr. L. Bruck, the well-known medical
publisher of Sydney, however, has placed me under considerable
obligation by giving me his own copy, and in the preface therein I note
that the author, in speaking of this very question, remarks:--"I would
here reiterate what I have often stated, namely, that if the cellar
management in the three colonies were equal to the magnificent produce
of the vines, no "country on the earth could surpass, in quality and
variety "of kinds, Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales."
Then again, Mr. James Smith, of Melbourne, in the course of his
admirable prize essay on Australian wine, which appeared in GREVILLE'S
YEAR BOOK OF AUSTRALIA for 1886, has these observations on this
subject:--"It is, however, in the management of the cellar that one
must look for the most efficient means of securing that uniformity of
quality which I regard as such an important desideratum. If it be not a
science, it is certainly an art requiring special knowledge, training,
and experience, combined, perhaps, with natural aptitude. And it is
precisely in this respect, I fear, that our deficiency in Australia is
greatest.
"In the wine-making countries of Europe the cellarmaster is an expert
who inherits the skill, traditions, methods, and usages of many
generations of men who have adopted and followed the same calling. His
organs of smell and taste have been educated to practise the nicest
discrimination of flavour and odour, and if the vintage of a particular
year differs in quality from that of its predecessor, he knows how, by
a judicious blending of the old with the new, of the highly-coloured
with the pallid, to arrive at that uniformity which is so
indispensable."
The cellar must neither be too damp nor too dry. Any excess of dampness
would rot the casks and give a musty taste to the wine; while, on the
contrary, in too dry a cellar the staves of the casks would shrink and
cause leakage. The cellar is usually kept somewhat dark. The openings
for the admission of air and light should be provided with shutters, so
that the atmosphere and temperature may be under control. The floor of
the cellar should be paved or cemented, be well levelled, and
cleanliness throughout should be strictly and strenuously maintained.
But the following remarks of Signor Bragato as to what a cellar ought
not to be will perhaps be more instructive, and besides they contain a
vast amount of information on the subject. In referring to some
of the cellars he came across during his tour of inspection through one
of the Victorian districts, he writes:--
"The majority of the buildings used as cellars are nothing less than
wooden sheds, with galvanized iron roofs. Here the air has a free
circulation day and night, and the cellerman is thus rendered powerless
to control the temperature, which very often, from 100 degrees in day
time, goes down to 54 degrees or less during the night. The appliances
required for winemaking are all round badly preserved, and are covered
with mouldiness and dust. The floor of the buildings is not paved or
cemented, and it consists of earth, so that it has the power of
absorbing the wine that gets spilt and becomes the source of pernicious
germs, which will spread all over the cellar and in the air, to be
finally deposited in the must and in the wine, causing irreparable loss
in the quality of the wine. There are a few good cellars, but these,
also, are badly kept and badly used.
"The casks are neglected, and the coat of tartar is scrupulously left
in the cask, with the erroneous idea that it tends to preserve the
wine. All the empty casks I have smelt in the cellars inspected are
impregnated with bad odours, which are not detected by the majority of
the owners, in consequence of having accustomed their olfactory organs
to the predominant odour of mouldiness in their cellars, and so they
are unable to detect if the odour of their casks is healthy or not.
"With the bad cellars which the vignerons have at their disposal,
combined with the neglect of the casks and other appliances, and the
little care in the preservation of the wine, it is only natural that a
large quantity of the wine produced is spoiled, and condemned to the
still to be converted into inferior brandy of bad taste and colour,
which is often used to fortify the wines, with the result of rendering
them unfit for consumption. "Amongst the wines I have tested, I found
some really very good ones, presenting all the characteristics required
in a fine wine. But if there are good wines, there are also very bad
ones, and these, I am sorry to say, represent the bulk in every cellar
I visited. Some of the wines are cloudy, sweetish, with a good deal of
asperity. Others present tartaric, lactic, and acetic fermentations."
After some further comments on various other matters, the same
gentleman concludes his report with the following:--
"Finally, I may say that by what I have seen I cannot help expressing
the opinion that Australia is capable of producing really fine wines,
to be highly appreciated in the world's markets. But to produce
an appreciable wine, it is necessary that the vignerons should improve
in their system of wine-making, and substitute for their sheds cellars
constructed on a rational principle; and by devoting more attention to
the cleanliness of the casks and other cellar appliances. A
modification in the system of cultivation and pruning of the vines will
also be factors in improving the quality of the wine.
"There is in this country good soil, and a climate which cannot be
equalled for the successful cultivation of the vine. Capital is
plentiful, and the people very enterprising; so there remains only the
want of Technical Instruction, by the institution of practical schools
of Viticulture, without which it is doubtful if ever its vignerons will
succeed in making wines likely to be appreciated in the foreign
markets."
In the same way Mr. J.A. Despeissis, of the New South Wales Department
of Agriculture, also insists upon cellar cleanliness. And it would
seem, indeed, that there is ample justification for his deprecatory
remarks. It appears that on several occasions he has noticed fowls and
pigeons roosting in the wine cellars. Now, as he pungently observes,
the wine cellar was never intended for this sort of thing. Another way
of putting the matter would be to point out what a mad thing it would
be to use a fowl house as a cellar. Moreover, he gives minute
directions for disinfecting the cellar, in order to destroy any germs
or minute organisms which may be lurking in crevices or in odd corners.
This is best accomplished by burning some sulphur in earthenware pots,
distributed over various parts of the cellar; previously seeing that
all the windows and gaps are rendered air-tight by means of bagging.
The fumes should be left in the cellar--for a day or two, after which
the doors are opened, and a free current of air allowed to sweeten the
whole place.
Moreover, a model cellar is necessarily a very elaborate affair,
considering it is the laboratory, so to speak, in which the wine is
created. A model cellar would consist of the following six
compartments:--
* 1. The section for the first treatment of the grape.
*
* 2. The fermentation department.
*
* 3. The section for the preparation and storing, of the new wine.
*
* 4. The underground cellar for the storage of the matured wine.
*
* 5. The bottle department.
*
* 6. The distillation department and for the utilization of the refuse
of wine.
*
The cellar of Mr. Henley, near the Ovens River, in Victoria, is very
complete. It is provided with a steam lift, a steam crushing machine,
and a steam pump, while there is perfect ventilation and a uniform
temperature. His cellar is divided into three compartments: the
fermenting house in the middle, the cellar for the new wine, and the
cellar for the old wine. The building is 83 feet by 80 feet, built of
brick, with double walls 9 inches thick outside and 4 inches inside,
and between the walls there is 4 1/2 inches of space. The temperature
on the hottest days in the summer never surpasses 80 degrees Fahrenheit;
and, lastly, the floors, both of the cellars and the fermenting house, are
cemented for the purpose of absolute cleanliness.
THE MAKING OF THE WINE--THE GATHERING OF THE GRAPE.
At the very beginning one of the chief matters to be looked to is the
selection of the time at which the grapes should be picked. The proper
period is that when the interior of the grape contains its principal
components, the sugar and the acids, in the right proportions. In the
warmer districts the grapes are sometimes allowed to become too ripe.
In such a case there would be an excess of sugar and a deficiency of
acid, and a regular fermentation would be impossible. On the other
hand, it will be remembered in the course of the remarks upon
pruning that I quoted Mr. Francois de Castella to show what a mistaken
idea it is to pick the grapes before they are thoroughly ripe in order
to produce, as it is erroneously supposed, a lighter wine. It is of the
greatest consequence, therefore, to choose that particular time for
gathering the grapes when they contain the respective elements in their
strictly proper proportions.
On the eventful day for the picking of the grapes the weather should be
fine and bright, and in the warm districts they should be picked early
in the morning and late in the afternoon, so that they are not too
warm. The grapes should never be taken to the fermenting house when too
heated; indeed, it would be better not to crush the grapes at all than
to have them in such a state. As Signor Bragato observes, if they are
too warm the fermentation will start with too high a temperature in the
must, and very likely the result will be the formation of lactic and
acetic germs. In Algiers and other warm regions the grapes picked in
the day are left outside during the night; by this means the
temperature of the must is lowered.
In the picking of the grapes the greatest care should be taken to
discard the mouldy, dry, and dirty grapes, and leaf insect worms should
likewise be got rid of. Once the gathering of the grapes is commenced
it should be concluded as quickly as possible, and therefore a
sufficient number of hands must be engaged for the purpose. For
instance, with the Riesling, if the grapes are left on the vines on a
hot day twenty-four hours after they arrive at perfection, the wine
will not be nearly so good.
THE MAKING OF THE WINE--VARYING ADDITIONS TO THE MUST.
On the arrival of the grapes at the press-house, the first thing to be
determined upon is whether the stalks are to be used or not. In
the case of white wines it is not customary to separate them from the
grapes. A good deal, however, will depend upon different circumstances.
Thus, when grapes are grown in flat, damp places, or during wet
seasons, it is often advantageous to ferment the berries with part of
their stems; but, on the contrary, those grapes which contain a
sufficiency of tannin will not require the latter. For example, in the
production of white wines at Mr. Hans Irvine's ("Great Western")
vineyard in Victoria, the grapes are first crushed with the mill, the
mill consisting of two grooved wooden rollers working against each
other. After this the skins, together with the stalks, are placed in
the wine-press. In the case of red wine, however, the grapes are
separated from the stalks by means of an iron griddle, so that only the
skins are employed in the formation of the wine.
The methods pursued with regard to the elimination or retention of the
grape stalks vary in different parts of the Continent. The most careful
vignerons remove the stalks in the case of the finest growths of
Burgundy; but in the making of champagne, and also in the Rheingau,
from which part come the famous Hock wines, the stalks are allowed to
remain. In the Medoc districts, which produce the finest clarets, the
stalks are likewise put into the fermentation vat; but this is
considered to be a great mistake, since a long time elapses before the
astringent taste of the wine subsides. With the far-famed Red Hermitage
wine of France, too, the stalks are permitted to pass into the vat, and
in the case of sherry and port, as well, the stalks all take part in
the fermentation, though it is believed that better results would be
obtained by their removal. But in all these old wine-producing
countries of Europe the same customs have been followed from time
immemorial, and they are not likely to be altered at present.
THE MAKING OF THE WINE--THE MUST ITSELF.
The must--that is, the juice expressed from the grape, but in which
(juice) fermentation has not yet taken place--is a fluid of very
complex composition. It is made up of a variety of ingredients, with
which it is necessary to become familiar in order to follow, during the
process of fermentation, its change into wine. We find, therefore, that
a large part of the must consists of water; this serves to dissolve the
other constituents, and to dilute them to the required extent. For
instance, the sugar in the must needs to be considerably diluted for
the purposes of fermentation. In too concentrated a form it actually
prevents it, as we see when fruits are preserved in syrup.
Next to water, sugar is the material which exists in the largest
proportions in the must; it is, however, that peculiar kind of sugar
termed "glucose," which may be described as uncrystallisable sugar,
and as consisting of half grape sugar and half fruit sugar. It
possesses the property of being able to ferment, which cane or
crystallisable sugar cannot do, unless, indeed, it first be changed
into glucose. Now, it is a curious fact that although cane sugar can be
transformed into glucose, yet the latter form of sugar has never, so
far, been changed into cane or crystallisable sugar. As Mr. J.A.
Despeissis points out, the invention of a process that would achieve
this would be worth more than all the mines of New South Wales put
together.
In the process of fermentation the glucose is broken up into a number
of substances, which differ entirely from it; and as these different
bodies are very important they deserve much attention. Under the
influence of fermentation glucose undergoes a great change, of which
the principal products are alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The alcohol
is, of course, the one predominant feature in wine; and according to
the amount of alcohol which wine contains, so it varies in strength.
In addition to these two main products of glucose by fermentation,
namely, alcohol and carbonic acid gas, there are glycerine and succinic
acid, as well as a lesser proportion of other derivatives, very much
akin to alcohol. Of all these glycerine is by no means unimportant, as
it confers a blandness or mellowness upon the wine. The succinic acid,
also, is distinctive for this reason, that it is the source of that
characteristic flavour in wine known as "vinosity."
Besides the water and the glucose, the must likewise contains quite an
appreciable amount of those important bodies, the various acids. These
consist of tartaric acid, so frequently met with all through the
vegetable world; of malic acid, which is the acid almost distinctive of
apples; of tannic acid or "tannin," and of other acids. These different
acids play an important part in the production of wine; without them,
in truth, it would be a mere admixture of spirits and water--a
colourless, flavourless, and insipid product. By their assistance,
however, wine is endowed with the brilliancy it possesses. And more
than this, the action of the alcohol on these acids develops those
exquisitely delicate ethers--the oenanthic and other ethers--which
constitute, in fact, the bouquet of the wine. At the same time, it has
also to be remembered that while these many acids constitute the life
and soul, so to speak, of the wine, their very presence is absolutely
necessary for the process of vinous fermentation. That is to say, the
active agents of vinous fermentation are only enabled to work perfectly
in a liquid which is somewhat acid.
There is an astringent principle, named tannin, which calls for
attention in any reference to wine-making. It is almost the same body--
not quite--as the tannin obtained from galls, and so largely employed
in tanning. This vine-tannin, if it may be so termed, does not exist in
the juice of the grape, but in the stalk and the skin. The white wines,
in which the juice is almost always freed from the skins and stalks,
contain but little tannin; while, on the contrary, most red wines, in
which juice, skins, and stalks are all included together in the
fermenting-vat, contain a good deal. Some white wines derive their
tannin from the oaken casks which hold the wine; and their colour, in
consequence, subsequently deepens. Other red wines, strange to say,
gradually lose their dark colour from a certain action of the tannin.
