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The Art of Living in Australia by Philip E. Muskett (?-1909)
Together with three hundred Australian cookery recipes and accessory
kitchen information by Mrs. H. Wicken, Lecturer on cookery to the
Technical College, Sydney.
DEDICATION
AUSTRALIA--ONE AND UNITED. AS AN AUSTRALIAN I DEDICATE THIS VOLUME TO
THE PEOPLE OF AUSTRALIA WITH ONE ABIDING HOPE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
ALL THE: GREAT NATURAL FOOD INDUSTRIES OF OUR COUNTRY.
PREFACE.
Although this work fully deals with all the many matters connected with
the art of living in Australia, its principal object is the attempt to
bring about some improvement in the extraordinary food-habits at
present in vogue. For years past the fact that our people live in
direct opposition to their semi-tropical environment has been
constantly before me. As it will be found in the opening portion of the
chapter on School Cookery, the consumption of butcher's meat and of tea
is enormously in excess of any common sense requirements, and is
paralleled nowhere else in the world. On the other hand, there has been
no real attempt to develop our deep-sea fisheries; market gardening is
deplorably neglected, only a few of the more ordinary varieties being
cultivated; salads, which are easily within the daily reach of every
home, are conspicuous by their absence; and Australian wine, which
should be the national beverage of every-day life, is at table--almost
a curiosity.
Nearly three years have been occupied in the preparation of this
volume, as several of the subjects it treats of have hitherto remained
practically unexplored. This statement is not intended to excuse
any shortcomings, but simply to explain the impediments which had to be
overcome. There has been some little difficulty, therefore, in
obtaining information in many instances. At the same time, it must be
cheerfully recorded that assistance was freely forthcoming on the part
of those from whom it was sought. Quite a number have been interviewed
on the topics with which they were familiar; and on several occasions
this has necessitated journeys out of Sydney on the writer's part. With
the object of making inquiries into the fish supply of Melbourne, also,
a special visit was paid to that city. And further, in order to gain an
insight into vineyard work and cellar management, an instructive time
was passed at Dr. T. Fiaschi's magnificent Tizzana vineyard on the
Hawkesbury River.
It may seem to savour somewhat of boldness, yet I hazard the opinion
that the real development of Australia will never actually begin till
this wilful violation of her people's food-life ceases. For let us
suppose that the semi-tropical character of our Australian life was
duly appreciated by one and all. If such were the case--and I would it
were so--there would be a wonderful change from the present state of
affairs. But as it is, the manners and customs of the Australians are a
perpetual challenge to the range of temperature in which they live.
Indeed, the form of food they indulge in proves incontestably
that they have never yet realized their semi-tropical environment. With
a proper recognition of existing climatic surroundings there would be
an overwhelming demand for more fish food; for something better than
the present Liliputian supply; and for the creation of extensive deep-sea
fisheries. Fish in Australia is nothing more than a high-priced
luxury, although projects for the development of the deep-sea fisheries
have been repeatedly suggested. Somehow or other we never get beyond
this stage, and as a consequence the yield from our fisheries is simply
pitiable. A widespread use of fish and an adequate fish supply would
give employment to hundreds and to thousands. As I have pointed out in
the chapter relating to this subject, the want of enterprise shown in
starting our deep-sea fisheries is an inexplicable anomaly. If the
Australian people had sprung from an inland race, this would not,
perhaps, have been so difficult to understand. But coming, as we do,
from a stock the most maritime the world has ever seen, such a defect
is not to our credit as inheritors of the old traditions.
Nor can it be pretended that market gardening has ever been taken up
seriously, if we apply the statement to Australia as a whole. It is
true that Sydney and Melbourne, and possibly Adelaide and Brisbane,
have made an attempt in this direction. But even with this
admission there is not much reason for congratulation from an olitory
point of view. Few--only very few--of the more commonly known
varieties are grown. For if the potato and the cabbage were taken away,
Australia would be almost bereft of vegetables. There are, however,
many others, which are delicious and wholesome, which are easily grown,
and which would make a pleasing addition to the present monotonously
restricted choice. And there is something even more than all this. It
is, that market gardening is a healthy and profitable calling; that it
settles the people on the land; and that it creates a class of small
landed proprietors--the very bone and sinew of any population.
In the chapter relating to Australian Food Habits it will be found that
many of these desirable vegetables are enumerated. Their good qualities
are highly appreciated on the Continent and elsewhere, and there is no
earthly reason why they should not be grown here. The history of the
introduction of the tomato into Australia is instructive in this
connection. For years and years it struggled desperately, but
unsuccessfully, for a place, and the attempt to bring it into use was
on the point of being abandoned in consequence. But at last its
undeniable merits were acknowledged, and to-day it is in universal
request. Now, it is perfectly safe to assume that the same recognition
would be awarded to many other vegetables vegetables at present
practically unknown in Australia. For instance, sweet corn--which,
however, must not be confused with Indian corn--is of exquisite
flavour, almost melting in the mouth, while it possesses also eminently
nourishing properties. It is a great favourite with Americans, and
hundreds of acres are required annually for the New York markets alone.
But if there is one desirable form of food which we should expect to
find in daily use by the whole Community, it is surely the salad. More
than this, it deserves to meet with favour as a national dish. It takes
pre-eminent rank in Southern Europe, and is certainly entitled to
occupy a similar high position in the Australian food list.
Unfortunately there is just the same story to tell, and the strange
neglect of salads can only be expressed by the term incomprehensible.
It is a waste-saving dish; it is wholesome, in that it is purifying to
the blood; it is full of infinite variety; and its low price brings it
within easy every-day reach even of the humblest dwelling. But, as
things are, even the salad plants themselves are represented by a
meagre list, and are confined to only few varieties. And as far as
salad herbs are concerned, they are literally unknown.
Now, although I am strongly of opinion that a more widespread use of
fish, vegetables, and salads in Australia would be attended by the
happiest results (both by benefiting the national health and by
developing Australia's food-industries), yet it must not be understood
that I countenance vegetarianism. So far from being a vegetarian, I am
one of those who firmly believe in the advantages derived from a mixed
diet. But my assertion is that we in Australia habitually consume an
injurious amount of meat to the exclusion of far more needed
nourishment. The golden rule as far as the Australian dietary is
concerned is a minimum of meat, and a relatively maximum amount of the
other classes of food. The influence which food exercises upon health
is a matter of far-reaching importance, in that it affects the daily
life of the whole population. Amongst others, the following medical
writers--Sir James Risdon Bennett, Dr. J. Milner Fothergill, Dr. T.
King Chambers, and Dr. J.H. Bennett--have in the past contributed much
to this subject. In the present day, Sir Henry Thompson, Sir William
Roberts, Dr. T. Lauder Brunton, Dr. F.W. Pavy, Dr. Burney Yeo, and many
more have given their advocacy to the same purpose. It is urged by all
these authorities that there is a needless consumption of animal food
even in the old country, and they all agree that an exaggerated value
is attached to butcher's meat on the part of the public. If
representative medical opinion thus protests against the use of an
unnecessary amount of animal diet in the climatic conditions obtaining
in the United Kingdom, how much more would the misuse of the
same food in a semi-tropical climate like Australia be disapproved of!
