(228-651 A.D.)
While the Arsacids were ruling their kingdom and lording it
over the minor kings of the neighbouring country, the rulers
of Persis (or Persia proper) seem to have occupied an isolated
position and not been included in the Parthian empire. At the
beginning of the third century A.D. the kings of Persia have
lost all power of keeping the empire together; all the land is
ruled by a number of local potentates. One of these is Pabak,
son and descendant of a certain Sasan of Khir. Pabak conquers
considerable territory beyond his own dominions. On his death
the succession of Shapur or Sapor, the eldest son, is disputed
by Ardashir, a younger son. Sapor dies suddenly and Ardashir
puts his other brother to death, and settles himself on his
throne in 211 or 212 A.D. About 224 he invades the land of the
“great king” Artabanus IV of Parthia, and by 228 the conquest
is complete and the title of “great king” devolves upon
Ardashir. He makes his capital at Ctesiphon.
228 Foundation of the Sassanian empire by =Ardashir=
or =Artaxerxes=. He passes his reign in extending and
consolidating his empire.
236-238 War with Rome. Nisibis and Carrhæ taken.
241 Death of Ardashir. His son =Shapur= or =Sapor I= succeeds.
242 Sapor penetrates to Antioch but is driven back by the
Romans.
244 Philippus concludes a humiliating peace with Sapor. Peace
reigns until
251 when Sapor invades Armenia and puts the king to flight. The
Persians now make repeated invasions of Syria.
258 The Roman emperor Valerian takes the field against the
Persians.
260 Capture of Valerian by Sapor. He proceeds towards Asia
Minor but is repulsed by Odenathus, king of Palmyra, who
lays siege to Ctesiphon. Sapor acquires no permanent gain of
territory. In his reign Mani preaches his doctrines tending
to the amalgamation of Christianity and Zoroastrianism, and
leading to the formation of the Manichæan sect.
272 or 273 Sapor succeeded by his son =Hormuz= (=Hormizd=) or
=Hormisdas I=.
274 Death of Hormuz and accession of his brother (?) =Bahram=
or =Varanes I=--a weak prince, given to pleasure. Mani executed
in his reign. Persecution of the Manichæans and Christians.
277 =Bahram= or =Varanes II= succeeds his father. He wars with
Rome, ending
282 with a peace with Probus.
283 After murder of Probus, Carus invades Persia, takes
Ctesiphon and Coche, and dies suddenly. There are civil
wars, probably led by a brother of the king, assisted by the
barbarous tribes in the northwest.
294 Death of Bahram. The throne seems to be contested by
=Bahram= or =Varanes III=, probably a son of Hormuz, who reigns
a short time, and =Narses= or =Narseh=, who soon gains the
upper hand.
297 Narseh occupies Armenia and defeats the Roman general
Galerius.
298 Peace with Rome after a great defeat of Narseh by Galerius.
Armenia and Mesopotamia ceded to Rome. Peace lasts forty years.
303 Abdication of Narseh in favour of his son =Hormuz II=.
310 Death of Hormuz. His son =Adharnarseh= succeeds, but is
soon deposed for cruelty. His brothers are killed or imprisoned
and the new born (or unborn) son of Hormuz, =Shapur= or =Sapor
(II) Postumus= is chosen king. He proves to be the greatest of
the Sassanians.
337 Sapor begins a long war with Rome, owing to the latter
becoming Christianised.
339-340 Terrible persecution of the Christians in Persia. The
war with Rome continues. Sapor aims to seize Nisibis and reduce
Armenia.
348 Great defeat of the emperor Constantius at the battle of
Singara.
350 Sapor almost succeeds in capturing Nisibis when troubles
with the barbarians in the East compel him to raise the siege.
350-358 War in the East causes almost complete suspension in
the conflict with Rome.
358 Peace made in the East and Romans sue for peace. Sapor
declines and war is continued.
359 Sapor captures Amida, but the Romans regain it the
following year. Hostilities are suspended until
363 when the emperor Julian attempts to strike a death-blow at
Sapor. He takes Seleucia but fails to capture Ctesiphon. Death
of Julian in battle. His successor Jovian makes a shameful
peace with Sapor, granting him the lands east of the Tigris,
and part of Mesopotamia with Nisibis and Singara. The Romans
also agree not to help Arsaces of Armenia, and Sapor proceeds
against him.
365-366 Reduction of Armenia and Iberia by Sapor.
371 The Romans attempt to recover Armenia, but fail through
breaking out of the Gothic war.
379 Death of Sapor, succeeded by his brother =Ardashir II=.
383 or 384 Ardashir deposed by the nobles towards whom he has
been very severe. =Shapur= or =Sapor III=, probably a son of
Sapor II, raised to the throne. He makes a definite treaty of
peace with Rome.
388 or 389 Murder of Sapor by the nobles. His brother (or
perhaps son) =Bahram= or =Varanes III= succeeds.
390 Division of Armenia between Persia and Rome by treaty. The
division practically lasts until Arab times.
399 Assassination of Bahram. =Yezdegerd= or =Jezdegird (I) the
Sinner=, son of Sapor I or Sapor II, succeeds. He is friendly
to Rome, and Arcadius appoints him the guardian of his son
Thedorius. He sets his son Sapor on the throne of Pers-Armenia.
420 Death of Yezdegerd, probably slain by the nobles. Sapor
hurries from Armenia to take throne, but is slain. A certain
Khosrau or Chosroes is made king, but another son of Yezdegerd,
=Bahram= or =Varanes (V) the Wild Ass=, succeeds in getting
the throne, with the help of the Arabs, among whom he has been
living in exile. This is the first intervention of the Arabs in
the affairs of Persia.