So that tannin is the cause of some white wines deepening in colour,
while it renders other red wines of a lighter colour. Now, tannin has
the effect of preserving albuminous substances, and in this way it may
be beneficial in rendering red wines more durable. But although this
may be advisable in wines which are liable to turn, it is certain that
excess of tannin is most undesirable. In fact, the practice of placing
the stalks in the fermenting-vat is in many cases, as I have previously
stated, an unnecessary proceeding.
The mineral kingdom is not unrepresented in must, and certain saline
substances are found in it. Of these, the salts of potash are uniformly
present, and the most important is, without doubt, the acid tartrate of
potash. This is the salt so well known in commerce under the name of
cream of tartar. The lees of wine contain it in considerable quantity,
and it is also found as a crystalline deposit in the inside of the
casks. As the alcohol begins to develop in the must this salt is
precipitated, and the more so the lower the temperature. Thus it is
that a light wine of low alcoholic strength, if it be markedly acid,
will lose the acidity in a cool, underground cellar. And, as a matter
of fact, the proper maturation of a wine is impossible without a due
amount of tartar; besides this, it develops in the wine a well-defined
vigour and tonicity, which improves its taste, while it also increases
its alimentary qualities.
There are a few other ingredients in must, namely, the
colouring matters and essential oils, and the albuminoids, or
nitrogenous substances. The colouring matters and oils appear to be
contained in the cells of the inner side of the skin. Of these, the
purpose of the colouring matter is obvious; while the essential oils
are believed to contribute to the "aroma" of the wine. The albuminoids
or nitrogenous substances are of the nature of white of egg; and, when
in small proportion, are necessary for the due performance of the
fermentative process. But, in excess, they are a source of considerable
anxiety to the vigneron, in that they are the cause of much of the wine
going wrong.
THE MAKING OF WINE--FERMENTATION.
The must, as we have already seen, is the juice of the grape, which has
been squeezed out by the grape-mill or from the wine-press. The murk,
or pomace as it is called in America, on the contrary, is the mass of
grape skins, stalks, &c., left behind in the press. A clear
apprehension of these two terms is required in order that no confusion
may arise. The fermenting-vat is the cask in which what is called the
strong, stormy, or tumultuous fermentation takes place. The "cuvage" is
the length of time the contents are left in the fermenting-vat.
The whole phenomena of fermentation are too complicated and profoundly
scientific to be dealt with here. I shall do no more, therefore, than
briefly refer to the behaviour of the must in the fermenting-vat.
Fermentation sets in soon after the must is placed within the latter.
The germs of vinous fermentation are contained in abundance in the air
of the wine cellar, as well as being on the grapes themselves. M.
Pasteur, who has contributed so much to a proper understanding of
fermentation, has proved that the yeast fungi come from the external
surface of the grapes, and are not derived from the interior.
Hence it follows that the skins are to be well crushed before
fermentation begins, to ensure proper action in the must.
The temperature of the must soon begins to rise, and the fermentative
agencies break up its glucose into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. There
is a bubbling and seething in the liquid during this action, which
gradually subsides. The increase of temperature in the fermented fluid
begins to abate; the skins and husks subside to the bottom of the vat;
the liquid itself becomes slightly less turbid--and the first stage of
wine-making is at an end.
A clearer insight into this important part of the process will perhaps
be gained by noting some of the practices followed on the Continent, as
regards the duration of the vattage. The length of time the various
contents--whether they be the grape juice alone, or the grape juice
together with the skins and stalks--remain within the fermenting-vat,
varies greatly in different parts. In the Champagne country, the must
is allowed to stand for twelve or eighteen hours, during which time a
froth arises to the top and a sediment descends to the bottom. Without
disturbing either of these, the precious liquid is carefully withdrawn
into small barrels, and the fermentation is then allowed to proceed.
This purification is one of the most important matters connected with
the making of champagne.
The Medoc districts, in the Bordeaux territory, produce the finest of
the clarets. The grapes are detached from the stalks, and subjected to
pressure. The must is put into the fermenting-vat, to which is added
the murk resulting from the pressing, and the stalks which were
previously separated from the berries. The time necessary for
vinification varies; in good years it is no longer than four or five
days, and the future wine will then be at its best with regard to
taste, delicacy, and softness.
In one case, that of the Red Hermitage wine of France, the
grapes are unstalked and crushed before being placed in the vat. The
contents of the latter are then stirred twice a day, and ultimately
once a day. This is continued for about a month, and in one of the best
vineyards for forty days. This long "cuvage" appears necessary from the
fact that the large amount of sugar in the must is but slowly
transformed into alcohol.
There is a curious incident which occurs in connection with the
world-renowned wines of Burgundy, which is worth recording. As the
fermentation proceeds, the murk, as in all similar fermentations, rises
to the surface of the vat, and forms what is called the "hat," or
CHAPEAU. The fermentation proceeds till all is ready for the wine to be
drawn. At this time the "hat" is so dense that it will bear the weight
of two or three men. Each of them now begins working with one foot till
he gets it through the crust, and the whole CHAPEAU is eventually
broken up and mixed with the wine.
But to return to our subject. As soon as the stormy or seething
fermentation is over, the young wine is drawn off from the fermenting-vat
into the maturing-cask, at which time it may be quite warm and
turbid. In a cool cellar and with perfect quiet it gradually becomes
clearer; it deposits on the bottom of the cask many of the substances
it contains, and the fermentation becomes no longer visible. The time
which this "slow fermentation" takes to occur will vary with the type
of wine, with the nature of the must, and with the influence of the
season. Speaking generally, it may be said to be from two to eight
weeks after its entrance into the maturing-cask. The wine is considered
to be ready for its first racking when it has become clear and
transparent, and when its lees have subsided to the bottom of the cask.
In racking there is a withdrawal of the wine from the sediment
which it casts down, and which is known as the lees. It is an important
operation because irremediable damage is caused to wine by allowing it
to remain in contact with the dregs. A knowledge of their composition
is of great value, since it serves to explain their injurious
influence. The lees deposited from vinous fermentation consist of
mineral salts, tartaric acid, and organic matters. Of these the
'organic substances are the most to be dreaded, and for this reason,
that they are very prone to rapid decomposition. They consist of
yeast-cells, cells of other micro-organisms, of DEBRIS and minute
particles of grape stalks and skins, and of other bodies, all readily
liable to decompose. All these various materials, therefore, are
continually a source of peril, for the slightest thing may start action in
them, which spreads throughout the wine and simply ruins it. By removing
it from such undesirable company all these risks are avoided, and the best
possible qualities of the wine are afforded the opportunity to develop.
In the performance of racking definite changes take place in the vine,
which are assuredly important. For it must be remembered that the
nearly fermented young wines contain an excess of carbonic acid gas;
and this is rightly regarded as possessing great preservative
properties, in that it prevents the dangerously spreading growth of the
little micro-organisms and germs present in all new wine.
In the course of racking, however, a certain amount of the carbonic
acid gas must be lost, and fresh oxygen is absorbed from the
atmosphere. The oxygen is invaluable from the fact that it exerts a
powerful chemical influence upon the wine; as a consequence
fermentation is slightly renewed if there be any grape sugar remaining.
At the same time the colour of the wine is also modified, and any
rawness or harshness in its taste quality is enormously
increased by the development of those delicate and subtle ethers which
have so much to do with the flavour and bouquet of all wines.
The operation of racking, consequently, is one of great importance, as
it requires to be repeated from time to time. A copious deposit of lees
generally takes place after the first racking, and a second one should
speedily follow. During the first year young wines are often racked off
as many as three times, but with the older wines once a year, at the
beginning of spring, may be sufficient. But it is precisely in matters
of this kind that judgment and experience are so much needed.
Now, it has been pointed out over and over again that it is solely by a
correct treatment of Australian wines in the cellar that we can hope to
attain to excellence; in fact, the whole secret lies in this direction.
And it is very much to be regretted, therefore, that cellar management
and wine treatment have not yet been conceded their proper position,
that of being the principal factors in the success of Australian wine.
Amongst others, this very truth was pointed out by Mr. Pownall, to whom
I have previously referred. In giving evidence before the Vegetable
Products Commission of Victoria in August 1889, he observed:--"In some
of the cellars I have been horrified with the amount of wine which I
should describe as 'perished' and as 'perishing.' It is astounding, I
can hardly express the quantity. And very often the vine-grower is so
ignorant of his business that he shows one wine which is 'tart' and
'sour,' and even praises it. I find those wines are generally exceeding
three years old, and I attribute it to the lack of cellar knowledge and
treatment, because in the same cellar where I find large quantities of
bad wine I find this year's and last year's wine good, and promising
well; but if longer kept, and so treated, after a few years it will be
utterly useless."
It will only be by paying attention to all the details
connected with the cellarage of Australian wines that the victory will
be ours. I have said so before, and now say it again, that our
Australian must is quite equal to, if not superior to, any in the
world. But it is from that very time that the critical stage in the
making of our wines begins. It behoves our vignerons, therefore, to
concentrate their energies mainly upon that vastly important period
which follows onwards from the very beginning of vinification.
THE TASTING AND JUDGING OF WINES.
Of the five senses, namely, seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling, and
tasting, the last is by no means the least important. It is a wise
provision, this sense of taste, in that it enables us to relish our
food, and also to select that which is suitable at the same time. If we
took no pleasure in eating we should probably cease to eat at all, and
die of starvation. And if we had no taste we might eat that which was
unsuitable. In illness, almost the first things that the sufferer will
complain about are that he has lost all desire for his food, and that
everything tastes alike to him. The true taste impressions are limited
to the following, namely, bitter, sweet, sour, and salt. The best
substances to mark these four varieties of taste are quinine for the
bitter, honey for the sweet, vinegar for the sour, and table salt for
the last. The sense of taste is closely associated with that of smell;
indeed, the sense of smell has nearly all to do with the perception of
flavour. There is an inseparable connection between the two senses of
smell and taste, for when anosmia or loss of the sense of smell occurs,
all taste, except for bitterness, sweetness, sourness, and saltness, is
completely lost, so far as ideas of flavour, &c., are concerned.
Brillat-Savarin, the high-priest of gastronomy, quaintly puts it that
smell and taste form only one sense, having the mouth as
laboratory, with the nose for the fire-place or chimney; the one
serving to taste solids, the other gases. George Dallas, too, the
gifted author of THE BOOK OF THE TABLE, also expresses the association
of taste and smell in an apt way. He makes reference to the fact that
the other senses are not dependent on each other, but that the hearing
becomes more acute in a blind man. On the contrary, taste is made for
marriage, and smell is its better half. Taste loses, as he says, all
its delicacy when it cannot mate with a fine olfactory nerve. The late
Dr. Druitt has likewise noted that the union of smell with taste is
essential for the enjoyment of wine.
From the foregoing it will be seen that when we speak of taste we refer
to a complicated and extremely delicate process. There is this also to
be remembered, that it is a sense which can be cultivated to a high
degree; and in the wine-taster it is brought to the very pitch of
excellence. Yet, notwithstanding all this, it must be a matter of
every-day experience, that people will profess to an ability to judge
wine when they know absolutely nothing of the various points, so to
speak, to be looked for. What I mean is this, that there are many
different things to be observed when a wine is tasted, and that each
one requires to have proper judgment bestowed upon it. What these are I
shall endeavour to speak of in due course.
Wine tasting is a fine art as seen with the COURTIERS or experts who
are employed by the large houses in Bordeaux. There are exceptional
qualifications required for this office, for its holders must possess a
delicate and highly trained palate, and an exquisite and perfect sense
of smell, while at the same time a lengthened experience and unerring
discrimination in the value of the wine submitted to them are also
called for. Mr. James Smith, in his prize essay, already referred to,
quotes with approval the following passage from a French
authority:-"The COURTAGE of wines is, then, a true science, which is
acquired by long observations, by numerous tastings, extensive
practice, and a correct judgment; a science which has rendered, and is
daily rendering, true and important services to our vinicole department
(that of the Gironde); for, by this means, intelligent classifications
have given to our GRANDS CRUS a universal reputation, and have made our
best wines known and appreciated throughout the civilised world. In the
judging of wines, therefore, at least four essentials are necessary:
two of the senses--the taste and the smell must be perfect--while
great experience and special knowledge must be equally present."
Now, there is an old saying, DE GUSTIBUS NON EST DISPUTANDUM, and
consequently every person has a perfect right to like what pleases him;
so that in this way anyone may prefer to drink whisky, or any other
form of spirits, and he is quite entitled to believe there is nothing
so good for him; but, on the other hand, an habitual spirit-drinker
must not claim to possess a correct judgment in estimating the
qualities of a good wine; for, as a matter of fact, the daily influence
of whisky on the palate is absolutely fatal to its delicacy of
perception. There are none of the graceful flavours, none of the
delicate ethers, none of the perfumed bouquets in whisky that belong to
a wholesome wine. No, there is only the coarse spirit which benumbs the
palatal nerves, and renders them incapable of picking out these vinous
attributes. Moreover, it would almost seem that a person's very
thoughts are controlled by his customary beverage. It is evident,
indeed, that Richard Bentley, one of the greatest scholars of modern
times, believed in this doctrine; for did he not make this memorable
remark to one of his pupils: "Sir, if you drink ale, you will think
ale"?