Indeed, I am perfectly certain, that were those who have given
attention to food and dietetics in possession of the facts, they would
unhesitatingly condemn the grotesque inversion of food-habits at
present in vogue throughout Australia. There is one very important
matter which unquestionably requires to have special attention drawn to
it. I refer to the customary Australian mid-day meal. Strange to say,
all through the hot season, as well as the rest of the year, this
consists in most cases of a heavy repast always comprising meat. Why,
even in the cooler months, a ponderous meal of this kind is not
required! My own views are that meat in the middle of the day is quite
unnecessary, and, indeed, during the hot months actually prejudicial.
Most people in Australia, after a fair trial, will find that a lunch of
some warm soup, with a course perhaps of some fish, and vegetables, or
salad, or whatever it may be to follow, will not only be ample, but
will give them a sensation of buoyancy in the afternoon they never
before experienced. Among the recipes will be found many which may help
to bring about a reform in this respect. The heavier meal should
certainly be towards the evening after the sun-heat of the day is over,
at which time it is more enjoyed and better digested.
Having thus far referred to our totally inadequate supply of
fish food, of vegetables, and of salad plants and herbs, there is still
the great Australian wine industry to consider. At present only in its
swaddling clothes, it is destined before very long to enter upon its
vigorous life. There was an eminent French naturalist, M.F. Peron, sent
out to Australia by the Emperor Napoleon during the years 1801 to 1804
inclusive. A shrewd observer, he saw even at that early period of
Australian history that there were unequalled possibilities for her
wine. In the course of his interesting narrations he remarks:--"By one
of those chances which are inconceivable, Great Britain is the only one
of the great maritime powers which does not cultivate the vine, either
in its own territories or its colonies; notwithstanding, the
consumption of wine on board its fleets and throughout its vast regions
is immense."
In the whole of Australia the annual production of wine is only a
little over three million gallons; but in France, as well as in Italy,
it is nearly 800 million gallons. These two countries together,
therefore, every year produce about 1,596 million gallons more wine
than Australia. These stupendous figures reveal very plainly what an
enormous expansion awaits our wine industry.
The colossal growth of the wool trade is in striking contrast to the
puny dimensions of the wine industry. In 1805 the exportation of wool
from Australia was "nil." In 1811 it reached to the modest amount of
167 lbs., while Spain exported 6,895,525 lbs. In 1861 the exportation
of wool from Australia increased to 68,428,000 lbs., whilst from Spain
it fell to 1,268,617 lbs. And lastly, in 1891 the amount of wool
exported from Australia reached the majestic figures of 593,830,153
lbs., representing a value of 20,569,093 pounds. If New Zealand be
included, the total export attains to 710,392,909 lbs., having a value of
24,698,779 pounds. It must be borne in mind that these figures represent
only the wool actually exported, and do not include that kept back for
Australian requirements. As I have pointed out in the beginning of the
chapter on Australian wine, if the latter industry had increased in
similar proportion, Australia's prosperity would be second to none in
the world.
There are some other striking figures which are well worth referring
to. The city of Paris alone requires nearly 300,000 gallons of wine
daily. Now, the total yearly wine production of the whole of Australia
is but a little over three million gallons. It will follow from the
preceding, then, that the single city of Paris itself would consume in
12 days all the wine which the whole of Australia takes 12 MONTHS to
make.
The future prosperity of Australia, at least to a very great extent, is
wrapped up in her wine industry; for its development means much more
than a large export trade to other countries. It means, in
fact, the use of Australian wine as a national and every-day wholesome
beverage; it means the covering of the land with smiling vineyards; it
means employment and a healthy calling literally to thousands upon
thousands; and, lastly, it means settlement upon the land, and a more
diffused distribution of the population throughout Australia.
It must be remembered that the nervous system is far more susceptible
to the effects of alcohol in a warm than in a cooler climate. It is
said that in Southern Europe there are very few water drinkers, but
that, on the other hand, there are very few who indulge in strong
drink. The system does not feel to want the strong alcohol, so to
speak. A weaker wine in a warm climate produces the same feeling of
exhilaration that one of greater alcoholic strength does in colder
countries. We shall not go far wrong in Australia if we stick to our
own natural wines. As it will be found in the chapter on Australian
wine, the every-day wine for Australian use is a wine of low alcoholic
strength; a wine of which a tumblerful may be taken with benefit; a
wine, indeed, which is beneficial, cheering, hygienic, restorative, and
wholesome.
By reason of his semi-tropical climate the Australian is bathed in an
atmosphere of sunshine. This has a distinct effect upon the blood, for
the action of sunlight upon this fluid is to redden it--a fact which
has for ages been dwelt upon by the poets. But for a scientific
explanation of this effect of sunlight in reddening the blood we must
turn to the spectrum analysis. The visible solar spectrum as shown
through a prism by the ordinary sunbeam is made up of the seven
different colours, namely, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,
and violet. Instead of consisting simply of white light as a whole, it
is now universally accepted that in this spectrum different properties
belong to different parts. Light or luminous power to one portion; heat
or calorific power to another; and chemical power or actinism to a
third.
The visible solar or Newtonian luminous spectrum, resulting from the
decomposition of white light by a prism, is only the middle portion of
the whole solar spectrum. Beyond the red end there are rays possessing
still greater-heating effect; and beyond the violet extremity there are
rays endowed with far more powerful chemical action. The violet, and
especially these latter ultra-violet rays, redden the life stream by
increasing the haemoglobin--that crystallizable body which forms so
large a portion of the coloured corpuscles of the blood. Sunlight,
moreover, has not only this action upon the animal kingdom, but also
upon the vegetable world as well Plants, like celery, which are
subjected to blanching, become whitened under the process of
etiolation. This is due to the absence of chlorophyll, the
green colouring matter of plants, which can only be developed by the
presence of light. The tops of celery, being unearthed, retain their
green colour, while the stem embedded in the soil acquires its familiar
whiteness.
Many philosophical writers, notably David Hume and Charles Comte, C.
Montesquieu in his L'Esprit des Lois, and Henry Thomas Buckle in his
HISTORY OF CIVILISATION IN ENGLAND, have dilated upon the influence
which climate exerts over race, and all their forceful opinions are to
the effect that the character of a people is moulded by climatic
conditions. More than this, the same new was entertained by the classic
writers; for we find the philosopher and orator Cicero recording his
belief that "Athens has a light atmosphere, whence the Athenians are
thought to be more keenly intelligent; Thebes a dense one, and the
Thebans fat-witted accordingly." Again, Horace, the poet and satirist,
has given us the famous passage:--" You would swear he (Alexander the
Great) was born in the dense atmosphere of the Boeotians."