421 War breaks out with Rome, probably instigated by the nobles
hostile to the king. Persians defeated, and
422 peace is made, giving religious freedom to Christians in
Persia, and to Zoroastrians in the Roman Empire. There is
constant warfare with Hephthalites or White Huns during this
reign.
429 Bahram reduces Pers-Armenia to a province.
438 or 439 Bahram succeeded by his son, =Yezdegerd II=, who is
cruel to the Jews and Christians. He suffers severe defeats
from the White Huns.
451 A severe rebellion, due to religious persecutions, breaks
out in Pers-Armenia, and is quelled with difficulty.
457 Death of Yezdegerd, and contest for the throne, between his
two sons, =Hormuz III= and =Peroz= or =Peroses=. The latter
is finally successful, owing to assistance from the White
Huns. Peroz persecutes Jews and Christians, but favours the
Nestorians, when they are driven from Rome.
484 Defeat and death of Peroz in a great battle with the White
Huns, with whom he has been at war for some years. Revolt in
Armenia put down by Zarmihr. =Balash=, Peroz’s brother, made
king. He puts his brother, Zareh, a claimant of the throne, to
death.
488 or 489 Balash deposed by the nobles, and blinded. =Kavadh
I= or =Kobad=, son of Peroz, succeeds him. Kobad favours Mazdak
and his new communistic religion, and in consequence
496 is deposed and imprisoned. His brother, =Jamasp= or
=Zames=, is placed on the throne. Kobad escapes to the White
Huns, and with their help
498 or 499 recovers his kingdom.
502 Kobad begins an exhausting war with Rome, which opens
the way for the Arabian conquests. He seizes Theodosiopolis,
capital of Roman Armenia.
503 Fall of Amida, and terrible massacre of the inhabitants.
The Romans recover it the following year.
506 Peace concluded with Rome. The Romans build the great
fortress at Dara.
521 War renewed with Rome. Belisarius first comes to the front
as a general. Narses and his brother desert Kobad, and join the
army of Justin.
529 Mundhir of Hira invades Syria. Kobad massacres the
Mazdukites, who have become too powerful.
531 Kobad makes campaign in Syria. Belisarius compels him to
turn back. Defeat of Belisarius at Rakka. Persian successes in
Mesopotamia. Death of Kobad and truce with Rome. =Khosrau= or
=Chosroes (I) the Just=, his son, succeeds. His wise internal
government benefits the kingdom greatly.
532 “A Perpetual Peace” made with Rome.
540 Chosroes, jealous of Belisarius’ conquests in Africa and
Italy, goes to war with the empire. He invades Syria, Antioch
taken, Dara laid under tribute. Ctesiphon is captured.
541 Chosroes takes Petra in Lazistan.
546 Rome buys a truce for a large sum.
551 The son of Chosroes rebels in Susiana. He is taken and
partially blinded.
560 The Turks take the right bank of the Oxus from the White
Huns. Bactria becomes a part of Chosroes’ kingdom.
562 Fifty years’ peace made with the Romans.
570 Chosroes sends an expedition against the Christian
Abyssinians in Yemen. He puts them under tribute.
571 War breaks out with Rome, over the threatened loss of
Pers-Armenia.
573 Chosroes takes Dara. The war continues.
579 Death of Chosroes, succeeded by his son, =Hormuz= or
=Hormisdas IV=. He makes a severe but just ruler. The war with
Rome and a severe one with the Turks fill his reign.
589 The general Bahram, defeated by the Romans in the Caucasus.
He is removed by Hormuz, and revolts. The king’s son, Chosroes,
joins the rebels.
590 Hormuz is deposed, and shortly afterwards put to death.
His son, =Khosrau= or =Chosroes (II) Parvez=, succeeds. Bahram
contests the crown, and seizes it. =Bahram= or =Varanes VI=
puts down an insurrection in Ctesiphon.
591 Chosroes recovers the throne, with help of the emperor
Maurice. Bahram flees to the Turks, and is murdered. Chosroes
strengthens his position, and puts his brother, Bindoe to
death. Another brother, Bistam, escapes to Media and makes
himself king.
595 or 596 Death of Bistam.
604 War breaks out with Rome, over usurpation of Phocas. Dara
captured by Chosroes.
606-608 The Persians invade Asia Minor. They advance as far as
Chalcedon.
610 Chosroes abolishes the kingdom of Hira.
614 The Persians capture Damascus.
615 The Persians capture Jerusalem and the holy cross.
616 Persian invasion of Egypt.
617 The Persians occupy Chalcedon.
622 Heraclius proceeds in person against the Persians, and
gradually wins back the Persian conquests.
628 Heraclius reaches Ctesiphon but is unable to take it.
Rebellion in Ctesiphon. Chosroes and most of his family are
slain. His eldest son =Kavadh (Kobad) II=, or =Siroes=, is
made king. He murders most of his brothers, and sues for peace
from the Roman Empire. A terrible pestilence breaks out and
Kobad dies. His infant son, =Ardashir III=, succeeds. He is the
last male Sassanid. The throne is disputed by many claimants.
Chosroes, a son of Kobad II, makes himself king in Khorasan,
but is soon slain.
629 The holy cross is returned to Heraclius. The general
Shahrbaraz is supported in a claim to the throne by Heraclius.
He takes Ctesiphon.
630 Murder of Ardashir, followed by that of Shahrbaraz. =Boran=
or =Puran=, a daughter of Chosroes II, takes the throne. She
makes a treaty with Heraclius.
