DIET
The larger part of this work is taken up with a consideration of the
most suitable diet for those living in Australia. In this way a greater
restriction in the amount of butcher's meat is counselled, while a more
widely extended use of fish, vegetables, and salad plants is advocated.
And as far as beverages are concerned, Australian wine of a low
alcoholic strength is recommended as being the most natural beverage
for every-day use. But there are a few other matters connected with
food, and drink, and daily habits which will deserve some little
reference, and accordingly they will be dealt with. These are fruit,
tea, coffee, iced drinks, and the use of tobacco. All these are
important enough to merit notice; indeed, they are subjects possessing
more than usual interest.
Before proceeding to give attention to these, however, it will be most
convenient, at this stage, to make some remarks upon the vital topic of
the first meal of the day. With the great bulk of our population
sufficient heed is never given it, and yet it is of infinite
consequence. By far the greater number of people dawdle in bed till the
last possible moment, when all at once they jump into their bath--that
is, if they take a bath--swallow a hasty breakfast, and make a frantic
rush for their steamer, train, or tram, in order to begin their daily
work. How very much better than all this bustle, hurry, and scuttle an
hour's earlier rising would be! It would afford ample time for the
bath, which should be a bath in the truest sense of the term; it would,
above all, give a proper opportunity for a leisurely breakfast, which
is in every respect the most important meal of the day; and
lastly, it would save that wild dash at the last, which is so fatal to
proper digestion and well-being.
But it is a sad fact that, in most cases, even when there is due time
given to it, the monotony of the ordinary breakfast is almost
proverbial. With regard to the average household it is a matter of deep
conjecture as to what most people would do if a prohibition were placed
upon chops, steak, and sausages for breakfast. If such an awful
calamity happened, many the father of a family would have to put up
with scanty fare. It is very much to be feared that the inability to
conceive of something more original for the morning meal than the
eternal trio referred to is a melancholy reproach to the housekeeping
capabilities of many. To read an account of a highland breakfast, in
contradistinction to this paucity of comestibles, is to make one almost
pensive. The description of the snowy tablecloth, the generously loaded
table, the delicious smell of the scones and honey, the marmalade, the
different cakes, the fish, the bacon, and the toast, is enough to
create a desire to dwell there for a very prolonged period. However,
REVENONS A NOS MOUTONS; this has been adverted to, not so much with the
idea of urging people to copy such an example, because expense would
render it an impossibility, but to try and awaken a determination to
make more variety at the breakfast table. It is to be hoped that some
of the recipes at the end of the volume will serve as a means of
initiating a reform in this respect.
But under all circumstances, whether brain or muscle be employed by the
bread-winner, a substantial breakfast is of first-rate importance.
There is one form of food which it is especially necessary should
constitute part of the meal, and which must be referred to. This is
that variety known as the hydro-carbons or fats. The value of
fat, in any of its many forms, in promoting the health of the body and
preventing the onset of wasting diseases is hardly appreciated, and
besides this action it markedly serves to nourish the brain and nervous
system. Dr. Murchison, the late eminent physician, was wont to declare
that bacon fat or ham fat was worth a guinea an ounce in the treatment
of wasting diseases. Cod liver oil, also, has a wide repute in the
treatment of the same class of maladies. Indeed, it is related of an
eminent barrister that he used to take a full dose of cod liver oil
some time before going to plead an important case, for he found it
better brain food than anything else.
In our semi-tropical climate, however, a dislike is often taken to
butter when it is presented at breakfast in the form of semi-liquid
grease. It would require a person with the stomach of an ostrich to
digest, to say nothing of relish, such an oleaginous compound during
our hot months. But if this necessary and all-important article of diet
can be presented in an appetising shape, what a desirable result is
achieved I The mass of the people--I am not referring to those who are
well endowed with worldly gifts--are apt to look upon the ice chest as
a luxury which is altogether beyond their means. But, as I have said
elsewhere, I am firmly persuaded that if the price of ice were brought
down to one-halfpenny per pound, and if a company were formed to
deliver such a small quantity as six pounds per day, or every second
day, it would be a great boon, and moreover a wonderfully profitable
speculation. A very small and suitable ice chest could be constructed,
to sell at a few shillings, solely to preserve the butter in a
congealed, and therefore palatable, state, for children as well as for
adults. The former would take it with great avidity, and the benefit to
health resulting therefrom would be incalculable. Even in some
of the better-class houses ice is looked upon too much as a luxury, and
not, as it should be, a necessity; indeed, the money saved from gas
during the summer months might well be expended in ice.
Not only is this fatty breakfast a necessary feature in the diet of
everybody, particularly of the young and growing population, but it is
likewise a most important matter with all brain workers. If the
business or professional man can put in a liberal breakfast, consisting
largely of butter, fat bacon or ham, he can go on all day with a
feeling of energy and buoyancy. It is in this aversion to fatty matter,
in any shape or form, that the bilious and dyspeptic are so fearfully
handicapped. And not only is it necessary for an active mental worker
to be supplied with a good proportion of fatty material, but, as I have
just said, it is essential that his breakfast should be a substantial
one, in which his food is not stinted in any way. As Dr. Milner
Fothergill said: "I would always back a good breakfaster, from a boy to
a game cockerel; a good meal to begin the day is a good foundation."