But the influence of climate is not confined to ordinary conditions
alone, because without the shadow of a doubt it controls disease as
well. As it is well known, certain diseases are peculiar to, and
confined to, certain regions. And, moreover, a malady will vary in its
type in different zones. Thus the disease known as rickets is
in the old country marked in many cases by bending of the bones, giving
rise to deformities of the limbs, &c. The Australian type of the
disorder, however, is milder altogether, and is of a different
character. The Australian child is straight-limbed almost without
exception, yet the Australian type of rickety disease, as I pointed out
in 1891, is quite a definite affection.
At the Congress of Naturalists and Physicians at Strasburg in 1885 the
great German pathologist, Professor Virchow, called attention to a
sphere of research in which, he alleged, neither the French nor the
English had hitherto accomplished anything of importance, namely, the
modifications of the organism, and particularly of the special
alterations of each organ, connected with the phenomena of
acclimatization. This reproach cannot be denied. We have not yet
reached the stage in Australia of noting the effect which climate has
upon the system in general, much less of inquiring into the changes
which occur in such organs as the liver, spleen, &c. But apart from
investigating the phenomena of acclimatization, it is very plain that
the people of Australia have never given any heed to their semitropical
climate, or else the food-faults now universally practised would have
been rectified long before this.
It has always been a matter of interesting speculation as to what the
characteristic type of the future Australian will be. But reflections
of this kind can only be in the right direction by bearing in mind the
ever-present climatic conditions. Climate is of all forces the most
irresistible; for, on the one hand, the Great Desert of Sahara could
not be crossed in an Arctic costume and on Esquimaux diet; nor, on the
other, could the Polar regions be explored in a Hindoo garb and on
Oriental fare. And though blood is thicker than water, yet the
resistless influence of a semi-tropical range of temperature will be to
imprint on the descendants of the present inhabitants of Australia some
marked peculiarities of skin-colour, of facial expression, of lingual
accent, and perhaps even of bodily conformation.
Quite recently an observing writer, in a keenly analytical if somewhat
facetious article, gave it as his opinion that the coming Australians
will be as follows:--"They will not be so entirely agricultural as the
Americans were; they will be horsemen, not gig-drivers. Descended from
adventurers, not from Puritans, and eager, as men of their climate must
be, for pleasant lives, they will thirst for dependent possessions, for
gardens where fortunes grow. The early Americans were men of austere
temper, who led, on an ungrateful soil, lives of permanent hardship.
They had to fight the sea, the snow, the forest, the Indians, and their
own hearts. The Australians, with a warmer climate, without Puritan
traditions, with wealth among them from the first, will be a
softer, though not a weaker people; fonder of luxury, and better fitted
to enjoy Art, with an appreciation of beauty which the Americans have
never shown. They will be a people growing and drinking wine, caring
much for easy society, addicted to conversation, and never happy
without servants. The note of discontent which penetrates the whole
American character will be absent."
From the climatic standpoint alone it is safe to predict that the
future Australian will be more nearly akin to the inhabitants of
Southern Europe than to his progenitors in the old country; though,
naturally, there will be considerable diversity between the native born
of the various regions, covering as they do such a vast extent of
territory. The ample opportunities for outdoor life will do much
towards ensuring physical development. And, finally, the imaginative
faculties will be very active, and it is quite permissible to hope that
in time there will be a long roll of artists, musicians, and poets.
As it will be seen, a considerable portion of this work is taken up
with the practical side of living, as exemplified by the Australian
Cookery Recipes. From the very first it was recognised that it was
imperative to include them within its compass. It occurred to me,
however, that this important department would better be undertaken by
someone thoroughly conversant with the subject. With this object
in view, therefore, I submitted to Mrs. H. Wicken what I required. I
knew Mrs. Wicken to be well qualified for the task from the following
facts, namely, that she had previously been successful in her culinary
writings; that she was a Diplomee of the National Training School for
Cookery, South Kensington; and that she occupied the responsible post
of lecturer to the Technical College, Sydney. My propositions were that
the recipes were to be written purely for Australian use, and that they
were to be of the strictly economical order. Mrs. Wicken accepted the
task, and it can only be hoped that her efforts will meet with the
approbation they deserve.
In their original form the three chapters on Australian Food Habits,
Australian Fish and Oysters, and on Salads, appeared in THE DAILY
TELEGRAPH, Sydney. I take this opportunity, therefore, of expressing my
sense of obligation to the Proprietors thereof for their courtesy in
permitting me to make complete use of these three contributions. As
they now appear in chapters they have been revised, considerably
altered, and materially added to, for the purposes of reproduction in
book form.
143, Elizabeth Street
Hyde Park, Sydney
September 1893
EPIGRAPH
A farmer being on the point of death, and wishing to show his sons the
way to success in farming, called them to him and said--"My children I
am now departing this life, but all that I have to leave you, you will
find in the vineyard." The sons, supposing that he referred to some
hidden treasure, as soon as the old man was dead, set to work with
their spades and ploughs and every implement that was at hand, and
turned up the soil over and over again. They found indeed no treasure;
but the vines, strengthened and improved by this thorough tillage,
yielded a finer vintage than they had ever yielded before, and more
than repaid the young husbandmen for all their trouble. So truly is
industry in itself a treasure.--THE FABLES OF AESOP.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I. THE CLIMATE OF AUSTRALIA. Their semi-tropical climate
hitherto unrecognised by the people of Australia--Reasons advanced for
this statement; early gold-mining era influences still at work, and
Anglo-Saxon heredities--Hot months and cooler months; temperatures of
the Australian capital cities--Fluctuations of temperature and
barometric pressure not extreme--Equability of Australian climate a
marked feature--Not many successive days of great heat--Humidity of
atmosphere in different colonies--A dry heat always preferable to a
moist heat--Duration of the different seasons, and months apportioned
to each season--Prevailing winds, and ROLE of hot winds
CHAPTER II. THE ALPHABETICAL PENTAGON OF HEALTH FOR AUSTRALIA. The
Alphabetical Pentagon a convenient form of remembering that the FIVE
essentials of health--namely, Ablution: the Skin and the Bath; Bedroom
Ventilation; Clothing; Diet; and Exercise--occur in alphabetical order
CHAPTER III. ABLUTION--THE SKIN AND THE BATH. Important and numerous
functions of the skin--The skin itself and its different parts--The
use of the scarf skin--The structure of the true skin--The
perspiration tubes--The tubes of the oil-glands--Great value of the
cold bath--Importance of the rubbing down after the cold bath--The
cold bath as a preventive of disease--The cold bath in the maintenance
of health--The warm cleansing bath--The beneficial effect of adding
salt at the end of a warm bath--Other interesting hints
Loss of hair in Australia--Structure of the hair, and its blood supply
--The hair is not a tube--Management of the hair--Singeing the hair--
Washing the hair--Description of brushes and combs recommended--Hard
rim of the hat a factor in thinning the hair--Excellent applications
for promoting the growth of the hair
Formation of the nail--Different parts of the nail--Growth of the
nail--The care of the nails
Disorders arising from loss of teeth--The preservation of the teeth--
An admirable recipe for a tooth-powder--Management of the teeth--Use
of floss silk
CHAPTER IV. BEDROOM VENTILATION. The bedroom the most important room in
the house--necessity for proper ventilation--Extra allowance of sleep
in hot climates--Crowding of articles in bedrooms condemned--Results
of breathing vitiated air--Injuriously affects the heart as well as
the lungs--The proper dimensions of a bedroom--Regulation of the
ventilation--Mosquito nettings for summer months--Fresh air equally
required in the cooler months
CHAPTER V. CLOTHING, AND WHAT TO WEAR. No clothing actually creates
warmth of itself--The varying powers of clothing to detain air in its
meshes--Two or three layers of clothing always warmer than a single
garment equal to their combined thickness--The transmission of the
body-heat to the clothes--The different fabrics are either good or bad
conductors of heat--Permeability of clothing to air--The vegetable
kingdom; the properties of cotton and of linen--The animal products;
the properties of silk and of wool--Wool one of the best materials to
wear next the skin--Recommendations for wearing woollen under-garments
--The way to prevent them from shrinking--The modern pyjamas immensely
superior to the old-fashioned bed-gown--The clothing would be modified
according to the season of the year.