Is it not true, also, that with many people champagne is
regarded as the highest type of wine? This is more likely to be the
case with those who are beginning to realize the pleasures of life.
Indeed, as it has been acutely remarked, a youngster from college, when
invited to dinner, thinks himself badly treated if he does not get it.
Now, it is not to be denied that champagne is, in its way, an imperial
drink, and that it has a specially exhilarating effect. But, at the
same time, it must be remembered that it is on the other side of the
champagne stage of life that the appreciation of really great wines
begins.
Take, for instance, a comparison of the wines of Bordeaux and of
Burgundy. These are two distinct classes of wine, and, according to Mr.
Sept. Berdmore, should be imbibed different days. That they are
entirely distinct wines might only be expected, seeing that the
geographical positions of the two districts are so far apart. The
Bordeaux wines come from the south-western or Bay of Biscay side of
France, while those of Burgundy belong to her eastern portion. It is
almost universally a matter of belief that the red wines of Bordeaux
should be warmed gradually--taking some hours--before they are drunk.
The temperature of these wines should be as nearly as possible the
temperature of the dining-room itself. The finest clarets are often
utterly spoiled from the fact that this has been disregarded, and they
have been brought to table without ally preparation. In the case of
Burgundy, however, an opposite treatment is required, and by many
connoisseurs it is considered to be best when brought up from a cool
cellar shortly before use. All these are matters of considerable
importance, and show that the judging of wines requires something more
than a mere off-hand opinion. There are certain descriptions of the
different varieties of wines, given by Thudicum and Dupre, Vizetelly
and others, which are of great assistance in helping to a
knowledge of the various desiderata to be looked for. Moreover, much
will be gained by collecting them together, as their principal
characteristics will be better remembered when they are thus contrasted
with each other. It is not my wish to laud the wines of other countries
to the disparagement of Australian growths, but it is my object to show
clearly those desirable properties which all good wines should possess.
A knowledge of these lofty standards will do more to better the quality
of our Australian wines than anything I know of.
The wines of the Medoc, that district of the Gironde which produces the
finest clarets, namely, Chateau Margaux, Chateau Lafitte, Chateau
Latour, &c., possess distinguishing features peculiar to themselves.
They have a certain slight distinctive roughness; are fine, juicy,
marrowy in the mouth, and after having been in bottle some years they
acquire a very beautiful bouquet. They have, moreover, this remarkable
hygienic quality, that they can be drunk in large quantity without, as
the French say, "fatiguing" either head or stomach. But there is
another portion of the Bordeaux country, namely the GRAVES, which
produces both red and white wines. The latter include those magnificent
Sauternes, Chateau d'Yquem and La Tour Blanche, which take such high
rank; Chateau d'Yquem, indeed, has been likened to liquid gold--liquid
gold in a crystal glass--and is one of those most luscious and
delicately aromatic of wines, with an exquisite bouquet and rich,
delicious flavour.
As it has already been stated, Bordeaux and Burgundy are entirely
different wines, and this fact must be well remembered. The wines of
the latter comprise some of the most famous growths of France, and are
distinguished by the suavity of their taste, their finesse, and
spirituous aroma The red wines have a fine colour, a good deal of
bouquet, and a delicious taste. They give tone to the stomach,
and facilitate digestion. Of these red wines of Burgundy the Romanee-Conti
is among the first growths, and it is renowned for its fine
colour, its aroma, its delicacy, and the superb quality of its
delicious taste. Clos de Vougeot is another great growth, which is
slightly more alcoholic than the preceding. Chambertin, also, possesses
a good deal of seve, delicacy, perfect taste, and pleasant bouquet;
moreover, it has a softness which made it an especial favourite with
the great Napoleon. Corton, likewise, is of high colour, corse, and, as
it gets older, acquires a great deal of seve and bouquet.
The white wines of Burgundy however, must not be forgotten, for amongst
them is the renowned Chablis. This, with the oysters, the squeeze of
lemon juice, and the brown bread and butter, usually heralds in any
large dinner. Although slightly alcoholic, it is not heady, and
possesses body, delicacy, and an agreeable perfume, with that
distinguishing PIERRE A FUSIL taste--that flinty flavour--which is
its recognised characteristic.
Leaving the Bordeaux wines and the wines of Burgundy, it is next
desirable to speak of one which belongs to the South of France. It is
well known, at least by name, to most Australians, and any description
of its properties, therefore, will be the more appreciated. This is the
Muscat of Rivesaltes, in the department of the Oriental Pyrenees. By
some it is esteemed the best liqueur wine in the world. A good sample
of it possesses great finesse, a good deal of vinosity, and that
wonderful muscadine bouquet which gives to it its celebrated
characters.
There is another wine, coming from the valley of the Rhone, in the
south-eastern portion of France, whose name is equally familiar to most
Australians; this is the Red Hermitage, or, as it is perhaps more
commonly known amongst us, Shiraz, wine. A genuine wine is
distinguished by great richness, a lively purple colour, and a special
bouquet; and it becomes, by these united qualities, the best wine of
this region.
Turning to the German wines, those of the Rheingau must claim our
attention. This district borders on the Rhine, and it is said that the
river acts as a mirror, in reflecting the rays of the sun towards the
vineyards. The Rheingau must not be confused with the district of
Hochheim, which is situated on the Maine. Yet it is curious that the
first syllable of the latter district (Hochheim) has furnished the
monosyllabic English word Hock, under which are confused ALL the Rhine
wines. Amongst the wines of the Rheingau may be enumerated Steinberg,
Marcobrunner, and Johannisberg. With regard to the wines of the
Rheingau, Mr. Henry Vizetelly observes: "Although the flavour and
bouquet of the grand wines of the Rheingau are equally pronounced, it
is exceedingly difficult to characterise them with precision. After
gratifying the sense of smell with the fragrant odour which they evolve
--and which is no mere evanescent essence vanishing as soon as
recognised, but often a rich odour which almost scents the surrounding
atmosphere--you proceed to taste the vine, and seem to sip the aroma
exhaled by it. Now and then you are conscious of a refilled pungent
flavour, and at other times of a slight racy sharpness, while the
after-taste generally suggests more of an almond flavour than any other
you can call to mind. No wines vary so much in their finer qualities as
the grand growths of the Rheingau. The produce of a particular
vineyard, although from the same species of grape, cultivated under
precisely similar conditions, will differ materially in flavour and
bouquet, not merely in bad and good years, but in vintages of equal
excellence. Moreover, these wines need the most skilful cellar
treatment during the long years they are maturing. All great wines, it
should be remembered, ripen slowly, and cannot be 'pasturised' into
perfection--that is to say, cannot be rapidly matured by heating them
to a certain temperature, as ordinary wines may be."
The Hochheim vineyards are situated, as I have previously indicated, on
the banks of the Maine, several miles above its confluence with the
Rhine. There is one exceptionally fine Hochheim growth which comes from
the vineyard of the "Dechanei," or deanery. True Hochheinner is a
remarkably aromatic wine, and possesses both body and fire. Indeed, it
contains as large a percentage of alcohol as the so-called noble
Steinberger--the most spirituous of the Rhenish growths--with more
sweetness. It consequently lacks that subdued acidulous freshness of
flavour which is such a marked characteristic of the wines of the
Rheingau.
Some reference to sherry and port is necessary, because they are both
types of wines that are widely known, and consequently ally remarks
concerning, them are of value by comparison. It would appear that with
most sherry, and certainly with all port, there is an addition of
alcohol to the wine. Even the wines which are sold in England under the
name of "natural sherry" contain from 13.2 to 15.5 per cent. of
alcohol. Beyond all question, therefore, from 1 1/2 to 3 1/2 per cent.
of alcohol must have been added, for no "natural sherry" should ever
contain more than 12 per cent. of alcohol. Some sherries, however, have
been introduced with an alcoholicity of from 12 to 13.6 per cent., with
the following, characters: The taste is freely vinous, rich, pure,
mellow, and quite free from heat or the taste of added spirit. But
fashion has much to do with the type of sherry in request; thus the
colour has varied from time to time. In the same way, too, a taste for
dry sherries arose with the Manzanilla epoch, only to be
carried to excess. As with all other wines, a certain age in sherry is
desirable; the ethers become developed during this period, and impart a
rich flavour to it. In the course of time, however, sherry falls off so
much that it is only fit for giving flavour to young wine.
In the matter of port, also, it may confidently be asserted that not a
single drop is sold that does not contain a certain amount of added
brandy. That is to say, all port wine, without exception, is brandied.
The effect of the brandy is to keep the wine quiet; it prevents it from
undergoing any fermentation; and, what is more, it keeps it from
changing, no matter whether the climate be hot or cold. Messrs.
Thudicum and Dupre state that a perfectly natural port has 9 per cent.
of alcohol as the lowest, and 13.8 per cent. as the highest limit.
A sample of Alto Douro wine submitted to these gentlemen, although it
was slightly alcoholised, yet possessed the following desirable
qualities: it was fine, because it was derived from the finest and
ripest Alto Douro grapes, the Verdeilho and Bastardo; it was full,
owing to its great vinosity and high amount of natural alcohol, yet
free from adventitious syrup; and it was pure, because free from all
those faults which depreciate so many southern wines, such as the
fousel flavour, or the burning taste of distilled spirit. Besides all
these great qualities, it characteristically possessed the very essence
of an ideal port wine flavour--without the saccharine and spirituous
taste commonly found in port wine--and it had a natural smooth
astringency such as pleases the palate and imparts keeping qualities.
Moreover, it was very unlike the artificial sweet and burning products
commonly called port wine. It was thoroughly fermented, and contained
such a minute quantity of grape sugar that the latter could not be
possibly detected by the taste. It was perfectly dry, and thereby
differed entirely from ordinary port wines, which contain from 2 to 6
per cent. of sugar. Its alcoholicity was certainly below all the port
wines usually sold. With all these desirable qualities, therefore, it
possessed high dietetic and hygienic virtues, and refreshed the system
like Burgundy or Medoc wine.
It will be convenient to make reference here to two terms about which
there is a great deal of confusion. It is the difference between the
"aroma" and the "bouquet" of wine. Now, the Settimana Vinicola has
recently well observed that although these two are usually supposed to
be the same, yet they are entirely different. The aroma of a wine is
altogether distinct from those agreeable and delicate odours known by
the name of "bouquet." For instance, some American grapes have what is
called a "foxy" smell, and the wine prepared from them has this aroma,
which is perceptibly disagreeable. Aroma pre-exists in certain grapes,
and during vinification will pass into the resulting wine. On the other
hand, perfume, the bouquet of the French, as it has been pointed out by
Professor G. Grazzi-Soncini, is the complex sensation produced
simultaneously on the palate and nose, owing to the intimate connection
between these two organs, and which has already been referred to. This
bouquet is due to the action of the ethers, which are formed during the
life of the wine. The CORRIERE DEL VILLAGIO remarks, in addition to the
preceding, that there is a chemical difference between the "aroma" and
the "bouquet" of wine. The former is produced chiefly by one or more
carburets of hydrogen, and their oxidation derivatives. The bouquet,
however, results from the admixture of aldehydes with one or more
essential oils and various ethers, produced by combination of fatty and
other acids with ethylic and other alcohols, and from these
changes result the different ethers which constitute the bouquet of
wine.
One of the most valuable books published on vine-growing and wine-making
is that by the justly celebrated Dr. Jules Guyot. The greater
part of one particularly important chapter is wholly taken up with the
most graphic and lucid description of wine-tasting with which we are
acquainted. Besides this, it contains such an amount of information on
the subject, that no remarks in this connection would be complete
without reference to it. For the following vivid rendering of a good
deal of this very chapter I am very much indebted to my friend Dr. John
Steel, of Sydney:--
"Wine put upon its trial is subjected to two jurisdictions; the one
altogether belonging to the senses, the other wholly physiological. The
appreciation of wine by the senses is referred to three of our organs
of sense--the eye; the nasal chambers, in front and behind; and the
mouth, equally at its anterior and posterior part.
"WINE JUDGED BY THE SIGHT.--Wine pleases the eye by its clearness and
colour: and be it ruby, rose, amber, or white, it ought always to have
perfect clearness and freshness of colour. Neither of these latter
tones will be out of harmony in a really good wine, even in extreme old
age. If you will not take upon yourself to decide whether a wine is
good when it is attractive to the sight, you can always say that it is
not good or at least that it is not in the best condition, when its
transparency and shades of colour are questionable. Freshness of colour
and clearness are good signs. Though they are not to be regarded as
qualities, yet any appearance to the contrary betokens real defects in
the wine.
"WINE JUDGED BY THE SENSE OF SMELL; THE TWO ODOURS OF WINE.--Wine
reveals itself by two sorts of odours (the aroma and the bouquet) to
the outer organ of smell--that is to say, when that sense is exercised
by inhaling (or sniffing) the wine. The first, or aroma, is the general
and common odour peculiar to most wines. It is always strongest when
the wine is newest, but it always characterises good wine, however old
it may be. This first odour seems to be due to the volatilization of
the spirit, which holds in solution an essential oil, more or less
volatile, more or less powerful, and more or less characteristic of
each kind of wine. This aroma is a sign of real quality in the wine,
and is generally very strong and very noticeable during the first
years; it becomes concentrated, refined, and attenuated as the
wine ages. The second kind of odour the bouquet, on the contrary, is
developed with age, and would appear to be owing to the reaction of
vinous acids on the spirit, which gives rise to certain ethereal
combinations.