So, too, Mr. Christopher Heath, the well-known London surgeon, in his
advice to house surgeons and other medical officers living in
hospitals, says, "the first symptom of \`knocking up,/' is an inability
to eat breakfast," and goes on to point out how important a meal it is,
and that it should be taken deliberately and without undue haste.
FRUIT
It is undoubtedly a most fortunate thing for us in Australia that fruit
is so abundant, and that it is easily within the reach of all. There is
something wonderfully attractive about it; its colouring in particular
appeals so to the eye that a good show of well-assorted fruit is always
certain to ensure attention. Many fruits, moreover, have a
magnificent fragrance which lends to their agreeable taste. It is
somewhat of a pity that fruit is not more ordinarily eaten at meals,
particularly with the breakfast. There is an old proverb that fruit is
gold in the morning, silver at noon, and lead at night; and it is
undoubtedly a fact that it is especially beneficial when eaten early in
the day. In France, fruit is a constant part of every meal, and there
is no question but that such a proceeding is desirable. It was formerly
the custom with English people at regular dinners to have dessert on
the table all through the courses, but it is now more customary to
present it at the termination of the repast, so that it is quite fresh
and not saturated with odours absorbed from the soup, fish, etc.
The agreeable qualities of fruits may be said to reside in three
different factors. First, there is the proportion of sugar, gum,
pectin, etc., to free acid; next, the proportion of soluble to
insoluble matters; and thirdly, the aroma, which, indeed, is no
inconsiderable element therein. This latter quality--the aroma,
fragrance, or perfume of fruit--is due to the existence of delicate
and exquisite ethers. These subtle ethers Are often accompanied by
essential oils, which may render the aroma more penetrating and
continued. Those fruits like the peach, greengage, and mulberry, which
almost melt in the mouth, contain a very large amount of soluble
substances. Some fruits, like the peach and apricot, carry but a small
amount of sugar as compared with the free acid they contain. Yet the
free acid is not distinctly perceptible, because its taste is covered
by a larger proportion of gum, pectin, and other gelatinous substances.
There are other fruits again, such as the currant and gooseberry, which
are markedly acid, because there is only a small amount of gum and
pectin, and a relatively larger amount of free acid.
With regard to fruit when eaten in its raw state, the question
of ripeness is a most important ones and is always to be considered; so
that whatever views may be entertained as to the dietetic value of ripe
fruit, there is a consensus of opinion on the fact that when unripe it
is most injurious. Care must be taken, therefore, to see that it is
perfectly ripe, and no considerations of economy must be allowed to
over-ride the fact. At the same time, though ripeness is a necessary
qualification of wholesomeness, yet fruit must not be over-ripe, as
changes occur which render it undesirable for the system, and thus in
avoiding Scylla we may fall into Charybdis. The skin of fruit should
never be eaten, nor should the stones, pips, or seeds be swallowed, as
there is a danger of their accumulating in a small pouch of the bowel
known as the vermiform appendix. Their lodgment in this little pocket
is a constant source of peril, and would soon set up an inflammation,
which must always be attended with a considerable amount of danger.
As to the question of the unripeness or over-ripeness of fruit, the
following remarks by Dr. F.W. Pavy, an acknowledged authority on all
that relates to food, and worth recording:--"Fruit forms an agreeable
and refreshing kind of food, and, eaten in moderate quantity, exerts a
favourable influence as an article of diet. It is chiefly of service
for the carbo-hydrates, vegetable acids, and alkaline salts it
contains. It enjoys, too, in a high degree, the power of counteracting
the unhealthy state found to be induced by too close a restriction to
dried and salted provisions. Whilst advantageous when consumed in
moderate quantity, fruit, on the other hand, proves injurious if eaten
in excess. Of a highly succulent nature, and containing free acids and
principles liable to undergo change, it is apt, when ingested out of
due proportion to other food, to act as a disturbing element, and
excite derangement of the alimentary canal. This is particularly
likely to occur if eaten either in the unripe or over-ripe state; in
the former case, from the quantity of acid present; in the latter, from
its strong tendency to ferment and decompose within the digestive
tract. The prevalence of stomach and bowel disorders, noticeable during
the height of the fruit season, affords proof of the inconveniences
that the too free use of fruit may give rise to."
The different forms of fruit, and also of vegetables, owe their great
value to the fact that they possess powerful anti-scorbutic properties.
It will be best and simplest to define the word "anti-scorbutic" as
"good against the scurvy." This latter disease is notably dependent on
a want of fresh fruit and vegetables in the dietary, and consequently
is more often observed amongst sailors; and though accessory
conditions, such as great privations, bad provisions, or unhealthy
surroundings, may predispose to it, yet that which essentially produces
it is the deficiency of the former articles from the food. At the
present time it is not nearly so frequently seen, since, according to
the mercantile marine regulations, subject to legislative enactments
passed in 1867, in lieu of vegetables, one ounce of lime juice,
sweetened with the same quantity of sugar, must be served out to each
man daily.
In scurvy there is some great change effected in the blood, and it is
as well to refer briefly to the characters possessed by the latter. The
blood as it exists in the body is a red alkaline fluid, having a
saltish taste and possessing quite a noticeable odour. It consists of
minute bodies, the corpuscles, immersed in a liquid, the LIQUOR
SANGUINIS. Salts also enter into its composition, and include the
chlorides of potash and soda; the phosphates of lime, magnesia,-and
soda; the sulphate of potash, and free soda. Of these the salts of soda
predominate, and the chloride--that is, common salt--is
usually in excess of all the others. The uses of these salts in the
blood are to supply the different tissues with the salts they
respectively require, to take part in maintaining the proper specific
gravity and alkaline character of the blood, and to prevent any changes
going on within it.