CHAPTER VI. DIET--IMPORTANCE OF BREAKFAST, FRUIT, TEA, COFFEE, ICED
DRINKS, TOBACCO. Breakfast usually scampered through--Monotony of the
ordinary breakfast--A plea for something better--Butter during
Australian summer months--The ice-chest an absolute necessity--
Breakfast should be a substantial meal
Fruit fortunately abundant in Australia--The agreeable qualities of
fruits reside in three factors--Fruit must neither be over-ripe nor
under-ripe--The anti-scorbutic properties of fruit--Changes in the
blood in scurvy--Mild forms of scurvy not uncommon--Symptoms of an
excess of uric acid in the stem--A word for olives
Abuse of tea by the gentler sex--Protest against lunch of tea and
broad and butter--An admirable opportunity for philanthropic efforts--
Tea to be enjoyed, and not misused--The making of tea--The anti-tannic
teapot
The three active principles of coffee--Coffee stimulates the brain--
Coffee relieves fatigue and exhaustion, whether mental or manual--The
virtues of coffee--Coffee as a remedy in different diseases--The
details of coffee roasting--The art of making coffee--The cafetiere,
or French coffee-pot--Proportions of coffee and of chicory in "cafe
noir" and "cafe au lait" respectively--Minute instructions for making
coffee
Universal use of ice in America--Ice indispensable in hot climates--
Expert opinions upon the value of ice in India--Medical authorities
practically unanimous in favour of ice when used with discretion--
Purity of the ice must be ensured
Proportion of smokers to non-smokers--Five out of every six men smoke
--Amount of tobacco used in Australia and in other countries--The
effect of tobacco on the system provisionally divided into three
classes--The principles contained in tobacco--Different results of
combustion from a cigar and from a pipe--Effect of tobacco when it is
unsuitable--Symptoms following excessive smoking--The smokers heart--
Men of middle age often compelled to give up tobacco--Effect of
tobacco upon the palate--Power to appreciate good wine lost after the
first whiff of cigarette, cigar, or pipe
CHAPTER VII. EXERCISE. Effect of exercise upon the muscles--Exercise
removes debris from the system--Bodily health the great desideratum of
the present day--Will power increased by exercise--Exercise improves
the quality of the blood--Exercise strengthens the heart and lungs,
and benefits the nervous system--Every one must perform his own
exercise; no carrying it out by proxy--Walking six miles a day the
orthodox amount of exercise--Early morning exercise not beneficial to
everybody--It is only by exercise, and by exercise alone, that the
different organs are brought to the perfection of health
CHAPTER VIII. ON SCHOOL COOKERY, AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE AUSTRALIAN
DAILY LIFE. Enormous consumption of meat and of tea in Australia--A
contest between a semi-tropical climate and Anglo-Saxon heredities--
Progressive changes in the theories of education--The purpose of
education--School cookery instruction in England and in Australia--
Cookery in its relation to health--Cookery as a preventive of
drunkenness--Cookery in the formation of character--A national plea
on behalf of Australian school cookery
CHAPTER IX. AUSTRALIAN FOOD HABITS, AND THEIR FAULTS--A PLEA FOR THEIR
IMPROVEMENT. Food usually in harmony with climate, except in Australia
--Isothermal lines of Australian cities, Southern Europe, and southern
portion of United States--Australian food habits diametrically opposed
to climate--Lamentable state of Australian cookery--Restricted choice
of vegetables in Australia--Many other desirable vegetables never seen
here, but in great request elsewhere--No possible excuse, as they
would all do well--Extraordinary trouble in popularising the tomato in
Australia--A protest against "boiling," and nothing but "boiling," in
the cookery of vegetables--Cookery must be taught in Australian
schools--No national Australian dish, a reproach to Australia
CHAPTER X. AUSTRALIAN FISH AND OYSTERS--AND THEIR FOOD VALUE. No deep-sea
fisheries in Australia, although her people come from a maritime
stock--The defectiveness of our Australian fish supply--Our primitive
methods of fish capture--The beam-trawl in deep-sea fishing--Drift-net
and other deep-sea fishing--Benefits from the development of our
deep-sea fisheries--Fish markets--The "middleman" controversy--The
distribution of fish to the public--Fishmongers and the sale of fish--
The development of the oyster--The failure in the New South Wales and
Victorian oyster supplies--The recreation of our oyster fisheries--
The food value of the oyster--The food value of fish
CHAPTER XI. ON SALADS; SALAD PLANTS AND HERBS; AND SALAD MAKING. Salads
plainly intended for Australian use--Many people miss the present in
looking for the future--Cookery of the highest excellence amongst all
classes in France--A contrast between the English and the French
methods of making a salad--Detailed instructions for the preparation
of a French salad--Importance of a roomy and properly shaped salad
bowl--Poor display of greengrocery in Australia as compared with the
show of meat--Salad plants in great request elsewhere which might
readily be cultivated in Australia--Salad herbs indispensable to a
proper salad, but entirely unknown in Australia--A complete recipe for
the famous Mayonnaise sauce--An excellent recipe for a herring salad
CHAPTER XII. ON AUSTRALIAN WINE, AND ITS PLACE IN THE AUSTRALIAN DAILY
DIETARY. "With time and care Australia ought to be the vineyard of the
world"--Interesting facts in the early history of the vine in
Australia--Figures showing the possibilities of Australian viticulture
--The climate--The soil--"Cepage," or variety--The preparation of
the soil--Laying-out the vineyard--Whether to plant cuttings or
rooted vines--The height of the vine above the ground--On pruning--
The cellar--The gathering of she grape--Varying additions to the must
--The must itself--Fermentation--THE TASTING AND JUDGING OF WINES--
uniformity required in Australian wines--The future success of the
Australian wine industry, and upon what it depends
PART I.