"WINES ARE NOT MADE CHIEFLY TO PLEASE THE SENSES OF SIGHT AND SMELL--
Aroma, like colour, is a favourable or unfavourable sign, agreeable or
disagreeable. Yet before everything wine is a nourishing beverage. It
is a very good thing that sight and smell should be gratified in this
way, but it would be puerile and ridiculous to exalt beyond measure the
importance of these organs of sense; and to pretend that the
superiority of wine rests almost exclusively on the pleasurable
impressions which are derived therefrom. I have seen many hosts bother
their guests with vexatious insistence to look at, hold up to the
light, sniff their wine, even the empty glasses, almost throughout the
whole duration of a banquet--at the risk of making them well nigh die
of thirst. The true amateur, the wine-taster, knows perfectly well how
to look at and how to smell his wine; but he knows full well also that
these two preliminaries ought to be immediately followed by the taking
of the fluid into the front part of the mouth. Colour and smell are
merely two notes introductory to a gastronomic theme; if they are only
by themselves they lose their relative value, and the theme is not
properly understood.
"WINE JUDGED BY TASTE; THAT IS, BY THE MOUTH AT ITS ANTERIOR AND
POSTERIOR PART.--Before speaking of the impression wine gives to the
sense of taste, I ought to say that this sense is the only one in the
animal organization which possesses a double apparatus for perception--
one at the tip and edges of the tongue, the other at its root and at
the soft palate. The first perceives acid or electro-positive tastes
through the two lingual nerves; the second detects alkaline tastes by
the two glosso-pharyngeal nerves. Tastes perceived by the front part of
the mouth, in the case of liquids as well as solids, are not the same
as those discriminated by the back part of the mouth. An alkaline salt,
for instance, gives to the front part an acid, styptic, salt, or sweet
taste, but communicates to the posterior part a basic, bitter, or
saponaceous taste.
"WINE-TASTING PROPERLY SO CALLED.--Wine taken into the front part of
the mouth gives rise to acid, sweet, and styptic tastes at the outer
edges and tip of the tongue. All shades, in harmony, ought to give a
pleasing sensation to the organ, when neither acidity, sweetness, nor
astringency predominates. Next we pass the wine to the posterior part
of the mouth, and delay it there by a kind of gargling. It is now that
we get the smack of the soil, the taste of cask or wood, the insipidity
of salts, or any bitterness. If the whole effect is pleasing to the
back part of the mouth, with the absence of all disagreeable
impressions, we must, to put the finishing touch on the wine-tasting,
not spit it out, but swallow it. As soon as the wine has passed over
the root of the tongue and the soft palate and its pillars, a most
pronounced odour ascends from the pharynx into the nasal cavities, and
gives forth newer and more powerful revelations, AS to the qualities or
defects of the bouquet of wine, than can ever be obtained by the
outward sense of smell. Moreover, the last contact of wine with the
mucous membrane of the pharynx and of the base of the tongue leaves a
lasting impression of taste, and when this sensation is disagreeable it
is designated under the collective name of 'after-taste.'
"GOOD AND BAD WINE JUDGED BY THE SENSES.--If, then, a wine possesses
perfect clearness and freshness of colour, if it has an agreeable
odour, if the combined effect of the acid, sweet, and astringent tastes
is gratifying to the anterior part of the mouth by a fusion, seeming to
form a unique taste like many notes in a complete harmony; if to this
harmonious impression the back part of the mouth adds a feeling of glow
and vinous richness, without alcohol being noticed; and if, at last,
the act of swallowing crowns the whole with a natural bouquet, not
followed by any 'after-taste,' we may pronounce the wine to be good as
judged by the senses. But, on the other hand, the wine is
unsatisfactory if it fail in any of these points. It will be inferior
in proportion as the acids, sugar, and the salts become individually
perceived by the tip of the tongue. Again, it is imperfect when the
chilliness, flatness, the essential oils, the taste of earth and of
cask, and above all, an excess of froe spirit, are manifestly noticed
at the base of that organ. And lastly, it is defective just as the
'ARRIERE BOUQUET' is less pleasant, and the 'after-taste' more
disagreeably prolonged.
"THE DIFFICULTY OF JUDGING BY TASTES.--In this unfolding of the
process of wine-tasting I have endeavoured to be clear, and yet I feel
I have not been sufficiently so. It will be impossible to judge by
tastes until science has laid down signs or words representative of
their quality, of their stamp, or of their harmonious relations. The
science of tastes has yet to be founded. Till then, chefs de cuisine
and the clever caterers for banquets will remain isolated geniuses or
empirics; while, as regards wine-tasters and gastronomists, they
approve or they criticise, but they do not establish any rules. It
would be a curious collection that would comprise all the expressions
used by wine-tasters, wine-merchants, commercial travellers, amateurs
(by far, indeed, the most numerous class), to express the feelings they
experience in tasting wines. I know an English traveller who only liked
a wine when it caused a 'peacock's tail in the mouth'; and
everybody knows the expression of the Auvergnian drinking a glass of
generous old wine--'It's a yard of velvet going down the throat.'
"THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF WINES.--The inhabitants of a beer-drinking
or spirit-drinking country will never possess the vivacity of
wit and the light-heartedness of those who live in a wine-producing
land. It is not by any means the alcohol in itself which constitutes
the worth and goodness of wine, for beer may contain as much, and
spirits certainly contain more. To be more or less spirituous does not
constitute good wine. All natural wine is good, whether it be strong or
weak in spirit, if it keeps its organic life. It is good, too, if it
reveals itself by a fresh odour, by a union of all its elements in a
taste harmonious to the palate, by being easily digested, and by
causing greater activity of body and mind, and a sensible augmentation
of muscular force. Be the taste of the wine fresh, sharp, or delicate;
be it soft, unctuous, or rich; be it acid or strong, the wine is good
if it supports and increases the forces of body and mind, without
wearing out the digestive Organs.
"WINE IS GOOD RELATIVELY AND NOT ABSOLUTELY. WE OUGHT TO HAVE BEFORE
EVERYTHING GOOD COMMON WINES.--A wine is good according to the use to
which we put it. Even an excellent liqueur or dessert vine is
undesirable and out of place for ordinary drinking purposes or for
nourishment. We must distinguish between wines for ordinary use, those
for side dishes (ENTREMETS), and those for dessert. And these again
should be differentiated into wines for small, medium, or large
glasses, relatively, proportional to the quantity which we can or ought
to drink. A good cake is always good if we only eat a little at a time,
and seldom take it; but bread is infinitely better and preferred by
everybody to eating cake always. It is vastly more important to have
good ordinary wines than to have good VINS D'ENTREMETS or good liqueur
wines. And, indeed, this very matter affects the total consumption
within and out of France, and the interests of producer and consumer,
as well as the interests of public hygiene. Good ordinary wine,
alimentary wine--for wine is a real and excellent food--by no means a
wine strong in spirit, nor is it a wine of great age; but it is a wine
of fine CEPAGE, not going beyond 10 per cent. of spirit, or even 6 per
cent."
UNIFORMITY IN AUSTRALIAN WINES.
This is a subject the importance of which cannot be over estimated. And
it is one markedly calling for consideration, as there have been, and
still are, grounds for complaint in this direction. It will be
advisable, therefore, to look well into the question, because it will
amply repay the trouble bestowed upon it. First of all, then, let us
refer to the remarks of Mr. Francois de Castella, the author of the
Handbook on Viticulture for Victoria. He points out that in each
district there will be one class of wine which will surpass all others
in excellence, and that this is the type which the grower should
produce. All the vine-growers in any one district should endeavour to
make their wines of the type specially adapted for that particular
district; and of course the type will vary in different districts. In
this way, and only in this way, will it be possible for the public to
obtain an unvarying article.
At the present time there are in each district a number of wines
possessing various names, such as Hermitage, Shiraz, Carbenet,
Burgundy, Chasselas, Riesling, Tokay, &c., but these names actually
mean nothing. Each district should produce a different type of wine. A
Riesling from the Yarra and a Riesling from the Murray are as distinct
as Hock and Sherry. Mr. de Castella further advises that each vine-grower
should join the Vine-Growers' Association in his locality. In
this way the members of each district can agree amongst themselves to
produce one class of wine, or at most two--say one white and one red.
Instead of the same names being applied to entirely different wines,
the nine will come to be known by the name of the district in which it
is produced. One will then be able to have some idea of the contents of
a bottle, from the label upon it. At present the name on the bottle is
no indication whatever of the wine within; indeed, the same name is on
the outside of many totally distinct wines. This change must assuredly
come, and the sooner it does the better for Australian wines.
Mr. Pownall, in the course of his evidence before the Royal Commission
on Vegetable Products in Victoria, also drew attention to this
same want of uniformity. He believed that each vineyard ought to aim at
making a standard quality of wine, so that wine-merchants might know
what to expect from that vineyard. The wines throughout Australia
should likewise, as far as possible, bear uniform names. He stated that
he had met wines in various vineyards grown from the same grape, and
called by different names; and though this might seem a trivial matter,
yet it led to endless confusion. Moreover, it should not be permitted
to continue, especially as it could be so easily rectified.
It must be said, however, that at the Great Western district, in
Victoria, a start has been made in the right direction. A report on the
vineyards of that locality referred to the gratifying fact that a
marked tendency existed towards the adoption of a rational nomenclature
of wines. Many of the leading growers were confining themselves to one
red and one white wine. Some of them called their wine by the name of
the vineyard, adding the words Hock, Chablis, Claret, &c. after them.
This is unquestionably so far an improvement, and it is to be hoped
that before long the wine will be known by the name of the vineyard or
district, and by nothing else.
Mr. James Smith has also strongly insisted upon the supreme importance
of this uniformity, especially as regards the quality of the wine. And
this is perfectly true. The quality of any particular wine is solely
dependent upon the season, but the produce of any given vineyard should
surely possess, as he remarks, a distinctive CACHET, by which the
palate is enabled to recognise it. For instance, an expert would not
fail to distinguish between a Chateau Margaux and a Chateau Lafitte,
nor between a Chateau Latour and a Haut Brion. Notwithstanding the
different vintages, there is always a uniformity and continuity of
flavour maintained through all these great growths. But in the case of
our Australian wines there is a lamentable difference. Wines of
the same denomination and from the same grower DIFFER SO MATERIALLY one
year from those bearing a similar name, and coming from the same
cellar, in another, that it is difficult to believe they are the same.
As Mr. Smith justly observes, this is an unpardonable defect in the
estimation of connoisseurs; more especially such as attach themselves
to a particular kind of wine, and naturally drink it by preference.
Constancy of type should be unremittingly aimed at by the vigneron. And
this can only be possible by continuous attention to each individual
factor concerned in vine-growing and wine-making.
THE FUTURE SUCCESS OF THE AUSTRALIAN WINE INDUSTRY--AND UPON WHAT IT
DEPENDS.
Figures help us considerably more than words in enforcing a proper idea
of the magnitude to which the Australian wine industry should develop.
It will be appropriate, therefore, to preface this portion by bringing
forward a few speculative data. In an earlier part of this chapter it
was stated that the city of Paris alone requires nearly 300,000 gallons
of wine daily, and that this single city would consume in 12 days all
the wine which the whole of Australia takes 12 MONTHS to make. The
population of Paris is nearly two and a half millions, while that of
Australia is three millions odd. By considering these together it will
be seen that the wine which it takes over three million people all the
year to make, lasts another two and a half million people only 12 days.
Now, the total annual wine yield of Australia, including both that used
here and that which is exported, is only worth about 800,000 L. It
follows from the foregoing, then, that Paris will in 12 days consume
about 800,000 L. worth of wine, and for the whole year the Parisian
figures for wine consumption will reach to something like 20,000,000 L.
Let us suppose that Australia were only a wine-drinking community, as
her climate unceasingly calls for. It would be fair to assume that her
yearly wine bill would be in accordance with the following rule of
proportion. If Paris with her two and a half millions annually consumes
wine to the amount of 20,000,000 L., then Australia with her three
millions odd would surely require for her own use at least 20,000,000
l. worth year by year. And when it is remembered in addition that the
export trade should be enormously in excess of any local requirements,
it will readily be see what a magnificent future only awaits its
calling into being.
We cannot hope that our Australian wines will take a high place amongst
those of the world as long as they are not in general use by our own
people. There can be no keener reproach than to have it said: "Why,
even the Australians themselves do not drink their own wines." And this
is regrettedly the fact. It is necessary, therefore, that first of all
our people should take a very deep interest in all the details
connected with vine-growing and wine-making, and thus give some
encouragement to those who are doing their best to establish what will
ultimately become Australia's brightest glory. And it will be a good
thing for this land when a knowledge of every point in the growing of
the grape, and every step in the making of the wine, becomes part and
parcel of our daily life. The very hoardings of our streets are covered
with advertisements of countless brands of whisky, and of numberless
varieties of ale. But those setting forth the virtues of our wines are
conspicuous by their absence. It would seem that Australia, where our
own wine should be the national beverage, is almost the last country in
which to find it.