In scurvy, as mentioned before, the blood seems to undergo some great
change, and there are accumulations of it beneath the skin. The gums
become spongy, bleeding on the slightest touch, and the teeth
frequently loosen. Blood often flows from the mouth and nose, or is
vomited from the stomach, or is passed through the bowels. Dr. Garrod
advanced the view that scurvy was dependent on a deficiency of potash
in the stem, and that vegetables which contained potash supplied the
want. It is questionable, however, whether the disease is due to this
fact alone, since beef tea, which contains a good deal of potash, may
be given freely to a scorbutic patient, yet he fails to recover till
proper anti-scorbutic diet is supplied. Dr. Ralfe found by experiments
that when acids are injected into the blood, or an excess of acid salts
administered, the same changes occur in the blood as in scurvy. Hence
he supposes that the latter disease is caused by a decrease in the
alkalinity of the blood, which results from the absence of fruit and
vegetables from the food.
Now, although characteristic cases of scurvy are as a rule to be met
with chiefly in sailors, yet there is no doubt that an insufficiency of
the preceding in the dietary brings about an unhealthy condition of the
system. Many typical examples of this are frequently seen in the
patients admitted into our hospitals. They have been living, perhaps,
in isolated districts in the country, where their sole food was mutton
and damper, with no restriction placed on tea and tobacco. As a
rule their skin presents evidences of the need of proper diet, for it
looks unhealthy and is often covered with boils. But apart from these
cases, which so plainly indicate the origin of the poor condition of
the blood, there are many instances in which, from the want of
vegetable food and fruit, the system becomes greatly deranged.
moreover, what is known as the blood being "out of order" is mostly due
to an unsuitable diet, consisting of animal food in excess, and a
corresponding deficiency of the other essentials.
The use of fruit, again, is especially indicated in persons disposed to
the formation of uric acid in excess. When this actually occurs, the
system becomes overloaded with deleterious matter, and the blood and
body fluids are then saturated with a MATERIES MORBI. This morbific
material is best understood by regarding it as being in an incomplete
or half-way stage, in which form it is injurious. But, on the other
hand, if it had proceeded to its final change, the completed product
would have been harmless. Indeed, it is as the latter that it mostly
leaves the body in ordinary conditions of health. Well then, the
retention within the system of this incompletely transformed material
gives rise to various symptoms. One of them is a bitter or "coppery"
taste in the mouth, notably in the early morning. Oftentimes, too,
patients will complain that they do not feel at all refreshed on
rising, even when they have slept fairly well--which does not happen
too frequently. There may be also a great tendency to drowsiness,
accompanied by severe pains in the limbs, coming on about an hour after
meals. Other symptoms which are commonly met with are great
irritability of the temper and lowness of spirits. There is frequently
a headache of a peculiar kind. It comes on generally in the morning,
and may last all day, or even for several days. It is a dull, heavy
pain, felt most often in the forehead. A curious feature of the
affection which sometimes exists is an incontrollable desire to grind
the teeth during the waking hours. There are other symptoms, also,
characteristic of the same malady, namely, palpitation of the heart and
intermittency of the pulse; a liability to colds on the chest; and
perhaps repeated attacks of difficulty in breathing. From all this it
follows that a more liberal supply of fruit for such individuals would
be followed by the most beneficial results and their children might
well be taught to follow their example. For it must be remembered that
all fruits contain alkaline salts which are good for the blood. These
alkaline vegetable salts become changed within the body, and converted
into the carbonate of the alkali, in which latter form they pass out of
the system.
But before finally closing this portion it is necessary to say a few
words about olives, from which the famous olive oil is obtained, and
indeed with regard to their virtues nearly a volume might be written.
With many people the olive, like the tomato, is an acquired taste, and
unfortunately too many fail to overcome their first impressions; but it
is certainly worth acquiring, even if the process takes a long time and
requires much perseverance, on account of its highly nutritive value.
Children are often very fond of olives, and persistent efforts should
be made to induce those who do not like them to overcome their
aversion. We speak of "French olives" and "Spanish olives"; the former
are gathered young, and are small and hard, while the latter are
allowed to remain till a later period of growth, when they become
softer and more pulpy. The French olives are more piquant in flavour
than the larger kind. They are also better to eat as a fruit, though
many prefer the Spanish, and are sometimes employed to clear the palate
before drinking wines. The larger or Spanish olives are more
adapted for cooking, as in the dish known as beef olives, and also for
salads. There must be no misconception as to the name French or Spanish
as applied to olives; it does not refer to the country from which they
are derived, but simply serves to indicate that they are taken from the
tree at a particular time in accordance with the habit observed in the
respective countries. The mode of preparing the olives as they reach us
is as follows: They have been gathered when green, and soaked first of
all in strong lye--that is, water saturated with alkaline salt,
obtained by steeping wood ashes in the former. They are next soaked in
fresh water to remove the somewhat acrid and bitter taste, and are then
bottled in a solution of salt and water. Ordinarily they are presented
at table in a dish or other suitable vessel, with a little of the
liquid in which they have been preserved. In conclusion it may be added
that olives form an historical dish, for we are told that the supper of
Milton the poet consisted usually of bread and butter and olives.