631 Boran succeeded by =Peroz (Peroses) II=, who rules but a
short time; then =Azarmidokht=, sister of Boran, takes the
throne. =Hormuz V=, grandson of Chosroes II, maintains a rule
over a portion of the country for a short time.
632 Azarmidokht dethroned by Rustem, hereditary marshal of
Khorasan. =Ferrukhzadh= reigns a short time in Ctesiphon.
632 or 633 =Yezdegerd III=, grandson of Chosroes II, is put
forward by some of the nobles and crowned. Ferrukhzadh is slain
and Yezdegerd acknowledged as sole king. He declines to accept
the Mohammedan religion at invitation of Abu Bekr, and the
Moslems invade Persia.
636 Persian defeat by the Moslems at Cadesia, or Kadisiya.
640 or 642 The “Victory of Victories” by the Arabs over the
Persians at Nehavend. The last great Persian army is shattered.
The nobles gradually yield to the Arab chiefs. Yezdegerd is
driven from place to place, continually shorn of more and more
power until he is murdered in 651, and Persia becomes part of
the Mohammedan dominions.
THE ARABS
THE PRE-MOHAMMEDAN ERA
Before the Mohammedan conquests, Arabia is divided into a
number of local monarchies. In these we recognise two distinct
origins.
(1) Those ruled by a race of southern origin--the genuine or
Kahtanee Arabs. Their monarchies form a rim around the wild and
desert centre of the peninsula.
(2) The centre of Arabia is occupied by nomadic races--the
Mustareb Arabs, of northern origin, descendants of a mythical
Adnan.
THE KAHTANEE KINGDOMS (_ca._ 380 B.C.-634 A.D.)
The kingdom of Yemen is the most important and powerful of
these. It occupies a portion of the ancient Arabia Felix.
Descendants of Kahtan and Himyar--names of African origin--its
monarchs rule over the whole of southern Arabia from about
380 B.C., with but few interruptions. The capital is first
at Mareb and then at Sana. The northern kingdoms are more or
less tributary. The Persians, Greeks, and Macedonians make no
attempts upon Arabia, if we except the frontier skirmishes of
Antigonus and Ptolemy. Rome had an eye to its conquest. Pompey,
the first to attempt it, is foiled, and it was not until
B.C.
25 when Ælius Gallus, the prefect of Egypt, undertakes an
expedition at the command of Augustus. His army is unable to
support the hardships of the desert, and the following year
the Arabs drive the remnant out. Later attempts under Trajan
and Severus do not succeed beyond the frontier, and Bosrah and
Petra mark the extreme limits of Roman dominion.
A.D.
100 Probable date of the great flood of Arem or Mareb, which
leads to the foundation of other Arab kingdoms.
529 The Abyssinians, under Aryat, invade Yemen, to avenge the
Christians persecuted by =Dhu-Nowas= the king. Dhu-Nowas is
killed, and the Abyssinians rule the kingdom until
605 when Saif, with the assistance of Chosroes the Great,
restores the Kahtanee dynasty, but it becomes dependent on
Persia.
634 Mohammedan conquest of Yemen.
THE KINGDOM OF HIRA (195-610 A.D.)
Next in importance to Yemen. It is situated in Irak. Founded
about 195 A.D. by =Malik=, it is more or less under allegiance
to the Persians, but exercises considerable control over the
Mustareb Arabs.
529 =Mundhir III=, king of Hira, who has been driven from the
throne by Kavadh I of Persia, because he is too powerful,
invades Syria, cruelly ravaging the country as far as Antioch.
He kills Harith, whom Kavadh has set over his kingdom, and is
finally himself killed, in 554, by a Roman vassal.
610 Chosroes II puts an end to the kingdom of Hira.
THE KINGDOM OF GHASSAN (300-636 A.D.)
Founded about 300 by =Thalaba=, the first to take the name
of king. His successors rule until 636, when =Djabala VI=
surrenders to the Mohammedans.
THE KINGDOM OF KINDEH
A small kingdom, of Yemenite origin, which detaches itself from
Irak in the fifth century A.D. and maintains its existence for
about 160 years, when it is absorbed by the Mustarebs.
THE MUSTAREB KINGDOMS
The northern tribes inhabiting central Arabia, or Arabia
Petræa, become consolidated into five kingdoms:
Rabiah, in the east centre of the peninsula.
Kais, or Kais-Ailan, in the north.
Hawazin, in the north.
Tamin, in the middle.
They are, from the time of their foundation, more or less
tributary to Yemen until
500 They make themselves independent, under the leadership
of Kolaib, who now tries to unite his people in a single
confederacy, but the plan is frustrated by his assassination.
The tribes now lead a warlike, disorganised existence,
encroaching slowly upon the Kahtanee kingdoms. During this
period the tribe of Koreish becomes prominent. Tradition
assigns their origin to Ishmael, and they have become the
guardians of the sacred Kaaba. This gives them pre-eminence
over all other Arabian clans, and at the beginning of the
seventh century A.D. the tribe of Koreish and its Mustareb
allies is the most powerful confederacy in Arabia, the Kahtanee
kingdoms having become more or less vassals of the Persian and
Byzantine empires.
THE KINGDOM OF NABATÆA
The Nabatæans are a famous people of ancient Arabia. Secure
knowledge of their history goes back only to 312 B.C., when
Antigonus failed to take their fortress of Petra. They are
described by Diodorus as a pastoral and trading people,
preserving their liberty in the arid country of Arabia Petræa.
At the fall of the Seleucids they extend their territory over
the fertile country east of the Jordan. They occupy the Hauran.