THE ART OF LIVING IN AUSTRALIA
CHAPTER I. THE CLIMATE OF AUSTRALIA.
Australia, forming as it does a vast island continent in the Southern
world, lies to some extent within the tropical range, for the Tropic of
Capricorn traverses its northern part. At present, however, its most
densely populated portion lies just outside the tropics, and it is this
semi-tropical part of Australia with which we have mostly to do. And
apart, too, from the mere fact of Australia being between certain
parallels of latitude, which makes its climate tropical or semi-tropical,
as the case may be, its position is peculiar in that it forms
this enormous ocean-girt continent already described.
One of the most extraordinary circumstances in connection with the
Australian people is, that they have never yet realized their
semi-tropical environment. It would naturally be supposed that a
dominating influence of this kind would have, from the very first,
exercised an irresistible effect on their mode of living. But, on the
contrary, the type of the Australian dwelling-house, the clothing of the
Australian people, and, what is more significant than anything else, their
food habits, prove incontestably that they have never recognised the
semi-tropical character of their climate all over the rest of the world it
will be found that the inhabitants of different regions adapt
themselves to their surroundings. For instance, the Laplander and the
Hindoo live in such a widely different manner, that one can scarcely
believe they belong to the same human family.
It has, however, been reserved for Australia, strange even from the
first, to prove an exception to this universal law. Yes, strange even
from the first! For did not the earliest arrivals find that the seasons
came at the wrong time of the year; that Christmas-tide came with
sunshine, and that the middle of the year was its coolest part? Were
there not found in it curious animals, partly quadruped, partly bird,
and partly reptile? Were there not discovered, also, other animals who
carried their young in a pouch? Moreover, did Dot these first settlers
see that the trees shed their bark, and not their leaves; and that the
stones were on the outside, not the inside, of the cherries?
But even admitting these peculiarities of season, of FAUNA and of flora
it may be asked, How is it that the people of Australia have never
adapted themselves to their climatic surroundings? The answer, or
rather answers, to such an interrogation must largely consist of
matters of opinion. This being the case, therefore, I call do no more
than attempt to give my own explanation of this singular anomaly. It
must be remembered that the one great impetus to colonisation in
Australia was the discovery of gold in 1851. Up till that time
settlement had been proceeding steadily, it is true. Indeed, one may go
80 far as to say that the development of the country was progressing,
although slowly, on safe and natural lines. But the announcement of the
finding of gold, which was continually being corroborated by successive
reports, acted as an electric stimulus throughout the whole civilized
world. As a consequence shipload after shipload of new comers flocked
to Australia, all aflame with the same ardent desire--gold. Amongst
them were certainly many of the picked men of the earth, whose spirit
will leaven the whole of Australasia for all time to come. Yet even at
the present day we still see the influence of this gold period at work,
in the readiness with which men are caught by any plausible mining
prospectus. They have only to be told that a company is being formed to
extract gold out of road metal, and they are ready to believe it, and,
what is more, prepared to put money into it.
But far better than all this eagerness to amass wealth by some
fortunate COUP, would be the natural development of the country.
Agriculture and market-gardening, vine-growing and wine-making, the
deep-sea fisheries and all the other comparatively neglected
opportunities, only await their expansion into vast sources of wealth.
What wonder, then, that a continent with so much that is wanting in
connection with its food life should be living in a manner distinctly
opposed to its climatological necessities! In the case of America there
is a far different history. Settlement began there in a small way at
first, to gradually expand as time went on. There was no sudden event,
with the exception of the short-lived Californian gold rush of 1849-50,
to set men flocking to its shores in countless legions. No, in America
the inland territory has been peopled, steadily and slowly at first,
but in after years by leaps and bounds, so that its development has
been on a perfectly natural basis.
But there must be something even more than this to explain the want of
adaptation to climate shown in Australia, and it is, I think, to be
found in the following. It must be remembered that Australia has been
peopled chiefly by the Anglo-Saxon race. In such a stock the
traditional tendencies are almost ineradicable, and hence it is that
the descendants of the new comers believe as their fathers, did before
them. It's in the blood. For there can be no doubt but that the
Anglo-Saxon thinks there is only one way of living in every part of the
world--no matter whether the climate be tropical, semi-tropical, or
frigid. Those in the old country live in a certain manner, and all the
rest of the globe have every right to follow their example.
These two facts that Australia was peopled in part by the influx which
followed the discovery of gold, and that its inhabitants belong
essentially to the Anglo-Saxon race, have unquestionably exercised a
great influence over our Australian food-habits. But notwithstanding
these powerful underlying factors, there still remains that most
extraordinary circumstance, to which I at first referred, namely, that
the Australian people have never realized their semi-tropical
environment. In order to assign to this latter the prominence it
deserves, it seems desirable to make special inquiry into the
peculiarities of the climate in its different parts. With that object
in view, therefore, I wrote for certain information to the
observatories of the four principal Australian metropolitan centres,
namely, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, and Brisbane. As has always been
the case, I received the fullest answers to my requests from Mr. H.C.
Russell, Government Astronomer of New South Wales; from Mr. R.L.J.
Ellery, Government Astronomer of Victoria; from Sir Charles Todd,
Government Observer of South Australia; and from Mr. Clement L. Wragge,
Government Meteorologist of Queensland. And it is with a feeling of
considerable indebtedness to these gentlemen that I acknowledge their
uniform kindness. And yet it is important to remember that the annual
temperature, by itself, of any given locality may afford no indication
whatever of its climatic peculiarities. Take for instance the climate
of the North-Eastern portion of the United States. That region is
characterized by intense heat during the summer, and extreme cold in
the winter. In New York, for example, the mean summer temperature
ranges as high as 70.9 degrees, while the mean winter temperature is as
low as 30.1 degrees; yet the mean temperature of the whole year is 53.2
degrees, affording no indication of these extremes. The mean annual
temperature alone, therefore, would be entirely misleading, as it would
give no idea of these alternations of heat and cold. Such being the case,
the actual character of any climate will be far better realized by placing
in juxtaposition the mean annual temperature, the mean temperature of the
hot, and the mean temperature of the cooler months. First of all, then,
I purpose showing the mean annual temperature, and also the mean
temperatures for the hot and cooler months, of the four largest
Australian centres.
TABLE showing the Mean Annual Temperature, and also the Mean Temperatures
for the Hot and Cooler Months, of Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide,
and Brisbane.
Capital. Mean Annual Mean Temperature Mean Temperature
Temeperature for the Hot Months for the Cold Months
Sydney 62.9 70 58.7
Melbourne 57.5 64.9 53.8
Adelaide 63.1 72.4 58.4
Brisbane 67.74 75.2 64.3
Much will be gained by a comparison of these temperatures of the
Australian capitals with those of some other cities in different parts
of the world. A contrast of this kind will, in my opinion, help to a
truer understanding of the climate of these capitals, than any other.