TEA
Tea, with which we are all so familiar, is in reality a number of dried
rolled leaves of the tea plant, Camellia Thea, cultivated chiefly in
China and the contiguous countries. It is used excessively throughout
Australasia--for has it not been shown that our four million people
use more of this beverage than the millions who inhabit Continental
Europe, if Russia be excepted? This fact is much to be deplored, for
when taken in excess it causes severe functional derangement of the
digestive organs, and prejudicially affects the nervous system. The
gentler sex are greatly given to extravagant tea-drinking, exceeding
all bounds of moderation in this respect. Many of them, moreover, live
absolutely on nothing else but tea and bread and butter. What wonder,
then, that they grow pale and bloodless; that their muscles turn
soft and flabby; that their nervous system becomes shattered; and that
they suffer the agonies of indigestion? Their favourite time for a chat
and the consumption of tea is at any period between ten o'clock in the
morning and three in the afternoon. Now, if there is anything of which
I am certain, it is that tea in the middle of the day, say from ten
o'clock to three, is a deadly destructive fluid. And I am equally
certain, too, that innumerable numbers of young girls employed in
business do themselves an irreparable amount of injury by making their
mid-day meal consist of nothing else but tea and a little bread and
butter. There is no nourishment whatever in such fare, and it
inevitably leads to the bad symptoms already detailed and general
unhealthiness, if not to the onset of graver disease. No, they require
something which is nutritious, such as a little warm soup of some kind,
a modicum of bread, and say two different varieties of vegetables to
follow. Of course this may be extended to include pudding, stewed
fruit, &c., but the former is ample enough in many respects. This is a
very important matter to which the attention of proprietors and
managers of large establishments, factories, and other places employing
many female hands might well be directed. And, moreover, if ever there
was an opportunity for an active organization to achieve really
valuable work, it would be in seeing that our city girls had something
better to eat in the middle of the day than tea and bread and butter.
As in every other case, however, there is all the difference in the
world between the use of anything and its abuse. It is wrong to assume
that, because a great deal of something is injurious, a small quantity
judiciously employed is equally pernicious. And so it is even in the
case of tea, for it is not to be denied that a fragrant cup of tea is
very agreeable. As Dr. Vivian Poore most appropriately remarked in
reply to the argument that the lower animals did not require
tea, coffee, &c.: "We are not lower animals; we have minds as well as
bodies; and since these substances have the property of enabling us to
bear our worries and fatigues, let us accept them, make rational use of
them, and be thankful." Of course everything hinges upon the correct
interpretation of the terms "small" quantity, and "judiciously"
employed. It may be said, however, that the drinking of large cups of
tea is never to be sanctioned under ally circumstances whatever. It
should rather be looked upon as a delicate fluid to be imbibed only in
very small quantities. It should certainly not be used in the middle of
the day, between those hours which I have specified; nor should it be
taken during the evening, for it almost always disturbs the night's
rest.
There was a great controversy as to the proper way of making tea in the
medical papers not very long ago. It is of course a perennial topic,
and always excites considerable interest. This particular discussion
began in this way. A new tea-pot, called the anti-tannic tea-pot,
appeared on the scene, and was favoured with a long description by the
BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL. It was claimed for this special model that it
extracted only the theine, and not the tannin from the tea. Now, as a
matter of fact, it is simply impossible to make tea, no matter how it
is made, entirely free from tannin. It is quite true that many suppose
by infusing the tea for a very brief period only--two or three minutes
--the passage of the tannin into the beverage can be prevented, but, as
Sir William Roberts has pointed out, this is quite a delusion. Tannin
is one of the most soluble substances known, and melts in hot water
just as sugar does. Tea made experimentally, by pouring boiling water
on the dry leaves placed on filter paper, contains tannin. As Sir
William remarks, you can no more have tea without tannin, than you can
have wine without alcohol.
Nevertheless, it is a fact that this anti-tannic tea-pot has
many excellent points about it, and is sure to meet with favour. It is
really an attempt to make tea by a more certain method than is
generally employed; for I think it must be admitted that the present
happy-go-lucky style has not much to recommend it. On one occasion the
tea will be excellent--and on another either as weak as water, or with
such a sharp acrid taste that it is almost undrinkable. In the latter
case the tea has been allowed to soak so long that it has become a
decoction instead of an infusion. The consequence of this prolonged
action of the hot water on the tea is that it brings out the bitter
extractive material of the plant, and it is this which proves so
particularly pernicious. Tea at sea is proverbially unpalatable, and
invariably disagrees, owing chiefly to the fact that it is a boiled
decoction of tea leaves and nothing else.