Pompey reduces them to vassalage, and in 105 A.D. Trajan takes
Petra and breaks up the Nabatæan nation.
MOHAMMED AND HIS SUCCESSORS (570-661 A.D.)
_ca._ 570 Birth of =Mohammed=, of a noble Koreish family, at
Mecca.
605-610 Years of meditation, during which the principles of
Mohammedanism are developed.
610 Year of the “call,” Mohammed begins to make converts.
Opposition to his doctrines increases among the Meccans until
622 he flees with a body of followers to Medina. The Hegira.
Beginning of the Mohammedan era.
623 The first mosque built. Mohammed becomes a warrior.
624 First battle for the faith with the Meccans at Bedr.
Victory of Mohammed.
625 Battle of Ohod, and victory of the Meccans.
627 War of the Fosse. The Koreish make terms with Mohammed.
628 War against the Jews of Khaibar.
629 War against the Greek subjects in Arabia.
630 Mohammed moves against Mecca. He conquers it. War with the
Hawazin. Rapid spread of Islam.
632 Death of Mohammed. He leaves the entire peninsula, with the
exception of a few tribes, under one sceptre and one creed. His
father-in-law, =Abu Bekr=, is chosen caliph, or representative.
An army under Khalid sets out against the Byzantine Empire. Abu
Bekr reduces a revolt in Nejd and Yemen, and defends Medina.
633 Khalid, on the lower Euphrates, is called to Syria.
634 Khalid captures Bosrah and overruns the Hauran. Death of
Abu Bekr. =Omar= succeeds.
635 Capture of Damascus.
636 Emesa, Heliopolis, Chalcis, Berœa, and Edessa added to the
Mohammedan empire. Battle of the Hieromax (Yermuk). Heraclius
abandons Syria to the Moslems.
637 Battle of Cadesia, or Kadisiya, and victory over the
Persians. Omar captures Jerusalem, and follows it up by taking
Aleppo and Antioch.
638 Mesopotamia is conquered by the Mohammedans, also Tarsus
and Diar-Bekr.
639 Invasion of Egypt by Amru.
641 Battle of Nehavend, and great victory of the Mohammedans
over the Persians. Most of the Persian nobility come to terms
with the Mohammedans. Yezdegerd the king flees to a remote
corner of the realm, where he holds a vestige of power until
651 or 652. Alexandria captured.
644 Death of Omar, succeeded by =Othman=, a weak ruler, who
allows the power to fall into the hands of the Koreish nobility.
647 Invasion of Africa by Abdallah. Arabian victories,
expelling the Romans.
649 Invasion of Cyprus.
650 Conquest of Aradus.
652 Conquest of Armenia.
654 Conquest of Rhodes.
655 Defeat of the emperor Constans by the Mohammedans in naval
battle off Mt. Phœnix in Lycia.
656 Murder of Othman by a party in opposition to the growing
worldliness of Islam. =Ali=, of the opposition, and son-in-law
of Mohammed, succeeds. Battle of the Camel. Ali victorious over
his opponents. Moawiyah, governor of Syria, heads the opponents
of Ali, and incites them to revenge.
657 Ali invades northern Syria. Battle of Siffin. The
theocratic faction rebels against Ali.
658 Decision of the umpires, Ali and Moawiyah; the latter wins.
Peace made with the Byzantine Empire. Egypt conquered for
Moawiyah.
660 Truce between Ali and Moawiyah, dividing the caliphate into
the East and West divisions.
661 Kharejite conspiracy to murder Ali, Moawiyah, and Amru. The
former alone falls. His son =Hassan= succeeds, but abdicates in
favour of Moawiyah.
THE OMAYYAD DYNASTY (661-750 A.D.)
661 =Moawiyah= at head of the reunited caliphate. The
opposition to him is gradually reduced. The capital is removed
to Damascus.
662-663 Great invasion of Asia Minor. Death of Amru.
668 Mohammedans advance to Chalcedon and hold Amorium for a
short time.
669 Great invasion of Sicily.
670 Foundation of Kairwan.
673-677 The Mohammedans besiege Constantinople, and are finally
driven off by means of Greek fire.
676 Yazid, son of Moawiyah, is appointed heir-apparent.
Hereditary nomination becomes a precedent.
678 Thirty years’ peace made with Constantine IV of
Constantinople.
680 Death of Moawiyah. =Yazid I= succeeds. The Ali faction
refuse recognition. Hosein, son of Ali, and his company slain.
681 Abdallah ben Zobair proclaims himself caliph.
683 Rebellion and sack of Medina. The cause of Ibn Zobair
grows. He maintains a rival court at Mecca, and rebuilds the
Kaaba.
684 Death of Yazid. His weak son, =Moawiyah II=, reigns but a
few months. =Merwan= elected to succeed.
685 Death of Merwan. His son, =Abdul-Malik=, succeeds. Peace
with the emperor Justinian II.
685-687 Rebellion of Mukhtar. He is defeated and slain.
689 Abdul-Malik has Amru put to death.
692 Death of Ibn Zobair. The Omayyad rule is recognised without
dispute.
692-693 The Mohammedans ravage Asia Minor and Armenia, but are
compelled to accept peace.
695 The peace is broken. Arabic coinage first substituted for
that of the Byzantine Empire.
697-698 Hassan’s invasion of Africa. Carthage taken. The last
remnants of the Roman Empire disappear from the southern shore
of the Mediterranean.
705 Death of Abdul-Malik and succession of his brother, =Walid
I=, already designated as heir to the caliphate. His reign
marks the culminating glory of the Omayyads. Schools founded,
and public works of all kinds promoted.