Accordingly I made a successful application to Mr. H.C. Russell, for
the corresponding temperatures of the following cities: London,
Edinburgh, Dublin; Marseilles, Naples, Messina; New York, San
Francisco, New Orleans; Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras.
TABLE showing the Mean Annual Temperature, as well as the Mean Summer
and Winter Temperatures, in twelve different cities.
City. Mean Annual Temp. Mean Summer Temp. Mean Winter Temp.
UNITED KINGDOM
London 50.8 62.9 39.5
Edinburgh 47.5 58 38
Dublin 50 61.1 40.7
. . . .
SOUTHERN EUROPE
Marseilles (France) 58.3 72.9 45.2
Naples (Italy) 62 74.4 47.6
Messina (Sicily) 65.8 77.2 55
. . . .
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
New York 53.2 70.9 30.1
San Francisco 56.2 60 51.6
New Orleans 69.8 82 55.8
. . . .
INDIA
Bombay 78.8 82.6 73.8
Calcutta 78.4 83.3 67.8
Madras 82 86.4 76.6
It has been said that Australia is practically Southern Europe, and to
a very great extent this is perfectly true. It will be seen, however,
on reference to the preceding tables, that the Australian climate is
more equable than that of Southern Europe, for there is not such a
marked difference between the hot and the cooler months. In the New
England States of North America, as exemplified by New York, there are
intensely hot summers and extremely cold winters--to which fact
attention has already been drawn. And lastly, in India, the thermometer
stands at such a height, winter as well as summer, that we can only be
thankful our lines are cast in more pleasant places.
Having thus compared the summer and winter temperatures of the
Australian capitals with those of other cities in different parts of
the world, it will be advisable to direct our attention to some details
connected with the climate of these capitals, and of the corresponding
colonies generally. Commencing with Sydney we find that the climate is
characterized by the absence of very violent changes of temperature,
owing in great measure to its proximity to the ocean, which in winter
is about 10 degrees warmer than the air. Its summer climate is marked by
the absence of hot winds, which do not come more than three or four times,
and the are short-lived, seldom lasting more than five or six hours.
For a short time in the midsummer of each year, Sydney is visited
regularly by moist sea breezes, which are enervating to many persons.
While these continue the temperature seldom rises to 80 degrees, but there
is so much moisture that they are very oppressive. Otherwise the climate
is one of the most enjoyable in the world. In other parts of New South
Wales towns may be found varying in mean temperature from 45.8 degrees at
Kiandra to 69.1 degrees at Bourke. Speaking generally it is a fact that
for the same mean annual temperature in New South Wales the range between
summer and winter temperature is less than it is in Europe.
The climate of Melbourne is characterized by a low average humidity,
moderate rainfall, and moderate winds, strong gales being of her rare
occurrence. The most marked feature is the summer hot wind. A hot wind
is always a northerly wind, and the highest temperature generally
occurs a little before the win changes to west or south-west. When this
takes place a sudden drop to a comparatively low temperature sometimes
follows within a few minutes. These hot winds, however, are not
frequent, only averaging eight or nine per annum. These characteristics
will apply to all Victoria except the mountain ranges, where all
the climatic elements vary with the altitude.
The climate of Adelaide is certainly healthy, and, with the exception
of the extreme heat occasionally experienced in summer, the weather may
be described as enjoyable. It must be remembered, however, that these
high temperatures are always accompanied by extreme dryness, the wet
bulb thermometer usually reading at such times from 30 to 35 degrees, or
even more, below the temperature of the air. The heat is, therefore, more
bearable than if it was combined with the humid atmosphere. When the
thermometer stands perhaps at something over 100 degrees, the wet bulb
thermometer will show 65 degrees, and it is this which enables persons to
bear the heat of the summer and carry on their usual pursuits with less
inconvenience and discomfort than is felt in tropical and damp
climates, though the temperature may be 15 or 20 degrees lower, but nearly
saturated with aqueous vapour, as at Port Darwin, where during the
rainy season of the north-west monsoon the thermometer may stand at
only 88 degrees, whilst the wet bulb at the same time indicates 86
degrees. Such an atmosphere, it need hardly be said, is far more
enervating than the hot and dry air of the Adelaide plains. The summer,
which may be termed warm and dry, usually extends over, say, five months;
and during the remainder of the year the climate is simply perfect. The
temperature in mid-winter over the Adelaide plains rarely, if ever,
reaches the freezing point, although there may be sharp frosts, and on
still clear nights, so frequently experienced, copious dews. On the
ranges, and on the high lying plains 150 miles north of Adelaide, lower
temperatures are reached, indeed in some years there have been falls of
snow.
The climatic features of Brisbane are, as a mean expression, decidedly
semi-tropical. The months from October to March may be classed as
tropic when vegetation makes luxuriant growth, especially if the
rainfall prove abundant. The rest of the year, from April to September,
is marked by a dry, bracing, "continental" climate, during which the
westerly wind often proves very cold, bleaching, and searching
accompanied by great dryness accumulated during the passage of this
current from southern-central Australia. Many settlers affirm that they
feel the peculiar searching character of the dry cold "westerlies" more
keenly than the more "honest" frost of the old country. Yet vigorous
constitutions thoroughly enjoy the bracing nature of the westerly
weather of winter. Hard ground frosts not unfrequently occur in the
Darling Downs and Maranoa districts, especially during May, June, and
July, in connection with the westerly type of climate; and, moreover,
ice has at times been observed in the water-jugs of bedrooms, &c. As
before intimated, the westerly winds are marked by great dryness, so
that (saturation= 100) a percentage of relative humidity below 33 per
cent. may occur during the prevalence of such phenomena, not only in
Brisbane, but especially in the more western districts above mentioned.
Such conditions are characterized by great diathermancy of atmosphere,
and hence are frequently followed by days of considerable heat. Even in
the tropics, in inland districts, ground frosts are known to have
occurred owing to this extreme diathermancy of the atmosphere far from
the coast, and the consequent attendant factor of active terrestrial
radiation. In coast districts, or that fringe of country bordering the
ocean north from Rockhampton, frost is of very rare occurrence, and the
prevailing winds are between south-east and east-north-east, with a
rainfall far more abundant than that obtaining in other parts of
Queensland. The climate of the country surrounding the southern end of
the Gulf of Carpentaria is very hot and trying from November to March,
but genial thenceforward. It is certainly not unhealthy, and the
fevers suffered from in the northern and gulf districts of Queensland
are largely brought on by reckless or needless exposure.
In addition to the foregoing, which has been obtained from head-quarters,
certain questions were submitted by me as to the climatology
of the different colonies. As it will be seen, these interrogations are
somewhat extensive in their scope, and supply knowledge upon points,
which is not ordinarily met with in my descriptions of Australian
climate. In drafting them everything which had a bearing on health was
included as far as possible, and consequently in a work of this kind
they unquestionably deserve a prominent place. In arranging them I
purpose placing the different replies after each question in the
following order, namely, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia,
and Queensland. And in the different answers it should be borne in mind
that Mr. H.C. Russell is responsible for New South Wales; Mr. R.L.J.