It may be asked, what are the reasons which lead to this disregard of
the virtues possessed by our own wines? The reply to this
question is not an easy matter, but I shall endeavour to answer it to
the best of my ability. The probability is, if a dozen people were
asked, at random, why Australian wine is so little used in Australia,
that at least that number of different explanations would be
forthcoming. The truth, however, is more likely to be found in a
combination of reasons, rather than from any one single cause. These
are obviously worth considering, from the very fact that the knowing of
what they consist is of the first importance in rectifying them.
I shall begin, then, by saving that the label on the bottle has much to
answer for, in that it is misleading. It does not give any idea of what
is to be found inside. Thus the word Riesling, on one bottle, may be
attached to a wine grown on the Hunter, in New South Wales, and on
another to a wine from the Yarra, in Victoria. It is true that the wine
from these two places may be grown from the same "cepage." But while
the river Yarra wine will contain perhaps 11 per cent. of alcohol, that
from the Hunter River will have quite 20 per cent.--so much does an
increase in the warmth of the climate increase the alcoholic strength
of the wine.
And while we are on the subject of labels, I must certainly take
exception to the unattractive character of those employed on the
bottles of our Australian wines. There is no reason whatever why a
little consideration should not be paid to the artistic sense in this
respect. Our wine merchants, it would appear, fail to understand the
selling power which belongs to the "get-up" of the label on a wine
bottle. I feel sure this attractiveness has a great deal to do with the
success of many products, notably in the case of the American preserved
fruits. Some of these are labelled in a manner which is creditable in
the highest degree--and what is more, from a practical point, it is no
unimportant factor in their huge sale.
Then again, there is that want of uniformity which Mr. James Smith has
so ably descanted upon, and to which I have already referred. It is bad
enough to have a wine labelled Riesling, or whatever it may be, from
one place differing entirely from a wine of the same name which comes
from some other locality. But it is a far more serious defect when the
wine of any particular place one year differs entirely from the same
wine coming from the same locality at another. For the same variety of
wine, of the same vineyard, thus to vary, year by year, is simply
unpardonable. This must not be allowed to continue, for while it exists
Australian nines will always be subject to reproach--a reproach,
indeed, which cannot be explained away.
And while dealing with these shortcomings I propose to speak of another
matter, which is by no means unimportant. I refer to the size of the
bottle. It has frequently happened that visitors to Australia hare said
to me, "I should very much like--indeed, I am anxious--to try your
Australian wines; but unfortunately I cannot drink a whole bottle at
table, and I am unable to obtain less." Now, this is undoubtedly a
grievance, and should be overcome in some way; either by putting up a
portion of our wines in smaller bottles, or else by making some
arrangement so that a smaller quantity may be obtained. Since these
lines were written, however, it is very pleasing to record the fact
that one enterprising firm in Sydney has taken a highly commendable
step in this very direction; and already smaller bottles of Australian
wine may be obtained for the low prices of 6d. and 9d.
Up to this point I have made no remarks with regard to the knowledge of
wine possessed by the majority of Australians, and yet in many respects
it is the most important of all. They are not called upon to pronounce
an opinion upon a wine, such as would be looked for from an
expert. But I do think it is very desirable that they should know, at
least, the kind of wine that is suitable for Australian use. Once this
is accomplished, and it is by no means difficult to learn, a great deal
will have been achieved. It is quite a mistake to imagine that the
value of a wine increases with its strength, and that the stronger a
wine is, the more valuable it becomes. Even in Europe itself strong
wines are going out of fashion, and lighter ones are taking their
place. People much prefer a light wine, of which they can take a fair
amount and quench their thirst, in preference to a strong wine of the
port or sherry type, of which they can only take a small wineglassful.
But in Australia, the very place where one would expect a demand for
all lighter wines, the taste for strong wines as the rule. This is
another striking example of the same antagonism to climatic environment
which is found all through our food habits. A light wine is the wine
above all others which should be most sought after. What Australia
requires as a national beverage is a wine of low alcoholic strength. It
should be so cheap as to come within the easy every-day reach of all
classes. And finally, it should take the place of all other liquids,
since it is essentially wholesome, hygienic, restorative, and cheering.
The reputation of Australian wines in the English market has hitherto
been damaged to a considerable extent by the practices which have been
followed on the part of some of the large buyers. But before referring
to these proceedings, to which Mr. Hans Irvine, of the Great Western
Vineyard, in Victoria, has so properly and powerfully drawn attention,
it must be distinctly understood that any subsequent remarks do not
apply to all the London wine-merchants. On the contrary, there are many
whose characters are irreproachable, and whose integrity is above
suspicion. By clearing the ground in this way one is enabled to
protest against the treatment which Australian wine receives in London,
without levelling charges against estimable men, who command respect,
and who deserve the gratitude of all Australians for their fair
dealings.
Well then, most of our wines purchased by English buyers have been
those of full-bodied, crude, and coarse young wines, containing a great
amount of alcohol. Two reasons have been assigned for this proceeding;
the first being that Australian wines would not bear the voyage unless
they were sufficiently strong; and the second, that in England the
demand was more particularly for such a class of wine. But many of
these firms are utterly ignorant of any special knowledge as to
treating the finer and more delicate wines. It has suited these buyers
to deal only with the stronger wines, as they are the more secured from
any loss or trouble. For the fact is, these wines, while being of a
greater alcoholic strength, are really of most excellent character and
quality. And besides this, they release certain customers, whose idea
of a good wine--even at the present time--is a wine of great body and
strength, and not so much one with that delicacy of character and
bouquet which the finer wines possess.
Some of the merchants, having but little bother with the heavier wines,
have encouraged their sale to as great an extent as possible. From this
it follows that those who prefer and habitually drink a better class of
wine have never had the opportunity of becoming acquainted with the
magnificent wines which Australia can supply. As Mr. Irvine tells us,
the higher types of fine, light, delicate, dry wines, with a richness
of bouquet, such as most districts in Australia are capable of
producing, are the kinds of wine we must look forward to for
establishing a name and fame for our produce. It is not too much to
assert that before very long Australia will be able to supply
wines whose quality will rival the choicest vintages of the most famous
vineyards of Europe. Even as it is, the delicacy of bouquet and
excellent characters of many of the Australian red and white wines have
fairly astonished connoisseurs on being submitted to them.
It seems a thousand pities, then, that such misconception should exist
with regard to our wines. And quite undeservedly so, for as a matter of
fact these lighter wines are most unfairly neglected. They simply
require to be properly fined and carefully attended to. The casks in
which they are shipped should be thoroughly cleansed and treated before
being filled, in order to take out any taint of spirits they may
contain; or any excess of tannin, which is always present in Dew wood.
If these different matters be looked to they will improve to a
wonderful extent on the voyage, and after being allowed a week or
fortnight's rest on arrival, they will be found in a highly
satisfactory condition. After this time these delicate wines of a low
alcoholic strength require to be duly cared for. But they are worth a
little extra attention, for it is absolutely certain that through them,
and through them alone, will our Australian wines be accorded the merit
and the appreciation which they so undoubtedly deserve.
It must not be imagined, however, that the foregoing is the only
handicap which Australian wine has to carry. In other cases there are
many reprehensible proceedings adopted, which irretrievably injure the
reputation of our wines in the English market. Some of the inferior
wines are shipped home and "restored," by blending them with full,
heavy, rich wines from warmer districts. When "clothed" in this way,
their imperfections are for a time hidden, but the bad soon
contaminates the whole. It is true that a good, sound, and well-made
wine improves with age. But with these "restored" and "clothed"
wines the reverse happens, and they become worse and worse by keeping.
Then again, many of the widely advertised Australian wines in the old
country are sold too young; and unfortunately these young wines
constitute the bulk of the trade done with England. They are bottled
when too green and crude, and have not been given a sufficient time in
cask to develop into high-class wines. They must be allowed to acquire
a proper amount of cask ripeness, and if they were stored and attended
to for twelve months before being bottled they would vastly improve. In
some cases, also, wines are shipped from Australia before they are
twelve months old, and as they are usually fined, bottled, and sold as
soon as possible after arrival, it has actually happened that the
British public have repeatedly drunk wines that are hardly one year
old. Indeed, the wines are frequently bottled when in a state of
fermentation, consequently secondary fermentation goes on in the
bottle, and the bottles are often shattered by an explosion. And more
than this, they are often badly blended; they do not receive sufficient
care and attention; and they are not uncommonly in the hands of a few
men whose sole object is to make money.
There is still something further which is greatly prejudicial to the
fair name of Australian wine, and it is this: Many of the wine
merchants hold very small stocks, so that any one supply soon runs out
and is no longer obtainable. As a result it is urged against the wines
that they are not constant, and that it is impossible to procure the
same wine twice running. With larger stocks, too, there would be some
certainty that the wine was matured, as for example with a merchant
holding a three years' supply. In this case, also, the consumer would
be enabled to obtain a continued supply of any particular wine
to which he might have become attached.
My own belief, however, is that the most powerful impetus to our wine
industry will arise from the Australians themselves taking an interest
in all that concerns this great source of health, wealth, and
employment. I have said so before, and take this opportunity of saying
so again. Let our people take an active interest in every detail
connected with the growing of the grape, and with the making of the
wine! Let a light, wholesome wine, also, enter into the daily dietary
of the whole people! For the national drink for Australian use is
unquestionably a wine of low alcoholic strength; a wine of a sufficient
age to be free from any reproach of newness; and a wine possessing
those qualities which render it wholesome, beneficial, hygienic,
cheering, and restorative.
There are two other matters which require to be noticed before leaping
the whole subject of Australian wine. The first of these is a reference
to the establishment of Viticultural Colleges, and it is one of very
great importance, because it has much to do with the development of the
wine industry. Now, I am not one of those who look to the State for
everything, but it seems to me that if you recognise the necessity of
State education, you must at least equally recognise the necessity of
affording the youthful population of Australia the opportunity of
learning that which must eventually develop into the one distinctive
industry of this land. France at the present day, even with her
unrivalled reputation as the wine-growing country of the world, avails
herself of the advantages of Viticultural Colleges. Italy, also, by
means of their help is making strides in a manner actually bordering on
the miraculous. If these countries, then, in which vine-growing and
winemaking have been carried on for centuries find Viticultural
Colleges indispensable, how much more must a young country, with its
wine industry quite undeveloped, need them!
It must with confidence be said, therefore, that Australia cannot do
without these Viticultural Colleges. Something has already been done by
the establishment of Agricultural Colleges, and this is most
commendable. But what I believe is this, that a wine-grower must be a
wine-grower and nothing else. To know everything connected with the
growth of the grape and cellar management thoroughly is quite enough
for any ordinary man to attempt to master. Therefore viticulture must
either be made a distinctly separate course at the Agricultural
Colleges; or, what if better still, Viticultural Colleges must be
established for the purpose alone.
At Montpellier, in France, the course of viticultural education is
elaborately comprehensive, and includes the study of the anatomy of the
vine, its flowers, leaves, seeds, &c. The pupils become thoroughly
acquainted with every variety of wine in practical form; they see it
grow, learn the art of pruning, and of everything pertaining to the
growth of the vine. They also master all the details connected with
grafting, the laying out of vineyards, the diseases to which the vine
is liable, and the remedies which are most effectual. And, in addition,
there is minute instruction in every step in cellar management and the
after care and treatment of the wine itself, from the start to the
finish. In this way the subject is studied from a thoroughly scientific
standpoint, with a result that influences for good the whole of French
viticulture.
But if the benefits derived from the establishment of Viticultural
Colleges in France are thus remarkable, those which have followed their
introduction into Italy are nothing less than wonderful. The School of
Viticulture at Conegliano has been the means of increasing the
wine production of Italy to an incredible extent. In 1870 Italy
exported only 4,000,000 gallons of wine; yet in 1890, in the short
space of twenty years, this had risen to 88,000,000 gallons. This
school has taught the people to make good wine; it has induced people
who had never dreamt of it to plant vineyards; it hag led people to
plant them properly, since they were shown the way on a rational
principle; and lastly, they have thus learnt how to make wine on a
scientific basis. The course of study there is extremely severe, and as
a result all those who receive diplomas from it thoroughly understand
the cultivation of the vine and the management of the cellar. This
School of Viticulture has been such a phenomenal success that other
provinces of Italy brought pressure upon the Government. As a
consequence therefrom, secondary schools have been established at many
places, notably Gioia del Colle, Pozzuolo, Tmola, Avellino, Alda,
Catania, &c.
In conclusion, there is that other most important matter to which I
should like to draw attention. It is to advocate the establishment of
an Australian Wine-Growers' Association on a federal basis. The
advantage resulting from the formation of a strong Association, with a
numerically powerful membership roll, would be very great. Such an
organization would be well able to conduct a weekly paper of its own,
with contributors from all the different colonies. There would be no
dearth of literary material, for the whole subject is one teeming with
interest. Even now a substantial beginning has been made, and THE
AUSTRALIAN VIGNERON AND FRUIT-GROWERS JOURNAL is well deserving of
success, and is already doing good work in this very direction. And
besides the foregoing, an Intercolonial Wine-Growers' Congress should
meet annually at the different Australian metropolitan centres (Sydney,
Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, &c.), in rotation, where there
would be the opportunity of discussing theoretical questions, and of
tasting practical results. In all these many ways public interest in
the Australian wine industry would be continually sustained; and,
rising from its unfairly neglected position, it would speedily attain
to that pride of place which is manifestly its destiny.