709 Conquest of Tyana by the Mohammedans.
711 Invasion of Spain at instigation of Julian, governor of
Ceuta. Battle of Xerxes. Tarik destroys the Visigothic kingdom.
712 The Mohammedans take Antioch in Pisidia. In these years
great success of the generals Kotaiba and Muhammed b. Kasim in
Asia.
715 Death of Walid and accession of =Suleiman=, the
predesignated heir.
716 The Mohammedans invade Asia Minor. Siege of Amorium. The
town is relieved by Leo the Isaurian.
717 Siege of Pergamus. Siege of Constantinople. Death of
Suleiman. The appointed heir =Omar II=, grandson of Merwan I,
succeeds.
718 Repulse of the Mohammedans from Constantinople. In revenge
the caliph excludes all Christians from service in the state.
Omar’s reign is not distinguished by any important warlike
events. It marks the beginning of the Abbasid movement in
favour of the descendants of Abbas, uncle of the prophet,
acquiring the caliphate.
720 Death of Omar. =Yazid II=, son of Abdul-Malik, succeeds.
Yazid b. Muhallab, who has been in disgrace for some years,
collects a small army and takes Basra (Bassora).
721 Death of Ibn Muhallab in battle. The Mohammedans cross the
Pyrenees and capture Narbonne, but, defeated at Toulouse, they
retire under Abd ar-Rahman.
724 Death of Yazid. His son =Hisham=, the appointed heir,
succeeds. He is a severe and pious ruler.
725 Abbasid revolt at Balkh. Abbasid troubles continue.
726 The Mohammedans invade Cappadocia.
734 Mohammedan invasion of Asia Minor.
737 Peace restored in the Abbasid faction.
739 Great Moslem defeat by the Byzantines at Acroinon. Death of
Sid (Said) al-Battal. The Saracen power ceases to be formidable
to the empire.
743 Death of Hisham. His nephew, =Walid II=, succeeds. Walid’s
debaucheries and irreligion make him hated. Yazid, son of Walid
I, assumes title of caliph, and is received at Damascus, in
absence of Walid.
744 Death of Walid in battle with his rival. =Yazid III=
succeeds. Signs of disintegration become marked. Abd ar-Rahman
b. Muhammed declares himself independent in Africa. Revolt of
Emesa over Walid’s death, and defeat of rebels at Eagle’s Pass.
Merwan, Yazid’s grandfather, attempts to obtain caliphate.
Yazid makes him governor of Mesopotamia. Death of Yazid, after
reign of six months. His brother, Ibrahim, succeeds. Merwan
marches against Damascus. Ibrahim flees, after reign of two
months, and =Merwan II= is acknowledged caliph.
746 Mohammedan invasion of Cyprus.
750 As a result of the ferment in the eastern part of the
empire, the Abbasid Abul-Abbas assumes title of caliph. War
between Omayyads and Abbasids. Battle of the Zab. Defeat of
Merwan, and downfall of the Omayyad dynasty.
THE ABBASID DYNASTY (750-1258 A.D.)
750 =Abul-Abbas= established in the caliphate. He has all
the Omayyad princes (except Abd ar-Rahman b. Moawiyah, who
escapes to Africa) put to death. Revolts break out, owing to
his cruelty, but they are suppressed. Abul-Abbas fixes his
residence at Anbar.
754 Death of Abul-Abbas. He has designated =Abu Jafar=
(=Al-Mansur=), his cousin, as his successor. Abdallah b. Ali
revolts, but is defeated at Nisibis. Several risings are
suppressed. Revolt in Africa, which hereafter only nominally
belongs to the caliphs.
755 The Mohammedans in Spain elect Abd ar-Rahman b. Moawiyah
caliph. Spain lost to the Abbasids.
756 Foundation of the western Omayyad caliphate.
756-757 Invasion of Asia Minor. Capture of Malatiya. Defeat of
the Byzantines in Cilicia. Seven years’ truce with the emperor.
762 Baghdad made the capital of the caliphate.
763 Muhammed Mahdi falls in battle, after having caused himself
to be proclaimed caliph. His brother, Ibrahim, also revolts,
and is killed in battle.
775 Death of Mansur. His son, =Muhammed= (=Al-Mahdi=),
succeeds. He busies himself at once with improving internal
conditions and restoring peace. Revolt of Hakim in Khorasan.
Continued invasion of Asia Minor.
780 Capture of Semaluos by Harun ar-Rashid.
782 Renewal of war between Moslems and Byzantines. Victory
for the latter in Cilicia. Harun ar-Rashid takes command. He
marches to the Bosporus, and compels the empress Irene to pay
large yearly tribute.
785 Rebellion of Mahdi’s eldest son, Musa, because Harun is
preferred as heir. Death of Mahdi on his way to crush the
rebellion. Musa, who takes the title Hadi, succeeds. Rising of
Hosein b. Ali suppressed.
786 Hadi attempts to exclude Harun from the caliphate, and is
smothered at instigation of his mother. =Harun ar-Rashid=, the
most celebrated of the caliphs, succeeds without opposition.
789 The Arabs invade Rumania.
792-793 Suppression of the party formed by Yahya b. Abdallah.
797-798 Continued victories over the Byzantines cause the
empress Irene to sue for peace. The Khazars driven out of
Armenia.
800 The Aglabite dynasty founded at Kairwan.
801 Harun sends an embassy to Charlemagne.
802 The emperor Nicephorus refuses to continue payment of
tribute. Harun makes such a devastating invasion of Asia Minor
that Nicephorus sues for peace. He breaks it the next year, and
the same process is repeated.