COFFEE
Coffee is the roasted and ground product of the seeds found within the
fruit of a tree, the Coffea Arabica. Originally a native of Abyssinia,
it was transported into Arabia at the beginning of the fifteenth
century. Since then it has been widely cultivated in the West Indies,
in Ceylon, and in other warm countries. The fruit itself much resembles
a small cherry in size and appearance, and usually contains two small
seeds--the coffee beans themselves. The choicest coffee is the mocha
or Arabian coffee, and the bean is very small. Of the West Indian
varieties, the Jamaica and the Martinique coffee are the best. The
exhilarating and agreeable properties of coffee are dependent in great
part upon three active principles which it contains. The first of these
is caffeine, which is almost identical in composition with, and
practically the same as, the theine present in tea. Next there are the
volatile oils, developed by roasting, from which coffee derives
its aroma. Indeed, as far as they are concerned, there are many who
believe that these ethereal oils have more to do with the
characteristic properties of coffee than even the caffeine itself. And,
lastly, there are the acids known as caffeo-tannic and caffeic acids,
which are modified forms of tea tannin. They exist to a far less
extent, however, than does the tannin in tea.
Coffee has a decidedly stimulating effect upon the nervous system; so
much so that in France it has been called UNE BOISSON INTELLECTUELLE
(an intellectual beverage), from its stimulating all the functions of
the brain. Not so long ago a writer, Dr. J. N. Lane, in the BRITISH
MEDICAL JOURNAL gave some interesting, information with respect to
coffee and brain work. As the result of his own experience he
recommended "a cup of strong coffee, without cream or sugar, preceded
and followed by a glass of hot water every morning before breakfast.
The various secretions are thus stimulated, the nerve force aroused, no
matter how the duties of the preceding day and night may have drawn
upon the system. Another cup at four in the afternoon is sufficient to
sustain the energies for many hours." It is only fair to add, however,
that the JOURNAL went on to remark that in this way some 50 grains of
caffeine would be taken each week, and that very little more might
develop injurious symptoms, so that the power of doing an illimitable
amount of work would be obtained under somewhat risky conditions.
One of its most remarkable effects is that of relieving the feeling of
fatigue or exhaustion, whether this be produced by brain work or bodily
labour. It enables the system also to bear up under an empty stomach
and when the supply of food is shortened. In this way it is of signal
value to the soldier in the field. Professor E.A. Parkes, all admitted
authority on these matters, bears testimony to the fact that in
military service it invigorates the system and is almost equally
useful against both cold and heat--against cold by reason of its
warmth, and against heat by its action on the skin. It appears, also,
to do sway with the need for sleep, probably from its arousing the
mental faculties, and the effect of a strong cup of coffee in inducing
wakefulness is well known. Coffee has, moreover, a distinct action on
the heart, and tends to strengthen it. The Germans are great believers
in its virtues, and Vogel, one of the principal authorities on diseases
of children, recommends it for them, mixed with cream, both as a food
and as a tonic.
In addition to the foregoing, coffee is also employed by reason of its
important medicinal virtues. In malarious countries a cup of hot strong
coffee, in the early morning, is regarded as a preventive against fever
and ague. It is a valuable agent in many cases of heart disease,
particularly when associated with dropsy. In Bright's disease of the
kidneys, where dropsy is present, it is likewise given with benefit.
Strong coffee is also a well-known remedy in asthma, both in relieving
the actual attack and in acting as a restorative after it is over. It
frequently gives great relief in many forms of nervous headache,
particularly in that variety known as migraine, in which the pain is
generally limited to one side of the head. And, lastly, coffee is a
valuable remedy in opium poisoning, where there is such a tendency to a
fatal coma.
From the foregoing it must be evident that coffee occupies a very high
position as a beverage. All that concerns its preparation, therefore,
is of undoubted interest. In the first place, to obtain coffee in
perfection it is indispensable that the beans be roasted at home, and
not only should the roasting be done in the house, but the operation
ought really to be performed immediately before the coffee is made, and
the reasons thereof I shall give in speaking of the process of
roasting. Many people do not care sufficiently about the
perfection of coffee to go to this trouble, and are content with having
their roasted coffee beans sent to them daily from their grocer. The
leading establishments roast their coffee beans daily, and from them
the latter may be obtained and ground in the mill at home. This, of
course, though not giving the real thing, is an immense improvement on
the hallowed tradition, so dear to some, of purchasing their weekly
supply of,,round coffee at a time and keeping it in a tin or vessel for
use as required. But, as I said before, if perfection is aimed at, the
roasting must be done at home.
In the selection of the green beans care should be taxiway to see that
they are nearly all of the same size, for if some are small and others
large, when it comes to roasting it will be found that the small ones
are done to a cinder, while the larger beans are hardly touched. The
beans, too, should be perfectly dry; if moist, they should be dried in
a dish by the fire or in the oven before going into the roaster. On the
coffee plantations the drying of the bean is considered a most
important matter when preparing them for export.
In the process of roasting, a volatile oil which gives to coffee its
unique fragrance is developed. It is somewhat curious that no amount of
boiling could educe this from the raw bean. This oil is exceedingly
volatile, and begins to disperse and evaporate the very moment it is
born. Hence, to obtain the perfection of coffee, no time should be lost
in grinding and making it directly it is roasted. When the fragrant
vapour of the roasted bean is first given off, it is soon followed by a
peculiar noise, caused by the splitting and crackling of the external
silvery greenish covering of the raw beans. At this time, or very
shortly afterwards, the latter are of a yellowish hue, but before long
they change into that desirable lightish brown colour, when the
peculiar volatile coffee oils are at their best.
The best mill for grinding the coffee, and one which may be
obtained from any ironmonger, is that which can be screwed on the edge
of the kitchen table or dresser. It has a little contrivance to
regulate the size of the grains. and care must be taken not to grind
the coffee too fine; it should be in minute crumbs rather than in
powder.