PART II.
AUSTRALIAN COOKERY RECIPES AND ACCESSORY KITCHEN INFORMATION.
MRS. H. WICKEN.
Diplomee of the National Training School for Cookery, London; Lecturer
on Cookery to the Technical College, Sydney.
CHAPTER XIII. THE KITCHEN
Furnishing the kitchen is often looked upon as quite of secondary
importance; but, instead of being last and least, it ought to be first
and foremost, for a cook cannot be expected to send up a good dinner
without proper utensils, any more than a carpenter can turn out a piece
of furniture without proper tools. It is no doubt a great mistake to
have many things in use, for a bad servant will have every one dirty
before she begins to wash up, and a good servant will have a lot of
work in keeping them clean and in good order. There are a few utensils,
not at all expensive, which are a great aid to the cook and a saving of
time too, and yet from some cause or other are seldom found in an
ordinary kitchen. Before glancing at these we might consider what is
the best covering for the floor. There is no doubt that deal boards
well scrubbed look nicer than anything else, but to keep them spotless
involves a lot of labour, and as this is not always to be had, perhaps
the wisest plan is to cover it with oilcloth or linoleum; a good medium
quality can be bought for 3s. 3d. a square yard, and if properly laid
will last for years. By the way, it should not be washed, but only
rubbed with a damp cloth first and then with a piece of flannel dipped
in oil soda and scrubbing will ruin it very quickly. If the cupboard
accommodation is scanty the dresser should be bought with cupboards
underneath; in this case it will cost about three pounds, but if without
cupboards one pound ten shillings. A deal table is the best, and this must
be kept white with constant scrubbing; while the cookery is going on a
piece of oil baize might be laid over it. Pearson's carbolic sand soap
will remove any grease spots very quickly; the paste board and rolling pin
can also be kept white in the same way. It will be found an advantage
to have two or three French or butchers' knives for cooking purposes,
instead of using the dinner knives. These can be bought from 1s. 6d.
each; they are stronger and take a better edge than ordinary knives.
Wooden and iron spoons will be found cheaper and better than using
table spoons as these latter are soon ruined if used for stirring;
cookery spoons cost about 3d. each; two of each would be found
sufficient. A conical strainer is more convenient and useful than the
round ones so generally used. For mixing bowls the agate iron are the
best; they are a little more expensive in the first place than the
yellow earthenware, but they are unbreakable, and therefore cheaper in
the end; they cost about 4s. 6d. each. A small sausage machine is very
necessary, for by means of this useful contrivance many scraps of meat
and bread can be utilized; the cost of one is 10s. 6d. A pestle and
mortar, too, will be found of great use in making up odds and ends into
dainty tit-bits; these, too, cost about 10s. 6d. Wire and hair sieves
are invaluable for preparing soups and many other dishes; sieves with a
wooden rim will be found the most durable; they cost 2s. 6d. Each.
Agate iron saucepans are light and durable and very easy to keep clean;
they are much better than the blue enamelled ware, as they do not burn
so readily or chip so soon. Frying pans are nice, too, of the same
ware. A set each of wire and metal dish-covers must not be forgotten;
the latter should be of plain blocked tin, and as the fluted ones soon
get shabby, these should be well washed inside and out with scouring
soap and polished with Goddard's plate powder. A French fryer is
invaluable; it will cost 7s. 6d. Three or four pounds of dripping
clarified should be put at first; this will require straining. After
being used once or twice, the fryer should then be washed out with soda
water, well dried, and the fat put back; it can be renewed from
time to time with some fresh fat, and it will keep good for weeks. When
it looks very dark throw it away and start with a fresh lot of fat; it
can be used for fish, rissoles, fritters, &c., and one can never tell
that anything has been fried in it before, if it attains the right heat
before the FRITURE is put in. It should be between boiling water heat
(212 degrees) and boiling fat (600 degrees), 385 degrees being exactly
right, and can be tested by dropping in a small piece of bred. If it
browns instantly it is ready; whatever is put into it will fry in two or
three minutes. Food cooked in this way will not be so greasy and
indigestible as it often is if cooked in a frying pan.
And now, last and most important of all, the stove; for although we may
do without a great many things which are nice and useful to have,
without a stove it is impossible to cook well. It may be for gas, wood,
or coal, but it must act well. Gas stoves are extremely simple, clean,
and easy to use, there are no flues to get choked, and in towns where
gas is cheap it is no doubt the easiest and pleasantest heat to use. To
keep them clean and sweet they should be well washed inside and out
with soda and water at least once a week and polished with a little
Electric black lead. The flues of wood and coal stoves should be
thoroughly cleansed out once a week, and the oven cleansed with soap
and soda; this is very necessary work, for if the ovens are not clean
whatever is cooked in them will be spoilt. A little thoughtful care in
these matters will often prevent much trouble when cooking. Let a
housekeeper, therefore, thoroughly master her stove first, and
understand the flues and dampers, for only in this way will she be able
to successfully cook the dishes she has skilfully prepared. Cleanliness
and care in respect of the stove and kitchen utensils generally are as
necessary to success as knowing the right materials to use and how
to put them together, and every one who can cook a dinner
should also know how to clean and keep in good order the stove and all
culinary utensils. Order and neatness must reign in the kitchen as well
as in the drawing-room, and it will help greatly to bring about this
desirable state of affairs if all utensils are cleansed and put away
immediately they are finished with, for it is much easier to wash them
then than if left dirty for some time. As soon as the contents of a
saucepan have been dished, fill it with cold water, add a lump of soda,
and stand it on the stove till hot; it can then be washed up in a few
minutes. Plates and dishes should at once be put into a bowl of hot or
cold water; treat spoons and forks in the same way. Knives, wipe at
once, and clean as soon as possible. A damp cloth rubbed with Monkey
soap will do wonders in removing stains and dust; these, if left for a
time, are hard to get off, and the kitchen, which ought to be bright
and cheerful, soon has a greasy, dirty look.
Some of us can call to mind delightful old kitchens in country houses,
which were a pleasure and a joy to both mistress and maids, where
bright copper stewpans reflected the blazing fire on all sides, and
metal covers shone like mirrors; while as for "eating off the floor,"
one might certainly do it if so inclined, without the "peck of dirt" at
once.
How cosy and delightful everything seems in a kitchen like this, and
what visions can we not see of home-made bread and cakes, well-cooked
joints, succulent vegetables, delicious puddings, dainty dishes of all
kinds concocted with skilful fingers! And why should not these visions
turn into substantial realities? They will do so if women will consider
it a pleasure, instead of a degradation, to "look well to the ways of
her household," and establish a system of order and neatness
from cellar to garret. When this happy time comes she will be
"emancipated" from many cares and have more leisure to cultivate her
intellect than she has now. Surely "a study which helps" to make
cheerful homes and healthy, well-conducted, "prosperous citizens is
worth at least a trial."
CHAPTER XIV.
THE ICE CHEST
"An ice chest!" someone exclaims. "I should like to know how I am to
get that." Well, very easily indeed, if there is a will to have one,
for then the way is plain. A refrigerator years ago was perhaps only
obtainable by the wealthy, and regarded rightly by others as a
not-to-be-thought-of-luxury; but, thanks to the rapid development of
scientific knowledge, both ice and refrigerators are now within the
means of nearly all. The Americans in this led the way, and those in
the Central States would no more dream of being without ice during the
hot season, than they would of failure to take daily supplies of bread
and milk. In almost every home through bright and sunny Australia we
find a piano and a sewing machine, and yet either of these costs far
more than an ice chest, and perhaps as much to keep in repair as the
ice to fill it. Looking at it from many points of view, it ought to be
considered an indispensable article of furniture, and it has this great
advantage over many "household gods," that the first expense is the
last; for it never gets out of order, and lasts a lifetime; and this
cannot be said of many other pieces of furniture, which perhaps cost
more and yet are not so useful. In such a warm climate as this, where
for six months in the year our one desire is to keep cool, it must
certainly be worth while to secure a simple and inexpensive article
which will help us to attain this object. Looking at the matter from
the Domestic Economy point of view, we shall certainly decide at once
in favour of the purchase. Housekeepers, both young and experienced,
know how much food has to be thrown away because it will not
keep sweet for even a few hours in the hot season. All this waste is at
an end if there is ice about, as it will keep perishable food cool and
pleasant and ready for a second meal. Many odds and ends of vegetables,
fish, and meat can be turned into a dainty salad with the ice chest
which must have been thrown away without it. Thus the expense, not only
of the ice, but also of the chest, is soon saved, to say nothing of the
pleasure and enjoyment of the said salad, which one would so infinitely
rather have had than the chops and steaks so universally served.
Delicious little breakfast dishes can be concocted over night from the
remains of fish and meat served at tea and put down into the ice all
night. These are cooked in a few minutes in the morning, and form such
a pleasant change to the standing dish of eggs and bacon; and how proud
a good house-keeper will feel when her little dishes are enjoyed, and
she knows that they have cost nothing!--for the food would not have
kept, and must therefore have been thrown away if she had not possessed
an ice chest. This is only one instance of what may be accomplished,
but in the daily routine of work many more will be found. Think, for a
moment, of the state of the butter without ice on a hot day. Who does
not dread the sight of the liquid or greasy fat usually seen in the
butter-dish, and what a remote chance there is of enjoying a slice of
bread and butter with bread as hard and dry as a brickbat, and butter
running to oil? Put both into a refrigerator and note the difference.
Look at it, also, from the hygenic standpoint. Most people, save the
very strong and robust, lose their appetite during the hot season, and
therefore feel languid and weak. Give them dry bread and liquid butter,
and they can't touch a morsel; but with fresh bread, hard butter, and
some dainty tit-bit, kept in the ice also, placed before them, a good
meal is often enjoyed. Again, in cases of illness ice becomes
at once a necessity; and if it is at hand in the house and ready for
use much time and trouble will be saved, and suffering too, as the poor
invalid waits with what patience he can for the relief which is so
often brought with ice.
And now we come to the practical question of how we are to get it, and
how to keep it. There are several companies who undertake to deliver a
daily supply of ice in town and country at a very moderate price, about
sixpence a block of 10 lbs.; but when there is a larger demand for it,
it will very soon be supplied at even a cheaper rate. There is a very
simple little American invention which makes ice very quickly. It is
not by any means expensive, about 21. 2s. 0d., and is invaluable in
country districts away from the railway. Then for a refrigerator there
are several very simple chests which require only a small quantity of
ice to keep them charged. The smallest and cheapest is the Baldwin,
costing from 30s., and another is the Iceberg, which acts splendidly.
Unlike other machines, which are liable from their complicated
structure to get out of order, these are so simple that they require no
repairs, but only strict cleanliness to keep them in good order. They
should be well washed out with soap and soda at least once a week, and
care taken that no little bits of food are left in when the plate
containing the main part is removed, for these morsels will cause an
unpleasant smell and quickly taint anything that may be put in
afterwards. It is better not to break the ice up, but to put the whole
block in the refrigerator, and when once it is in to close the lid
securely and keep it closed. It is a good plan to put a piece of
newspaper over the block, as that forces the cold air down into the
lower chamber. The larger blocks will be found almost as cheap as the
small ones, as if carefully used they last much longer. No doubt, as
the desire for ice increases, smaller blocks, costing perhaps 2d., or
3d., will be made, or the present prices reduced to that
figure. This, to a great extent, is in the hands of the consumers, for
as soon as there is a more spirited demand some energetic firm will
arise and supply the want, and we shall have, not only cheaper ice, but
cheaper ice-chests too. Dr. Muskett has pointed out some of the
advantages of ice in his work on THE HEALTH AND DIET OF CHILDREN IN
AUSTRALIA, as will be seen from the following paragraph:--
"In our semi-tropical climate a dislike is often taken to butter, when
it is presented at breakfast in the form of semi-liquid grease. It
would require a person with the stomach of an ostrich to digest, to say
nothing of relish, such an oleaginous composition during our summer
months. But if this necessary and all-important article of diet can be
presented in an appetising form, what a desirable result is achieved!
The mass of the people--I am not referring to those who are well
endowed with wordly gifts--are apt to look upon the Ice Chest as a
luxury which is altogether beyond their means. But I am firmly
persuaded that if the price of ice were brought down to one halfpenny
per pound, and that if a company were formed to deliver such a small
quantity as six pounds per day, or every second day, it would be a
great boon, and, moreover, a wonderfully profitable speculation. A very
small and suitable Ice Chest could be constructed solely to preserve
the butter in a congealed and therefore palatable state, both to
children and to adults. The former would take it with great avidity,
and the benefit to health resulting therefrom would be incalculable.
Even in some of the better-class houses Ice is looked upon too much as
a luxury, and not as it should be, a necessity; indeed, the money saved
from gas during the summer months might well be expended on Ice."
CHAPTER XV.
THE STOCK POT.