804-805 Rebellion in Khorasan.
806 Peace renewed with Nicephorus after hostilities have once
more been begun.
808 Edrisite dynasty founded at Fez.
809 Death of Harun on the way to quell disturbances in
Khorasan. His reign is a flourishing period of art and science.
His son, =Emin=, succeeds. His reign is mostly taken up with
the rebellion of his brother, Mamun, who gradually wins all the
provinces, except Baghdad, to his side.
813 Capture and assassination of Emin. =Mamun= proclaimed at
Baghdad. The civil war continues.
817 Mamun appoints Musa b. Ali heir to the throne, whereupon
the people of Baghdad declare Mamun deposed and elect his
uncle, Ibrahim, caliph. Sudden death of Musa.
820 Appointment of Tahir as governor of Khorasan, where his
descendants rule until 872--sometimes called Tahirite dynasty.
829 Euphemius invites the Mohammedans from Africa into Sicily.
They take Palermo.
831 The Mohammedans begin a long invasion of Asia Minor.
832 Capture of Heraclea.
833 Death of Mamun. His reign is the Augustan age of Arabian
literature. Works on science and philosophy translated from the
Greek. Mamun orders the measurement of a degree of the earth’s
circumference. The designated heir, his brother =Mutasim=,
succeeds. A party in favour of Mamun’s son, Abbas, is put down.
Mutasim employs Turks in his body-guard, and their excesses
cause Baghdad to revolt. The caliph removes the capital to
Samarra.
836 The emperor Theophilus destroys Zapetra in his savage war
on the Moslems.
838 Moslem victory at Dasymon. Amorium captured. Second revolt
of Abbas, who dies in prison.
841 Death of Mutasim. His son, =Wathik=, succeeds. The
caliphate begins to decline.
845 Truce with the empress Theodora.
847 Death of Wathik. The state officials elect his son,
Muhammed, to succeed, but immediately recall their choice and
substitute Wathik’s brother, =Mutawakkil=. He is noteworthy for
his atrocious cruelty, and persecutes the Jews and Christians.
852 Serious revolt in Armenia suppressed in four years.
858 A great war with the Byzantines begins in Asia Minor. The
Mohammedans capture the Byzantine commander.
860 Byzantine defeat near Melitene.
861 Murder of Mutawakkil by his Turkish guard, bribed by his
son, =Muntasir=, who takes the caliphate.
862 Death of Muntasir, probably by poison. His cousin, Akhmed,
who takes name of =Mustain=, is chosen to succeed by the
Turkish soldiery.
863 Great victory of the Byzantines over the Moslems at Amasia.
Death of the general, Omar. Peace for some years results.
866 The Turks revolt against Mustain and choose his brother,
=Motazz=, caliph. Surrender of Motazz, who is put to death. He
tries to free himself of the yoke of the Turkish soldiery.
869 The Turks besiege the caliph, who is imprisoned and dies.
=Mutahdi=, son of Wathik, is chosen caliph. He tries in vain to
reform the empire.
870 Mutahdi slain by the Turks. =Mutamid=, son of Mutawakkil,
chosen as caliph. He reduces the power of the Turkish soldiery,
and re-establishes capital at Baghdad.
872 The Tahirites overthrown in Persia, and the Saffarid
dynasty founded. War with Byzantines recommences.
878 Akhmed b. Tulun, governor of Egypt, makes himself
independent, and founds Tulunite dynasty that lasts until 905.
887-888 Mohammedan invasions of Asia Minor.
892 Death of Mutamid. His nephew, =Mutadid=, succeeds. Rise of
the Karmathian sect, inimical to the pomp of the Baghdad court.
Turkestan becomes independent under Samani, who afterwards
conquers Persia and extinguishes the Saffarid dynasty.
894 The Karmathians having ravaged Mecca, the caliph rebuilds
the city.
902 Death of Mutadid, leaving the throne to his son, =Muktafi=.
Struggles with the Karmathians. They plunder the pilgrimage
to Mecca and slay twenty thousand pilgrims. They are badly
defeated and remain quiet for a while.
904 The Mohammedans capture Thessalonica.
905 Muktafi takes Egypt from the Tulunites and gives it to the
Ikhshidites.
908 Death of Muktafi. His son, =Muktadir=, succeeds. Rebellion
in favour of Abdallah b. Motazz is put down and Abdallah
killed. Muktadir is a weak caliph, who leaves the government to
his ministers. Establishment of the Fatimite dynasty in Egypt
and Africa. It subverts the Aglabite and Edrisite dynasties.
During the remainder of Muktadir’s reign, the Byzantines invade
Mesopotamia and the Karmathians recommence their disorders. The
caliph’s inaction and indolence cause a reaction against him.
930 He is deposed and his brother, Kahir, made caliph, but he
recovers the throne. Revolt of Mosul and foundation of the
Hamdanite dynasty in Mesopotamia. The Karmathians seize Mecca
and carry off the Black Stone of the Kaaba.
932 Death of Muktadir in battle with his rebellious minister,
Munis. His brother, =Kahir=, succeeds.
933 Foundation of the Buyid dynasty in Persia. The caliphate is
reduced to the province of Baghdad.
934 Kahir deposed and blinded. His nephew, =Radhi=, succeeds.
He creates the office of emir of the emirs, corresponding to
mayor of the palace. He is the last caliph to possess any
considerable spiritual or temporal power.
939 Capture of Mosul.
940 Death of Radhi, succeeded by his brother, =Muttaki=.
Al-Baridi, the head of a Chaldean principality, besieges
Baghdad, but is repulsed.