As I have already said, the perfection of coffee is only to be obtained
under three conditions. These are, first, that the beans should be
roasted at home; that they should be ground without much delay; and,
thirdly, made into coffee as soon as possible. Many people are,
however, unable to carry out the first of these three requirements. The
next best substitute is to have the roasted coffee beans sent daily to
them by their grocer. This is a practice which might be followed more
frequently with a great deal of advantage, for all are able, at least,
to possess a mill and grind their own coffee at home.
The making of the coffee is quite as important as the preceding, and
the number of different models of coffee-makers is almost perplexing.
But of them all, the one which is simplest, and perhaps most effective,
is the ordinary CAFETIERS, or French coffee-pot. This has the advantage
of costing only a few shillings, and is readily obtainable from any
ironmonger. It consists of an upper compartment in which the coffee is
made, and a lower part--the coffee-pot itself--into which the coffee
descends. These two portions are quite separate, although the upper
fits on the lower. The floor--on which the coffee is placed--of the
upper part is perforated by a number of minute holes There is also a
movable strainer about an inch in depth, which fits on top of the upper
part; and a presser, consisting of a long rod with a circular plate at
its end, which for convenience passes through the centre of the
strainer, and rests on the perforated floor of the upper part.
There are one or two points to be borne in mind in the making of
coffee. As a rule English-speaking people do not allow enough coffee to
each cup. The almost universal fault of coffee, made elsewhere than on
the Continent, is its want of strength and flavour. With regard to the
admixture of chicory, this is largely a question of taste, and the
palate must be consulted in the matter. The great majority of people,
however, cannot do without it, and it is quite (when genuine) a
harmless addition. Madame Lebour-Fawssett recommends the following
proportions: For making CAFE NOIR, or coffee after meals, there should
be six teaspoonsful of coffee, heaped up, and a very small teaspoonful
of chicory, or none at all, for one pint of water. The chicory must be
left out altogether, and another teaspoonful of coffee substituted for
those who object to chicory with their CAFE NOIR. For morning coffee or
cafe au lait there should be ten or twelve teaspoonsful of coffee, with
a sixth part of chicory, for each pint of water. As Madame Lebour-Fawssett
remarks, CAFE AU LAIT is never complete without chicory, but
care should be taken not to overdo it, since too much chicory renders
the coffee quite undrinkable. Of course, if you do not require as much
as a pint of coffee, the quantities may be reduced, still observing the
same proportions. Before pouring out the coffee, the cup should first
be half filled with hot milk, and then the coffee added.
Now, having seen what proportions of coffee and chicory are to be
employed for CAFE NOIR and CAFE AU LAIT respectively, it will be better
to describe the actual making of the coffee, since the CAFETIERE will
then be more easily understood. We will suppose its upper part is
fitted into its place on the top of the lower portion, and that the
strainer and presser have been removed for the time being. Enough
boiling water should first of all be poured in to fill both the
upper and lower compartments, allowed to stand for a couple of minutes,
and then poured away. This brings everything to a proper heat for
receiving the coffee.
Next put the amount of coffee necessary upon the perforated floor of
the upper part. The coffee should then be well pressed down with the
presser, and the latter instrument next laid aside. After this the
strainer should be replaced on top of the upper compartment, and the
required amount of boiling water, a little at a time, poured in through
it (the strainer). The object of pouring in the boiling water slowly is
to give it time to percolate through the densely pressed coffee lying
on the floor of the upper part. There is a little tin cover fitting
over the spout of the lower compartment, which should be adjusted to
keep in the steam. The whole may then be set aside for a few minutes,
and when the coffee has passed into the lower part, it is ready for
use. With a little practice, and by paying attention to these details,
the most perfect coffee may be made.
ICED DRINKS
In Australia some reference to the subject of iced drinks is
necessarily required, for they are in great request during the hot
season. There is a considerable amount of diversity of opinion as to
their good and bad effects, but it will be found that the experience of
most medical men is that when used in moderation they greatly relieve
thirst and are not injurious. This, indeed, is my own belief, and were
it not for the abuse of iced drinks, the same opinion would be held
almost universally. America is the country of countries in which the
inordinate use of ice has gained for it a reputation which it has never
deserved. Ice, says George Augustus Sala, is the alpha and omega of
social life in the United States. At the hotels, first-class or
otherwise, the beverage partaken of at dinner is mostly iced water.
Every repast, in fact, begins and ends with a glass of iced
water. When consumed in this way it is no wonder that it often
disagrees, and that ice-water dyspepsia is a definite malady in
America. And more than this, imagine carrying the employment of ice to
such an extent that it culminates in that gastronomical curiosity, a
BAKED ICE! The "Alaska" is a BAKED ICE, of which the interior is an ice
cream. This latter is surrounded by an exterior of whipped cream, made
warm by means of a Salamander. The transition from the hot outside
envelope to the frozen inside is painfully sudden, and not likely to be
attended with beneficial effect. But the abuse of a good thing is no
argument whatever against its use in a moderate and rational manner.
It will be desirable, however, to see what is believed in India about
iced drinks, for it will be something of a guide for us in Australia.
There are two authorities in particular who have been already referred
to, and who have written on this matter in its application to India.