Ellery for Victoria; Sir Charles Todd for South Australia; and Mr.
Clement L. Wragge for Queensland.
IS IT NOT A FACT THAT THE TEMPERATURE AND BAROMETRIC PRESSURE ARE
EXPOSED TO SUDDEN AND MARKED CHANGES? HAVE YOU KNOWN THE TEMPERATURE TO
FALL, SAY, AS MUCH AS 22 DEGREES IN 15 MINUTES?
New South Wales.--The temperature sometimes changes rapidly in the
summer, coming with a change from a hot wind to a cold southerly,
although the instances are rare. Once in 30 years I have known such a
change to amount to 20 degrees in 15 minutes. Under ordinary circumstances
the change in temperature from hot to cold wind takes several hours to
amount to 20 degrees. The fluctuations of barometric pressure are
moderate, seldom amounting to half an inch in a day, or an inch in a week.
In England, on the other hand, the pressure sometimes varies quickly to
the extent of two inches.
Victoria.--Yes; the temperature much more so than the barometric
pressure; it has fallen from a high temperature to 20 and even 30
degrees sometimes in as many minutes, when a hot north wind has
suddenly changed to a cold southerly one. But such sudden and great
changes occur very seldom, and then only in the hot summer months, and
are known as "the change." On several occasions in the last 30 years it
has fallen from 105 degrees in the shade to 70 degrees and 65 degrees in
the shade in less than an hour.
South Australia.--Yes, in the summer; but, especially as regards
temperature, rarely in the winter. One notable example occurred on
February 9th, 1887, when during a heavy thunder-storm the temperature
fell 25 degrees in 10 or 15 minutes, followed by a rising temperature. In
other instances the fall of temperature has been almost equally rapid.
From this it will be seen that we are subject to large and quick falls
of temperature following extreme heat. The approach of hot weather is
usually gradual, and the fall abrupt. The barometer has been known to
show a rise of 6/10 of an inch in 24 hours; this, however, is
exceptional.
Queensland.--There is no record of a fall of as much as 22 degrees in 15
minutes. But, on the other hand, a rise of 30 degrees in three hours is a
common feature over the Darling Downs after sunrise. Owing to the
diathermancy of the atmosphere already referred to, it is a fact,
nevertheless, that in the "continental" or inland districts of
Southern Queensland the temperature in winter is subject to sudden and
marked changes. Barometric pressure, owing to the comparatively low
latitude, is not exposed to sudden and marked changes, except during
hurricane conditions, which usually affect the central coast-line in
February and March.
AS A COROLLARY TO THE PRECEDING, WOULD YOU SAY THAT THE CLIMATE
IS MARKED BY GREAT VARIABILITY?
New South Wales.--No; just the opposite. Indeed, as regards Sydney
itself. there are few cities in which so much uniformity of temperature
and slow changes, are to be found. The cause of any great change is the
hot wind, and as that seldom comes more than three or four times in the
year, great changes are infrequent. The mean diurnal range in Sydney is
11 1/2 degrees, and taking a series of years it is very unusual for the
range on any day to reach 25 degrees.
Victoria.--No; because these are exceptional phenomena. In the late
Spring and during early summer the climate may be said to be
occasionally subject to sharp and sudden changes, which give it the
character of variability. But the deviations from mean temperature,
except for short periods, are not remarkable.
South Australia.--Yes, in summer; but not in winter.
Queensland.--Certainly not; with the exception of the wide diurnal
range of temperature in winter in the southern "continental" districts,
as at Cambooya and Thargomindah. The changes are, according to my
knowledge, far more sudden and marked in the southern colonies (as
during a "shift" from N.E. by W., to S.W. for instance, at Melbourne,
and especially at Adelaide) than in Queensland and its coastal
districts.
WITH REGARD TO SUSTAINED, PROLONGED, OR CONTINUED HIGH TEMPERATURES
DURING THE SUMMER MONTHS, FOR HOW MANY DAYS HAVE YOU KNOWN THE
TEMPERATURE REMAIN CONTINUOUSLY AT A HIGH LEVEL? THIS IS A VERY
IMPORTANT QUESTION, AS IT CONCERNS INFANTILE MORTALITY IN NO SMALL
DEGREE; I SHALL BE GRATEFUL FOR YOUR EXPERIENCE?
New South Wales.--Much depends upon what temperature is deemed a "high
level." If we assume that 90 degrees and upwards is a high level, then
such periods are very rare in Sydney; in fact during the past 24 years
there have only been three. In 1868 there were three consecutive hot
days of which the mean temperature was 91.8 degrees; in 1870 a period of
four days with a mean temperature of 91.3 degrees; and in 1874 a period of
four days with a mean temperature of 90.2 degrees. Since then, although
sometimes near it, the temperature has never been for three days over 90
degrees. Taking a lower level, we have one period of nine days in 1870,
the longest on record, during which the mean temperature was 82.6 degrees.
It must, however, be distinctly understood that what is here taken is not
the mean temperature of each 24 hours, but the highest temperature
reached during the day, and which would not as a rule last more than
three or four hours, if so much. If the mean temperature of the day
were taken these temperatures, as given, would have to be reduced at
least 10 per cent.
Victoria.--It is very unusual to have a hot period lasting more than
three days; when it does happen it is generally in February or March.
In the majority of cases high temperatures (over 90 degrees) do not last
more than one or two days. The exceptions generally occur in February or
March, and have sometimes extended to four or five days hot weather,
with a temperature of over 80 degrees with a maximum of about 90 degrees,
has on a few occasions during the last 30 years extended from five to ten
days; and in 1890, a memorable instance, to 12 days (the only case for 37
years).
South Australia.--The longest stretch of continuous heat noted was in
January and February 1857. On January 28th, 29th, and 30th, the
temperature exceeded 100 degrees, and during the whole of February it was
over 90 degrees on 25 days, and above 100 degrees on 12 days, the mean
being 107 degrees. In January 1858 there were 10 consecutive days over 90
degrees, of which eight consecutive days were over 100 degrees. In January
1860 there were in the beginning of the month seven consecutive days,
above 100 degrees (maximum 107.5 degrees). In the middle of the same
month, seven days were over 90 degrees, of which five exceeded 100
degrees, two days reaching 113.7 degrees. These are, however, exceptions
to our usual experience. Although there are several other instances of
great heat, yet the foregoing will suffice to show what we occasionally
suffer without much harm being done.
Queensland.--During the period February 17th to February 23rd, 1891,
the shade temperature at Townsville ranged between 81 degrees and 62
degrees, but at Cairns a range between 82 degrees and 70 degrees is of
frequent occurrence, within at least fortnightly periods.
ANY INFORMATION WITH REGARD TO HUMIDITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE ALSO, WILL BE
OF GREAT VALUE. ALL PHYSICIANS ARE OF OPINION THAT A HIGH TEMPERATURE,
COMBINED WITH MOISTURE, IS VERY IRRITATING TO THE LUNGS OF THOSE
AFFECTED WITH PULMONARY DISEASE.