The stock pot is indispensable to good cooking, and although many soups
and sauces can be made with water as a foundation, nearly all of them
are improved by using stock, and no cook who desires to achieve good
results should be without a basin of stock when she commences
operations in the morning. There are saucepans now called digesters,
which are most useful as stock pots, but any good-sized saucepan or
boiler will do very well indeed. This should be put on fresh every
morning with everything the larder contains that is suitable--such,
for instance, as the bones of fresh or cooked meat, poultry, or
rabbits. Never put in fat, as this can be rendered down for pastry and
frying, and only makes the stock greasy; always cover the bones with
cold water, but regulate the quantity by the material used. Put in cold
water with a teaspoonful of salt, and when it boils up, skim well; when
skimming, take an iron spoon and a basin of water, and dip the spoon in
the water each time the scum is removed; then put in the peppercorns
and vegetables. In very hot weather put peppercorns and a fagot of
herbs only, as the vegetables cause the stock to turn sour very soon;
peppercorns should always be used, as they impart a much pleasanter
flavour to soup than pepper. A fagot of herbs is made with a bay or
peach leaf, a sprig each of parsley, thyme, and marjoram tied together
with a piece of cotton. These herbs can be grown so easily if one has a
small garden, or even in a box, with very little care; they impart such
a pleasant flavour to soups and gravies. Leeks cut up with the green
tops and put into the stock pot instead of onions are very good.
Part of the onion skin left on makes a good colour, but it can
be coloured by burning half a teaspoonful of sugar in an old spoon, or
by a few drops of caramel--the recipe for which is given elsewhere.
All fresh meat and bones should be carefully trimmed and wiped with a
warm damp cloth before putting into the pot; when the stock has boiled,
stand the saucepan at the back of the stove and simmer slowly for at
least five or six hours. If strong stock is desired, leave the lid off
the saucepan for the last hour; the water will then evaporate and make
the stock richer. The stock should be strained through a hair sieve or
a colander, and should stand in a cool place till the next day. If it
has been carefully made it will be in a jelly; the fat can very easily
be removed with a spoon. It should finally be wiped with a damp cloth.
Removing the fat thoroughly is a most important item, for greasy soups
and sauces are most indigestible and unwholesome. If the stock has to
be used at once, remove the fat first with a spoon, and then pass
pieces of this paper lightly across the surface; these will absorb the
fat. A small piece of charcoal laid on top of the stock will prevent it
turning sour in the hot weather. With this basin of stock to work on,
many dainty tit-bits are possible which could not be made without it.
How often has the cookery book been searched for "something nice" and
laid down with a sigh when half a pint of gravy has been found
necessary to concoct the desired dainty! But with a basin of stock on
hand, all these things are procurable, and it certainly does not take
more than ten minutes to break up the bones, skim the pot, and strain
it, and last of all it costs nothing. In cases of sudden emergency,
when stock is wanted and is not to be had, the recipe for Quick Beef
Tea answers very well, using one quart of water instead of one pint,
and by adding a few vegetables; this is made in five minutes.
White soup is looked upon as quite a high-class soup, but it is just as
easy to make as any other kind. A piece of stewed veal or mutton, or a
boiled chicken, gives the stock at once, or the bones of mutton, veal,
or pork alone will form the foundation. Never throw away the water in
which carrots, parsnips, celery, or even cauliflowers have been boiled.
Vegetables contain a great deal of potash, which is a valuable food for
the blood. A great deal of this potash comes out in the water during
the process of cooking; if this liquor is used as a foundation for
soup, we utilize this. For this reason vegetable soups, and stews
containing plenty of vegetables, are such a good diet for anyone
suffering from or subject to diseases of the blood and bones. These
simple facts seem to be overlooked; but if Australia is to become in
the future, as we all hope it may, a power in the world second to none,
the wives and mothers of her husbands and sons must understand the
necessity of providing them with a diet which shall make them strong
and brave, and root out what now seems to be the curse of the land--
dyspepsia--brought on in a great measure by badly cooked and therefore
indigestible food. The remedy for this is in the hands of the women of
Australia, and if they will rise to their position and importance and
do their work with a high and holy motive, they will not find it the
drudgery it is often supposed to be. What does Owen Meredith say?--
"We may live without poetry, music, and art,
We may live without conscience, and live without heart,
We may live without friends, we may live without books,
But civilised man cannot live without cooks.
He may live without books--what is knowledge but grieving?
He may live without hope--what is hope but deceiving?
He may live without love--what is passion but pining?
But where is the man that can live without dining?"
CHAPTER XVI.
SOUP
Soup is a much neglected food; there are many excuses made for this--
one says it is "expensive", another it is "too much trouble" and "quite
unnecessary".
When once the principle of the stock pot is understood the first excuse
falls through, for in any ordinary households the stock can be made
from bones and trimmings of meat, and costs nothing. Neither does the
excuse of too much trouble hold good. Some little time must be devoted
to cooking, and soup will almost cook itself while other preparations
are going on, and it can be made at any time and just boiled up when
required. As for being unnecessary, that is quite a mistake. To give
the greatest amount of nourishment with the least trouble to the
digestive organs should be the study of every housekeeper, and soup is
a valuable aid in this respect. For weakly and delicate constitutions,
for the young and the aged, there is no better food, and for the busy
workers it is invaluable, for immediately after work the digestive
organs are not in a proper state to do hard work, and little soup
prepares the stomach for the more solid food to follow. It is quite a
mistake to suppose that a rich, heavy soup is necessary, and that a
large quantity must be taken. In either case, the effect would be to
take away the appetite, instead of which it is to stimulate and
encourage the appetite that the soup should be given.
Soup is a splendid restorative, and if given to any one suffering from
exhaustion or over fatigue will quickly restore strength, and be found
far better than any stimulant. Soup is often disliked because
it is greasy and served lukewarm; if the directions given in the
paragraph on the stock pot for removing the fat be carried out, it will
never be greasy, and if it is boiled up just before serving, it will be
hot. Allow half a pint of soup for each guest, have a warm tureen and
hot plates, and "try the effect".
CHAPTER XVII.
FIFTY RECIPES FOR SOUPS.
STOCK FROM BONES (FRESH BONES).
* Bones--3d.
*
* Vegetables--1d.
*
* Total Cost--4d.
*
Beef bones are the best for this stock; break them up very small with a
chopper, put them into a large saucepan and cover well with cold water,
add two teaspoonsful of salt, and when it boils up remove the scum
carefully, and put in one onion, one carrot, half a turnip, a little
piece of the outside stalk of celery, and one dozen peppercorns. Boil
steadily for six hours, or longer, then strain off through a colander
or sieve, and stand in a cool place till the next day. Carefully remove
the fat by directions given elsewhere, and it is ready for use.
This stock is a good foundation for all soups, gravies, and sauces. In
very hot weather omit all the vegetables.
STOCK FROM BONES (NO. 2)
The bones from all joints of meat, whether roasted or boiled, make
excellent stock. Beef bones are the best, but very good stock can be
made from mutton and veal bones. The bones and trimmings of all kinds
of poultry, game, and rabbits are also excellent, particularly for
soups that require a special flavour. To make this stock successfully
care must be taken to remove all pieces that may be burnt, as these
give the stock an unpleasant flavour. The bones must be chopped very
small, and well covered with cold water. When the pot boils put in a
teaspoonful of salt and skim well, then boil steadily for six
hours or longer; strain off and remove the fat, and it is ready for
use, but it is much better to let it stand till the next day before
converting it into soup or gravy.
FISH STOCK
Vegetables and Peppercorns--1d.
Fish for nearly all dishes is better if boned before cooking; it is
also economy to do this, as the bones can then be used for stock for
fish soups. These soups, although not well known here at present, are a
valuable food; they are easy to make, wholesome, and nourishing. After
the fillets of fish have been removed, directions for which are given
amongst the fish recipes, take the bones, wash them well in cold water,
and cut away any black substance that may be adhering to them. Break
them up and put into a saucepan with a teaspoonful of salt; when it
boils remove the scum and put in one dozen white peppercorns, a fagot of
herbs, one onion, and one carrot; boil steadily for two hours or
longer, strain through a sieve into a basin, and it is ready for use.
POT BOILINGS
Water in which meat of fish has been boiled should never be thrown
away, as it forms an excellent foundation for many soups and sauces
which might otherwise have to be made with water.
If a large quantity of water has been used, the boilings will be poor;
therefore, when the meat has been taken up, leave the pot on the fire
and let it boil quickly, without the lid, for an hour or so, then
strain off for use.
The water in which corned beef or pork has been cooked is generally too
salt for soups, but it should be stood away till cold, when a thick
cake of fat will be found on the top. Put this into a basin and
pour over it some boiling water; when it is cold again it can be used
for cakes and pastry. It makes an excellent and wholesome substitute
for butter in cooking.
VEAL STOCK
* Knuckle of Veal
*
* Peppercorns and Vegetables
*
* Total Cost--10d.
*
The butcher should chop the bones very small. Cut the meat across in
several places, lay it in a very clean stock pot, cover well with cold
water, and bring to the boil slowly; put in a dessertspoonful of salt,
and skim very carefully; draw away from the fire, place it where it
will boil steadily, put in 2 dozen white peppercorns, one onion stuck
with six cloves, and a fagot of herbs. This is made with a sprig each
of parsley, marjoram, and thyme, tied up with a bay or peach leaf; boil
steadily for six hours, and strain off.
This is the foundation for the best white soups and sauces; it is also
a very nutritious broth for invalids. The meat can be made hot again in
about half a pint of the stock and served with parsley butter sauce. A
recipe for this is given with the sauces.
BEEF STOCK
* Leg of Beef--9d.
*
* Vegetables--1d.
*
* Total Cost--10d.
*
The bone in this meat should be chopped small by the butcher. Remove
the marrow from the bones, and cut the meat into small pieces; put all
together into a stock pot or digester, cover well with cold water, and
bring it to the boil; add a dessertspoonful of salt; this will throw up
the scum, which must be carefully removed. When this has been
done put in 2 dozen peppercorns, an onion, and two carrots, draw away
from the fire and let it boil steadily for five or six hours or longer,
then strain off through a colander and stand away in a cool place.
This is the foundation for nearly all good brown soups. The bones
boiled again will make second stock, and the meat does very well for
brawn, a recipe for which is given amongst the meat dishes.
BEEF TEA--NO. 1
* 1 lb. Gravy Beef
*
* 1 pint water
*
* 3d.
*
Remove all fat and skin from the meat and put it twice through a
sausage machine or scrape it into a pulp with a sharp knife, pour over
the cold water, and let it stand for an hour. Pour it into a brown
baking jar and put it into a cool oven, and keep it below boiling point
for an hour or longer, according to the heat of the oven. It should
look brown, thick, and rich, when sufficiently cooked. Strain through a
colander, add salt to taste, and it is ready to serve.
QUICK BEEF TEA--NO. 2
* 1 lb Gravy Beef
*
* 1 pint water
*
* 3d.
*
Pass the meat twice through a sausage machine, put it into a saucepan,
pour over the cold water, and stand on the stove; stir constantly until
it comes to boiling point, but do not allow it to boil. As soon as it
changes colour from red to brown strain through a colander, add salt to
taste, and it is ready to serve.
RAW BEEF TEA.
1/4 lb Gravy Beef and 1 gill of Water
Scrape the meat to a pulp with a sharp knife, pour over it with water;
cover over and stand away for an hour. Strain off, and it is
ready. As this is given to an invalid in small quantities, very little
should be made at a time.
BEEF ESSENCE.
1 lb Gravy Beef--3d.
Mince the meat very small, put it into a brown baking jar, and cover
down with a closely-fitting lid or with brown paper. Stand in a
saucepan of boiling water for one hour, pour off the essence, add a
little salt, and it is ready.
MUTTON BROTH
4 or 5 scrags of Mutton and Shank Bones--6d
Carefully trim the scrags of mutton, remove the pith from the bones,
and wipe with a damp cloth; break these and the shank bones into very
small pieces; put them into an enamelled saucepan, well covered with
cold water; add a teaspoonful of salt, stand on the stove, and when it
boils up remove the scum very carefully. Add 1 dozen peppercorns, and
an onion and carrot, if vegetables are allowed the patient. Boil
steadily for eight or nine hours; the liquor should then be reduced to
one quart. Strain off, and, if possible, let it stand till quite cold;
it should then be in a jelly, and can be made hot as required. When
serving this to a convalescent a spoonful of rice or pearl barley well
washed in cold water and boiled in either stock or milk may be added.
COCK-A-LEEKIE SOUP
* 9 Leeks--3d.
*
* 1 set of Giblets
*
* 2 oz. Beef Dripping
*
* 3 quarts Water or Pot Boilings
*
* Salt and Peppercorns--4d.
*
* Total Cost--7d.
*
Wash and slice up the leeks into pieces about one inch long, put them
into a saucepan with the butter or dripping made thoroughly
hot; cover over and let them cook for half an hour, stirring
occasionally. While they are cooking clean the giblets thoroughly,
washing them first in hot and then in cold water. Cut open the gizzard,
remove the stones, and cleanse well. Cut them all up into small pieces
and put them into the saucepan with the leeks, pour over the boiling
water or liquor, put in the peppercorns tied in a piece of muslin, and
a piece of bacon rind if there is any in the larder. Let it simmer
slowly for three hours; if not brown enough add a few drops of caramel,
take out the peppercorns and bacon rind, season to taste, pour into a
hot tureen and serve.
CABBAGE AND BACON SOUP
* 1 Cabbage--3d.
*
* 1 lb. Bacon--9d.
*
* 1 doz. Peppercorns
*
* 2 Turnips
*
* 1 Carrot
*
* 1 Onion
*
* Pieces of Stale Bread--1d.
*
* Total Cost--1s. 1d.