The first of these is Sir James Ranald Martin, who had twenty-two years
experience there in different parts, and is therefore entitled to be
listened to. He says that ice is a matter of necessity in the East, and
quotes Dolomieu, who observes of iced drinks that "they revive the
spirits, strengthen the body, and assist the digestion."
There is also that other great name, that of Sir Joseph Fayrer, who is
most competent to speak on Indian matters. In setting forth rules for
the guidance of those who purpose living in India, he remarks that iced
water may be drunk with impunity there; that he has no recollection of
seeing any one suffer from drinking iced water or iced soda water in a
hot climate; and that in the great heat it is good, since it tends to
keep down the body temperature. When the system is prostrated by the
sun or extreme heat, or exhausted by physical or intellectual exertion
in a hot and damp atmosphere, he believes that a glass of iced
water slowly swallowed is far more refreshing than the iced brandy, or
whisky peg, or draught of beer, too frequently indulged in under such
circumstances.
The different writers on food and dietetics, who have given
considerable attention to the same subject, are almost unanimous in
their opinion to the same effect. There will be no occasion to refer to
all of them, but three at least deserve a brief mention. Dr. Burney Yeo
has recently observed that iced water, when taken in small quantities,
is refreshing and cooling, and likewise stimulates the digestive
functions. On the other hand, it is certainly injurious when taken in
inordinate amount. According to Dr. T. King Chambers, cool drinks are
beneficial to the stomach in hot weather, since they help to reduce the
increased temperature to which the over-heated blood has brought it.
Ice, moreover, is a valuable addition to the dietary both of the sick
and of the healthy. There is one caution to be observed, however, and
it is that ice is injurious when the system is exhausted after violent
exercise. And lastly, Dr. Milner Fothergill believes the craving for
cool drinks during the hot weather is such, that there is evidently
some irrepressible desire to be satisfied. He even writes that in his
opinion the dyspepsia of Americans is not entirely due to the free use
of iced water, but that there are other causes which help to bring it
about.
But while all this is greatly in favour of the moderate use of iced
drinks, the purity of the source from which the ice is obtained is also
a matter of the highest importance. Ice is not ice when the water from
which it is derived is impure. There was an outbreak of sickness
amongst the visitors at one of the large hotels at Rye Beach, a
watering-place in America, one summer. The symptoms were an alarming
disturbance of the with severe pain, great feverishness, and
depression of spirits. It was found that the ice which occasioned this
outbreak had been taken from a stagnant pond containing a large amount
of decomposing matter. A portion of it was carefully melted, and was
found to contain a considerable quantity of decaying vegetable matter.
In the case of artificial ice, the question of purity is even more
important. The reason for this is that the water used in the
manufacture of artificial ice is usually frozen solid, and whatever
substances, consequently, are dissolved in the water remain in the ice
itself.
TOBACCO
Five out of every six male adults smoke, whether it be cigarette,
cigar, or pipe. That is, in a gathering of, say, 600 men, 500 will be
smokers and 100 non-smokers. At least, this is the estimated proportion
in the old country. In Australia the ratio is about the same, but the
average amount of tobacco used by every smoker is greater. According to
Mr. T. A. Coghlan in his WEALTH AND PROGRESS OF NEW SOUTH WALES, the
annual consumption of tobacco in Australia for each inhabitant is 3
lbs. all but a fraction. For the United Kingdom the corresponding
amount is 1.41 lbs.; and for the United States of America, 4.40 lbs.
Italy, it would seem, consumes in the same way 1.34 lbs.; France, 2.05
lbs.; Germany, 3 lbs.; Austria, 3.77 lbs.; Turkey, 4.37 lbs.; while
Holland reaches the excessive amount of 6.92 lbs. Of the five colonies
of Australia, namely, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia,
Queensland, and West Australia, the use of tobacco is greatest in the
latter two; the figures for Queensland being 3.53 lbs., and for West
Australia 4.11 lbs.
With regard to the effect of tobacco on the human system, it will
perhaps be most convenient to make a division into the following three
classes. In the first place there are a certain number of people upon
whom tobacco in any shape or form has an absolutely poisonous
influence. There must be some peculiar susceptibility of the system in
their case which renders them especially vulnerable to its action. On
this account, therefore, they are better without tobacco at all, and
any attempt to habituate themselves to it must be attended with
prejudice to health. Secondly, there are many other people who can only
use tobacco in its very mildest forms. They may be able to smoke a few
cigarettes daily, perhaps only three or four; if they indulge in a
cigar, it must be one of the mildest; if a pipe, the tobacco will have
to be the very lightest. Anything exceeding their allowance is an
excess for which they are obliged to pay the penalty. Then, again,
there is a third class who can enjoy tobacco in moderation. But these
are the very people who are most apt to abuse their privilege. And
although they do not recognise it at once, the effect of their
excessive smoking is bound to assert itself at last, and compel them to
curtail their allowance. If those in the second category, who can enjoy
the mildest tobacco in the smallest quantities, and those in the third,
who can smoke in moderation, were never to exceed their proper amount,
no very great harm would follow. But it most frequently happens that
both overstep their respective bounds, and the result is injury to
health.