944 Turun seizes Muttaki and puts his eyes out. =Mustafki=,
son of Muktafi, is chosen by Turun to succeed. Owing to the
unpopularity of Zirak, the emir of the emirs, the people call
upon Akhmed, the Buyid ruler, who establishes himself vizir to
the caliph with title Muiz ad-Daula. He and his successors,
under the title of emir of the emirs, absorb all political
power.
946 Mustafki conspires against Akhmed, who seizes him and puts
his eyes out. Muktadir’s son, =Muti=, is chosen to succeed.
Constant war with the Byzantines.
958 The Fatimite caliph, Muiz ad-Din, subdues all Africa and
Egypt and is acknowledged by Arabia.
961 Foundation of the principality of Ghazni.
968 Nicephorus takes Antioch from the Mohammedans.
974 Abdication of Muti. His son, =Tai=, succeeds. The Buyid
princes contend furiously for the office of emir.
991 The emir, Baha ad-Daula, compels Tai to abdicate, and
appoints =Kadir=, grandson of Muktadir, to the caliphate.
995 Aleppo taken from the Mohammedans by the emperor Basil.
997 Mahmud, of Ghazni, comes to the throne. He reigns until
1028.
1020 Firdusi, the Persian Homer, flourishes. The power of the
Seljuk Turks increases.
1030 Mohammedan victory over the Byzantines at Azaz.
1031 Death of Kadir. His son, =Kaim=, succeeds.
1038 Mohammedans regain Edessa.
1055 The caliph, oppressed by the emir, calls upon Toghril Beg,
the Seljuk. The latter enters Baghdad, overthrows the Buyids,
and takes their place.
1063 Death of Toghril, leaving the power to his nephew, Alp
Arslan.
1074 Suleiman, the Seljuk, conquers Asia Minor and founds
kingdom of Rum or Iconium.
1075 Death of Kaim. His grandson, =Muktadi=, succeeds.
1076 The Seljuk Turks conquer Syria from the Fatimites and take
Jerusalem.
1090 Hassan b. Sabba, of Nishapur, organises a band of
Karmathians, named the “Assassins.”
1092 Death of Malik Shah, successor of Alp Arslan. Decline of
Seljuk power.
1094 Death of Muktadi. His son, =Mustazhir=, succeeds.
1096 The Fatimite caliph, Mustali, takes Jerusalem.
1099 The crusaders succeed in getting the whole of Asia Minor.
1118 Death of Mustazhir. His son, =Mustarshid=, succeeds.
1135 Murder of Mustarshid by the Assassins. His son, =Rashid=,
succeeds.
1136 Rashid defends Baghdad against the Turks, but is murdered
by the Assassins. His uncle, =Muktafi=, succeeds. He is
captured by the Ghuz Turks and carried about in an iron cage,
but afterwards escapes.
1160 Death of Muktafi. His son, =Mustanjid=, succeeds. His
reign is marked by great disorders in Persia, where the
governors have all made themselves independent.
1170 Death of Mustanjid. His son, =Mustadi=, succeeds.
1171 Saladin, sultan of Egypt, destroys the Fatimite dynasty.
1180 Death of Mustadi. His son, =Nasir=, succeeds. He
recognises the usurpation of Saladin.
1183 Fall of Ghazni.
1206 Jenghiz proclaims himself khan of the Mongols.
1218-1221 Conquests of Jenghiz Khan.
1225 Death of Nasir. His son, =Dhahir=, succeeds.
1226 Death of Dhahir. His son, =Mustansir=, succeeds. The whole
of Persia is subject to the Mongols.
1245 Death of Mustansir. His son, =Mustasim=, succeeds.
1256 Hulagu, khan of the Mongols, invades Persia and extirpates
the Assassins.
1258 Hulagu takes Baghdad, and puts Mustasim to death. End of
the Abbasid dynasty.
THE MOHAMMEDANS IN SPAIN (711-1492 A.D.)
Within four years after the landing of Tarik in Spain, the
whole peninsula, except the mountainous districts in the north,
is in the hands of the Mohammedans. The first forty years of
the occupation is a period of discord, and a number of emirs
succeed each other in rapid succession. The Mohammedans fight
with the Christians in the north, and penetrate into France,
whence they are driven back by Charles Martel, in 732. The Arab
power is on the eve of falling to pieces, when Abd ar-Rahman,
the sole survivor of the Omayyad massacre in Arabia, arrives in
Spain. In 755 Abd ar-Rahman is elected king of Mohammedan Spain.
THE OMAYYAD DYNASTY (756-1031 A.D.)
756 =Abd ar-Rahman I= defeats the Abbasid emirs, and founds his
kingdom at Cordova. His reign is one of constant warfare, for
he has to suppress many revolts.
778 Destruction of Charlemagne’s army at Roncesvalles, on its
return from the invasion to restore Hosein to power.
780 Capture of Saragossa. Hosein taken and executed.
786 Suppression of the rebellion of the Beni Yusuf.
788 Death of Abd ar-Rahman. His son and appointed heir, =Hisham
I=, succeeds. He proclaims the holy war and finishes the mosque
of Cordova.
796 Death of Hisham. His son, =Al-Hakim=, succeeds. He is
victorious over his rebel uncles.
800-801 The Franks invade Catalonia and recover Barcelona from
the Moslems.
807 After continual disorders in Toledo Al-Hakim treacherously
massacres the chief citizens. Resistance is abandoned.
815 Rising in Cordova put down with great cruelty. Exile of the
inhabitants. They go to Africa.