Before setting forth the different answers in response to this, it will
be desirable to refer briefly to the term "humidity." The humidity of
the atmosphere is defined as the degree of its approach to saturation.
Air completely saturated is represented by 100, and that absolutely
free of vapour by 0. As a matter of fact, however, the latter never
occurs; even in the driest regions of Arabia a humidity of 10 per cent.
is almost unknown. For its estimation the Wet and Dry Bulb thermometers
are employed. These consist of two ordinary thermometers. One has its
bulb exposed so as to register the temperature of the air. The bulb of
the other is covered with muslin; this latter material being kept wet
through its connection with a cotton wick dipping into a vessel of
water. The water ascends from this vessel by capillary attraction,
spreads over the muslin, and evaporates quickly or slowly,
according to the dryness or moistness of the atmosphere. Thus when the
air is driest the difference between the two thermometers will be
greatest, and, on the contrary, when it is completely saturated with
moisture the two readings will be almost identical.
New South Wales.--A considerable part of the colony, forming the
western plains, is subject to great heat, caused, no doubt, by the
sun's great power on treeless plains, and the almost total absence of
cooling winds; yet, although in summer the temperature here frequently
rises over 100 degrees, and sometimes up to 120 degrees, owing to the cold
at night and in winter the mean temperatures are not greater than those of
corresponding latitudes in the northern hemisphere. This region of the
colony is remarkably dry, and stock of all kinds thrive well and are
very free from disease. At Bourke, the driest place in the colony, the
humidity for a long series of years is--in the spring 51 degrees, in the
summer 49 degrees, in the autumn 61 degrees, and in the winter 74 degrees.
At Sydney the humidity in the Spring is 69 degrees, in the summer 70
degrees, in the autumn 79 degrees, and in the winter 79 degrees.
Victoria.--The humidity of the air of Melbourne is low, the average
being 71 per cent. In the summer it falls to 65, and on hot days is
generally very low. The characteristic of our hot weather is that it is
usually extremely dry; the exceptions are very few, and occur in the
late Spring and early autumn during thundery, muggy weather. On the
hottest days, with north winds, the dryness makes the heat much more
endurable, and the humidity frequently falls to between 30 and 40 per
cent.
South Australia.--Attention has already been drawn to the fact that
the hot, dry air met with on the Adelaide plains is far more endurable
than a lower temperature in which the atmosphere is surcharged with
aqueous vapour. A damp atmosphere is a rare thing in South
Australia during the summer, though in March there are at times some
warm and humid days. In the winter the air for the most part is dry,
although the nights are often damp. The Mount Lofty Ranges, close to
Adelaide, afford a cool retreat; they have a very large rainfall, in
some years over 50 inches. The climate at Mount Gambier, in the
south-eastern part of the colony, is cooler and damper; it has also a much
heavier rainfall than the Adelaide plains.
OF WHAT DURATION ARE THE DIFFERENT SEASONS, AND TO WHAT MONTHS WOULD
YOU APPORTION EACH SEASON?
New South Wales and Victoria.--Spring--September, October, November;
Summer--December, January, February; Autumn--March, April, May;
Winter--June, July, August.
South Australia.--Spring--September, October; Summer comprises the
five months from November to March inclusive; Autumn--April, May;
Winter--June, July, August. Practically, in South Australia the year
may be divided into two seasons, namely, Spring, the seven months from
April to October inclusive; and Summer, the five months from November
to March inclusive.
Queensland.--With regard to Southern Queensland, the seasons may be
provisionally apportioned as follows: Spring--August, September,
October; Summer--November, December, January, February, Autumn--
March, April, May; Winter--June, July.
WHAT ARE THE PREVAILING WINDS, AND WHAT PARTICULAR ROLE DO THE HOT
WINDS PLAY?
New South Wales.--A general statement is not sufficient, for the winds
vary much at different places; but taking the colony as a whole, its
prevailing winds come from some point between north-west and
south-west, and hence the dry climate. In Sydney no less than 39.6 per
cent. of the wind comes from this quarter. The winds known as southerly
bursters are generally to be expected from November to the end of
February; they are always attended with strong electrical excitement, a
stream of sparks being sometimes produced for an hour at the
electrometer. The approach of the true burster is indicated by a
peculiar roll of clouds, which, when once seen, cannot be mistaken. It
is just above the South horizon, and extends on either side of it 15
degrees or 20 degrees, and looks as if a thin sheet of cloud were being
rolled up like a scroll by the advancing wind. The change of wind is
sometimes very sudden; it may be fresh N.E. and in ten minutes a gale
from S. Hence vessels not on the look-out are sometimes caught unprepared,
and suffer accordingly. When a southerly wind commences anywhere south of
Sydney it is at once telegraphed to its principal coast towns, and a
signal put up indicating its approach. As to the hot winds, they are so
insignificant in number that it cannot be said they play any particular
ROLE. Their effect is to raise the temperature, because they flow from
the heated interior of Australia; but they do not last long. and for
the majority of people are dry, healthy winds. Indeed, they are by no
means so oppressive as the warm north-east wind, so charged with
moisture, which comes in the summer.
Victoria.--In summer the N. winds blow to the extent of 8 per cent.,
the S.W. winds 24.1 per cent., and the S. winds 201 per cent.
Northerly, or warm-quarter winds, in summer are 20 per cent., and
southerly, or cool-quarter winds, 64 per cent. The northerly winds in
winter, however, are bleak and cold, like easterly winds in England.
The particular ROLE played by the hot wind is to precede a cyclonic
movement, and is always in front of a low pressure area or V-shaped
depression. It is frequently followed by thunderstorms and rain
of short duration. It dries the surface and raises dust storms when
strong. So far as its effects on the people are concerned, it does not
appear to hinder the ordinary occupations of life. Some invalids are
better during its continuance, some worse; but all weakly people feel
some depression after "the change" comes. The aged are generally better
in hot winds, unless they suffer from disease.
South Australia.--As far as the southern regions of the colony are
concerned, we may say, speaking generally, that light winds and calms
are a very distinctive characteristic. The prevailing wind in the
summer is the S.E., varied by sea-breezes during the day. In the winter
there are mostly dry, cold N.E. winds, broken at intervals by westerly
and S.W. gales of moderate strength, squalls, and rain. The best and
heaviest rainfalls are those which set in with the surface winds at
N.E., the rain increasing in intensity as the wind veers to N.W., and
breaking up into showers and squalls as it veers to S.W. In the
interior, north of, say, latitude 30 degrees to about 18 degreess., the
prevailing wind all the year is the S.E. North of latitude 18 degrees to
the north coast the country is well within the influence of the north-nest
monsoon during the summer months, with frequent thunderstorms and heavy
rains; and during, the winter dry S.E. winds prevail.
Queensland.--Eastern Queensland (or rather the Pacific Slope) is very
seldom troubled with hot winds. The hot winds of "continental"
Queensland are always very dry, and are usually accompanied by dust
storms.