The tobacco plant, NICOTIANA TOBACUM, belongs to the order Solanaceae,
which also includes belladonna, capsicum, henbane, and likewise the
common potato. Its active principle, an alkaloid--nicotine or nicotia
--is combined with a vegetable acid. Some of the alkaloids, such as
morphine, strychnine, &c., are crystalline in character, but this,
along with a few others, is liquid. A single drop of it is fatal to the
smaller animals, a cat or Even as it is, the first smoke usually
produces characteristic results. There is generally pallor of the face,
nausea, and vomiting. Usually a cold, clammy sweat breaks out, and the
heart seems as if it were about to stop. The system, however, gradually
becomes habituated to its action, and these symptoms do not reappear.
Seeing that this somewhat unpleasant apprenticeship is uncomplainingly
served, it is evident that in smoking there must be some powerful
attraction. There are many, indeed, who persist in it when it is doing
them an inconceivable amount of injury.
It is a fortunate thing that almost all of the nicotine passes off, or
is burnt up, or else the effect would be more markedly disastrous. But
the pleasurable effects of tobacco are derived in great part from the
volatile alkaloids formed during combustion. The alkaloids which
develop during the smoking of a pipe are entirely different from those
of a cigar. In a pipe, according to Vold and Eulenburg, the tobacco
yields a very much larger proportion of volatile bases, especially of
the very volatile and stupefying pyridine. On the other hand, a cigar
produces but little pyridine, but more of the less active collidine. It
is well known that very much stronger tobacco can be smoked as a cigar
than as a pipe. As a matter of fact a cigar which could be enjoyed as a
cigar, would cause sickness if cut up into small pieces and smoked in a
pipe. This pyridine to which reference has just been made has lately
been brought forward as a remedy for asthma. Now, the effect of tobacco
in cutting short an attack of this latter malady is, at times, very
marked. And Professor See, the eminent French physician, believes that
the pyridine is the relieving agent.
In the earlier part of this section I have attempted to form a
provisional classification of people as far as the effect of tobacco is
concerned. Firstly, those upon whom tobacco in any shape or form
is an absolute poison; secondly, those who can enjoy a very small
amount-daily; and thirdly, those who are able to smoke in moderation.
Now, while those who use tobacco with wise discretion appear to be none
the worse for it, yet it unfortunately happens that far too frequently
there is no limit to this discretion. It is too often the case,
therefore, that quite a serious amount of damage to health results from
excessive smoking. It requires a good deal of judgment, and even more
resolution, to use and not abuse tobacco.
There are certain symptoms which should lead a man either to curtail
his allowance, or else give up tobacco altogether. These are marked
nervousness, trembling of the whole body, unsteadiness of the hands,
and twitching of different muscles. There may be also swimming of the
head, severe headache, and a feeling of despondency. In other cases
there may be irritability of temper, a want of will determination, and
progressive loss of memory. The special senses--sight, hearing, taste,
smell, and touch--may all be blunted. The Bight and hearing are often
markedly affected. Colour blindness is sometimes a result, and there
may be that impairment of vision known tobacco AMBLYOPIA. As regards
the hearing, too, there is not unfrequently a drumming in the ears and
confusion of sounds.
And more than this, tobacco, when unsuitable or used in excess, has
other prejudicial effects. Its action on the heart is well known, and
is frequently manifested by violent palpitation and by disturbed action
of the heart. There is also a definite disorder known as "the smoker's
heart." In this affection the beats, instead of being regular, are very
rapid, suddenly becoming very slow. In this way the rhythm of the heart
has been aptly compared by Dr. Lauder Brunton to a restive horse, who
goes into a gallop for a few yards, next pulls up all at once, and then
breaks off into a gallop again. When tobacco has these
prejudicial effects upon the heart, it is no good diminishing the
allowance. The only way to bring about any good result is to knock it
off altogether.
In addition to its direct action on the heart, tobacco smoking may also
bring on a sudden fainting, in which there is absolutely no warning.
This condition may develop from the tobacco alone, but in many
instances nervous excitement or shock are superadded. Professor Fraser,
of Edinburgh, has observed that quite a number of his college friends,
who smoked to an inordinate extent as students, were obliged to give up
tobacco as middle age approached. Several of them had to do so on
account of the onset of these sudden fainting fits. Many smokers also
suffer from what is termed chronic pharyngitis. In this affection the
mucous membrane at the back part of the mouth looks like dirty-red
velvet, and there is also a constant hawking of phlegm. And further,
indigestion itself is in many eases entirely due to excessive smoking,
from which there is no relief except by abandoning the habit
altogether.
But even when tobacco does not produce such marked ill effects, it is
as well to remember that it has always a definite action from a
gastronomic point of view. And it is this, that directly after the
first draw of a cigarette, cigar, or pipe, the palate loses its
delicacy of perception. As Sir Henry Thompson remarks, after smoke the
power to appreciate good wine is lost, and no judicious host cares to
open a fresh bottle from his best bin for the smoker. This is perfectly
true; under such circumstances valuable wine would simply be thrown
away. But, on the other hand, there is an unquestionable sympathy
between coffee and tobacco, and a cup of Mocha blends harmoniously with
choice Latakia. This is well recognised in the East; and throughout the
Continent coffee and temperate habits go hand in hand with the
cigar or cigarette. We must also agree with Sir Henry when he declares
that smoke and alcoholic drinks are only found associated together in
Great Britain and other northern nations, where there are to be found
the most insensitive palates in Europe. It is a good thing, therefore,
that the habits followed here are unknown to him, or else Australia
would certainly have had a rap over the knuckles.