*
* Time--Three Hours and a Half
*
This soup is not as expensive as it appears, for the bacon is served as
a dish of meat, either after the soup or cold for breakfast or tea. Put
two quarts of water into a saucepan; when it boils put in a pound of
bacon neither too lean nor too fat. Let it boil slowly for one hour.
The bacon must be well washed and scraped before cooking, and when it
boils skim the pot thoroughly. Well wash the cabbage and soak it in hot
water for half an hour. Take all the water away and put the cabbage
into the saucepan with the bacon and vegetables cut up, and the
peppercorns tied in a piece of muslin; let them simmer together for two
and a half hours, take up the cabbage, and cut it into quarters. Take
one quarter and cut it into small pieces and put it into a soup
tureen. Cut some stale pieces of bread into thin slices and lay on the
top, pour over the boiling liquor, and serve. Dish the bacon, pull off
the rind, and put the rest of the cabbage round the dish.
ITALIAN SOUP
* 2 oz. Macaroni--1 1/2d.
*
* 2 quarts Water or Pot Boilings
*
* 2 Tomatoes
*
* 1 oz. Butter
*
* 2 oz. Cheese Rind--1 1/2d.
*
* Total Cost--3 d.
*
* Time--Half an Hour.
*
Put the water or stock on to boil, and when it boils put in the
macaroni and boil from twenty-five to thirty minutes. While it is
boiling grate up a dry piece of cheese. Put the tomatoes into boiling
water and remove the skin, slice them up and put them into a saucepan
with the butter and some pepper and salt, and cook them for a few
minutes. When the macaroni is soft, cut it into pieces one inch long,
put a layer of tomatoes at the bottom of the soup tureen, then a layer
of grated cheese, then one of macaroni; repeat this until all the
materials are used up, pour over it boiling the liquor in which the
macaroni has been cooked, cover down for a few minutes, and serve.
POT-AU-FEU
* 3 lbs. Leg of Beef--6d.
*
* 2 quarts Water
*
* 1 fagot of Herbs
*
* Salt and Pepper
*
* 2 Onions
*
* 2 Carrots
*
* 2 Turnips
*
* 1 doz. Peppercorns--1 1/2d.
*
* Total Cost--7 1/2 d.
*
* Time--Five Hours
*
Pot-au-feu is the national dish of France; it is cheap, nourishing and
palatable, and very simple to make. The slower it is cooked the better
it is; in fact, in this lies the whole secret of success, for
if it boils instead of simmering it is spoilt. Tie the meat up into a
nice shape with a piece of tape, put it into cold water, bring slowly
to the boil, and very carefully remove the scum; peel and slice up the
vegetables, and put them in with the fagot of herbs and the peppercorns
tied in a piece of muslin; bring to simmering point, and keep it so for
five hours. The liquor can then be served as a soup with part of the
vegetables and some sippets of toast. Take the tapes off the meat, and
serve with the rest of the vegetables round the dish as a border or
garnish. The remains of the beef can be pressed between heavy weights
till cold, or put into a brawn tin and served cold with a salad.
VERMICELLI SOUP
* 1 oz. Vermicelli--1d.
*
* Vegetables and Saffron
*
* 2 quarts Bone Stock--1d.
*
* Total Cost--2 d.
*
* Time--One Hour
*
The stock for this soup should be good and in a strong jelly when cold.
Put it into a saucepan with three or four threads of saffron, an onion
or leek stuck with six cloves, 1 dozen white peppercorns and some salt,
and boil all together for half an hour; then strain out the vegetables
and put it back into the saucepan. It should be of a bright straw
colour; if it is not, a thread more saffron may be added before
straining. Put in the vermicelli broken small, and simmer for twenty
minutes; it is then ready to serve.
MULLIGATAWNY SOUP
* 2 quarts Stock
*
* 1 Apple
*
* 1 Onion
*
* 1 Carrot--1d.
*
* 1/2 oz. Curry Powder
*
* 1 oz. Flour--1d.
*
* 1 oz. Butter--1d.
*
* Total Cost--3d.
*
* Time--One Hour
*
The liquor in which poultry or a rabbit has been boiled is the
best for this soup. Slice up the apple, onion, and carrot, and fry them
in the butter; sprinkle over the curry powder and flour and brown that
too; pour over the boiling stock and stir until it boils up, simmer
gently for one hour, then rub through a sieve and return to the
saucepan. Bring to the boil, flavour with salt and lemon juice. Pour
into a warm tureen and serve. Send well-boiled rice to the table with
this soup.
FRENCH SOUP
* 3 Potatoes
*
* 3 Carrots
*
* 2 Turnips--1 1/2d.
*
* 2 quarts Bone Stock
*
* Pepper
*
* 2 Onions
*
* 1/2 stalk Celery--1d.
*
* 1 oz. Butter--1d.
*
* 1 teaspoonful Sugar
*
* Salt--1/2d.
*
* Total Cost--4d.
*
* Time--One Hour.
*
Peel and slice up the vegetables and sprinkle them with the sugar and
salt, and put them into a saucepan with the butter, and sweat for five
minutes. Pour over the boiling stock and stir until it boils; boil
slowly for an hour, then rub through a sieve. If it is too thick,
reduce it with a little more stock or milk, return to a saucepan, and
bring to the boil. When tomatoes are in season slice up two with the
other vegetables; these will make the soup a good colour and improve
the flavour.
SAGO SOUP
* 3 oz. Sago--1d.
*
* 1 pint Milk--2 1/2d.
*
* 2 quarts Bone Stock
*
* 1 Leek
*
* Salt and Pepper--1/2d.
*
* Total Cost--4d.
*
* Time--Half an Hour.
*
Wash the sago in cold water, boil the leek in the stock for ten
minutes, take it out and stir in the sago; continue stirring until the
sago is transparent and the stock quite thick, then pour in the milk
and bring up to the boil. Season with salt and pepper, and serve.
CELERY SOUP
* 2 heads of Celery--2d.
*
* 2 quarts Pot Boilings
*
* 1 pint of Milk--2 1/2d.
*
* 1 oz. Sago--1/2d.
*
* Total Cost--5d.
*
* Time--One Hour
*
If vegetables have been boiled with the meat the stock will be
sufficiently flavoured; if not, boil an onion and carrot in it and
strain out. Wash the celery thoroughly and cut it into pieces one inch
long, put it into the boiling stock and boil for half an hour, then
sprinkle in 1 oz of sago and stir until it is transparent. Pour in the
milk and bring to boiling point; it is then ready to serve. This is an
excellent soup for any one suffering from or subject to rheumatism or
gout.
TURNIP AND RICE SOUP
* 4 Turnips--2d.
*
* 1/4 lb. Rice--1d.
*
* 2 quarts Water
*
* 1 pint Milk--2 1/2d.
*
* Onion and Salt--1/2d.
*
* Total Cost--6d.
*
* Time--One Hour and a Quarter
*
Peel and slice up the turnips, wash the rice and put into a saucepan
with the onion and 1 dozen white peppercorns. Pour over the water and
boil for an hour, rub through a sieve and return to the saucepan, with
the milk and a seasoning of salt and pepper; stir until it boils, then
pour into a warm tureen and sprinkle some chopped parsley on
top. This soup is much improved by putting one ounce of butter into the
water in which the rice and turnips are boiled.
TAPIOCA SOUP
* 2 oz. Tapioca--1d.
*
* 1 Onion
*
* 1 Carrot
*
* 3 quarts Bone Stock--1/2d.
*
Boil the onion and carrot in the stock for twenty minutes. If the stock
is not a good colour put in half a teaspoonful of burnt sugar. Strain
out the vegetables, wash the tapioca in cold water and stir it in;
continue stirring until the tapioca is quite clear, flavour with salt
and lemon juice, and serve very hot. This soup should be quite
transparent and of a bright brown colour.
WATER SOUCHET
* 6 Small Fish--1s.6d.
*
* Vegetables
*
* Salt and Pepper
*
* Lemon Juice--1d.
*
* Total Cost--1s. 7d.
*
* Time--One Hour and a Half.
*
Choose small fish of different kinds and fillet them. As only half the
fillets are wanted for the souchet, the rest may be dressed in another
way. Wash the bones in cold water and remove the black substance from
them, put them into two quarts of cold water with a teaspoonful of
salt, and when it boils remove the scum and add 1 dozen peppercorns,
one carrot, one small turnip, one onion, a small piece of celery, and a
fagot of herbs. Put the vegetables in whole. Boil this together for one
hour, then strain off through a hair sieve and return to the saucepan;
wash the vegetables that have been boiled in it, slice them up and put
them into the liquor. Cut the fillets of fish into small pieces
and put them in; simmer for half an hour, then put in a little lemon
juice, pour into a tureen, and sprinkle a little chopped parsley on the
top. Send brown bread and butter to table with it and a lemon.
OYSTER SOUP
* 1 bottle Oysters--1s.
*
* 1 pint of Milk--2 1/2d.
*
* Cornflour and Vegetables
*
* 2 quarts Fish Stock--1d.
*
* Total Cost--1 s. 3 1/2 d.
*
* Time--One Hour.
*
If there is no fish stock, use pot boilings. As this is a white soup a
special saucepan must be used. Put the stock and the liquor from the
bottle of oysters into this stewpan with an onion stuck with six
cloves, 2 dozen white peppercorns, and a fagot of herbs, and boil
together for half an hour, then strain off and return to the saucepan
with the milk. When nearly boiling thicken with a tablespoonful of
cornflour and boil two or three minutes; put in the oysters and simmer
for five minutes. Flavour with a little lemon juice, nutmeg, and salt.
Pour into a warm tureen, and send fried bread to table with it.
BROWN MACARONI SOUP
* 1 1/2 oz. Macaroni--1 1/2d.
*
* 1 oz. Butter--1d.
*
* Vegetables--1d.
*
* Cornflour
*
* 2 quarts Bone Stock--1/2d.
*
* Total Cost--4d.
*
* Time--One Hour and a Quarter.
*
Slice up the onions or leeks, one carrot, and make a fagot of herbs;
fry them in the butter with 1 dozen peppercorns till they are quite
brown, but not burnt. Sprinkle over a tablespoonful of cornflour, and
when brown pour over the boiling stock and stir till it boils up; let
it simmer for an hour. If it is not brown enough, burn a little
sugar in a spoon and stir it in. If half a teaspoonful of sugar is
sprinkled over the vegetables when they are frying they will brown much
quicker. When the vegetables are soft rub the soup through a wire sieve
and return to the saucepan. Boil the macaroni in salt and water for
twenty minutes, strain off, and cut into pieces one inch long; put
these into the soup and simmer for a quarter of an hour. Flavour with a
little salt and pepper if necessary, and pour into a hot tureen.
HARICOT BEAN SOUP
* 1 lb. Haricot Beans--4d.
*
* 2 Onions
*
* 1/2 pint of Milk
*
* 2 quarts Bone Stock--1 1/2d.
*
* Total Cost--5 1/2 d.
*
* Time--Four Hours
*
Soak the haricot beans for an hour or two, then put them into a
saucepan with the stock or water, the onions, and 1 dozen white
peppercorns; boil for four hours and then rub through a sieve, return
to the saucepan with the milk and seasoning of pepper and salt, stir
until it boils. It is then ready to serve. An ounce of butter stirred
in just before it is finished is a great improvement.
This is one of the most nourishing soups that can be made. It is an
excellent food for outdoor workers. When butter is dear, sweat the
haricots in 1 oz. of beef dripping.
MILK SOUP
* 2 lbs. Potatoes--2d.
*
* 1 oz. Butter--1d.
*
* 1 Onion
*
* 1/2 pint of Milk
*
* 3 pints of Water--1 1/2d.
*
* Total Cost--4 1/2 d.
*
* Time--Half an Hour
*
Peel, wash, and slice up the potatoes and onions and put them into a
saucepan with the butter, and stir them about till all the
butter is dissolved and worked into the potatoes, but they must not get
brown. Pour over the boiling water and boil until they are of a pulp,
then rub them through a sieve, return to the saucepan, add the milk and
seasoning, and stir till it boils. Pour into a hot tureen, and serve
with fried bread.
ONION SOUP
* 4 Onions--1d.
*
* 1 oz. Butter--1d.
*
* 1 1/2 oz. Flour
*
* 1 gill of Milk
*
* 2 quarts of Stock
*
* Salt and Pepper--1d.
*
* Total Cost--3d.
*
* Time--One Hour.
*
Peel and slice up the onions and fry them in the butter till they are a
good brown colour. Sprinkle over the flour and brown that too. Pour on
the boiling stock and boil steadily till the onions are very soft, then
rub through a sieve. If there is any fat on it remove it carefully,
pour back into the saucepan, add the milk, pepper, and salt, and boil
up.
Just before serving put in a few drops of lemon juice. Send fried bread
to table with it.
PUMPKIN SOUP
* 1 small Pumpkin--4d.
*
* 2 oz. Butter--2d.
*
* 1/2 pint of Milk--1d.
*
* 2 Onions, 1 Carrot
*
* 2 quarts of Water--1d.
*
* Total Cost--8d.
*
* Time--One Hour and a Half.
*
Peel and slice up the pumpkin, onions, and carrot, put them into a
saucepan with half the butter, and sweat the vegetables in it for five
minutes, then pour over the boiling water and boil until the vegetables
are very soft. Rub through a sieve and return to the saucepan
with the milk and some pepper and salt; stir until it boils up.