821 Death of Al-Hakim. His son, =Abd ar-Rahman II=, succeeds.
823 A band of Cordovan exiles from Alexandria effect the
conquest of Crete. The king defeats his great-uncle, Abdallah.
832 Great defeat of the rebellious Toledans.
852 Death of Abd ar-Rahman. His son, =Muhammed I=, succeeds.
The Christian monarchs are acknowledged lords paramount over
Castile and Navarre. Revolts continue in many quarters.
862 Muhammed recovers Tudela and Saragossa after death of Musa,
the head of the rebellious Beni Casi, but the latter, with
the help of Alfonso III of Asturias and Leon, soon expel his
soldiers. Ibn Merwan forms an independent state in the west.
886 Death of Muhammed. His son, =Mundhir=, succeeds.
888 Death of Mundhir. His brother, =Abdallah=, succeeds.
890 Defeat of Omar b. Hafsan, who for many years has maintained
his independence with a large force in an impregnable fortress
in Andalusia. Other serious risings in Elvira and Seville take
place.
912 Death of Abdallah. His son, =Abd ar-Rahman III=, succeeds.
He is the greatest of the Spanish caliphs, and his reign is the
most brilliant period of the kingdom. He encourages the African
Moslems to hold out against the Fatimites.
916 Ordoño II of Leon defeats army sent to avenge a raid he has
made two years previously.
918 Brilliant victory of Abd ar-Rahman over Ordoño and Sancho I
of Navarre. Abd ar-Rahman penetrates as far as Pamplona.
921 Ordoño invades the Moslem territory as far as Cordova.
Defeat of Ordoño at battle of Val de Junquera.
923 Sancho captures Viguera. Death of Ordoño II enables Abd
ar-Rahman to complete work of internal organisation.
929 Abd ar-Rahman assumes title of caliph.
934 Ramiro II of Leon, having restored peace in his kingdom,
resumes war on the Moors. Defeat of the Moors at Simancas.
939 Great defeat of the Moors at Alhandega, but Ramiro is
compelled to abandon operations against the Moors by his
quarrel with the count of Castile.
950 The death of Ramiro enabling Abd ar-Rahman to win many
victories.
960 The caliph restores the deposed Sancho I to the throne of
Leon.
961 Death of Abd ar-Rahman. His son, =Al-Hakam II=, succeeds.
He is a great book collector and patron of literature. The most
notable event of his reign is the rise of Mohammed Ibn abi Amir.
976 Death of Al-Hakam. His ten-year-old son, =Hisham II=, after
some opposition is established on the throne. The real power is
in the hands of Ibn abi Amir, who reorganises the army.
981 Defeat of Ramiro III of Leon by Ibn abi Amir, who assumes
the name of Almansor (Al-Mansur).
982 Bermudo II, Ramiro’s successor, pays tribute to Cordova.
986 Capture and sack of Barcelona, the capital of a Spanish
fief, by Almansor.
987 Bermudo tries to free himself from Moorish sovereignty.
Almansor razes Coimbra to the ground. The next year Almansor
penetrates to the heart of Leon.
996 Capture of the city of Leon. After this Almansor takes
Compostella. In Africa the generals of Almansor gain victories
in Mauretania.
1002 Death of Almansor. His son, Abdul-Malik, succeeds to his
office of hajib. He continues his father’s successes.
1008 Death of Abdul-Malik. His brother, Abd ar-Rahman
(Sanchol), succeeds to the chief ministry. He conducts a
campaign in Leon.
1009 =Muhammed=, cousin of Hisham, revolts. Sanchol put to
death. =Muhammed Al-Mahdi= imprisons Hisham and assumes
the caliphate. Revolt of the Berbers, who occupy Cordova.
Hisham abdicates in favour of Suleiman, a relative. Muhammed
escapes to Toledo, but recovers Cordova with the help of the
Catalonians.
1010 Defeat of Muhammed; the Slavs and Berbers desert him.
Hisham recovers the throne. Murder of Muhammed.
1013 =Suleiman= takes Cordova and Hisham disappears. His fate
is one of the unsolved mysteries of history.
1016 Overthrow of Suleiman by the Slavonic element headed by
Khairan and Ali of Hammud. =Ali= made caliph.
1017 Revolt of Khairan, who sets up =Abd ar-Rahman (IV)
Mortada=, great-grandson of Abd ar-Rahman III, as anti-caliph.
Murder of Ali. His brother, =Kasim=, succeeds. Fierce civil war
results.
1023 Mortada falls in battle. =Abd ar-Rahman V=, brother of
Muhammed Al-Mahdi, succeeds, but is shortly murdered. =Muhammed
Ben Abd ar-Rahman= succeeds.
1025 Muhammed driven from Cordova. =Yahya b. Ali= is in power.
He is slain at Seville. =Hisham III=, brother of Mortada,
raised to the throne.
1031 The caliphate is so disorganised that Hisham abdicates the
empty title.
THE INDEPENDENT KINGDOMS, OR EMIRATES (1031-1091 A.D.)
Since the death of Almansor, Mohammedan Spain has been
splitting up into a number of independent emirates or
principalities. The fall of the Omayyad dynasty breaks
the last link of unity, and we have now the separate and
distinct emirates of Saragossa, Toledo, Valencia, Badajoz,
Cordova, Seville, and Granada. The Christian states seize the
opportunity to reconquer Spain. The Spanish national hero, “the
Cid,” takes part in these conquests. Without following each of
these states in detail, we note the most important events of
the period.
1032 Civil war breaks out in the emirates.
1038 Ramiro I of Aragon drives the Moors from Sobrarbe, and
annexes it to his possessions. Assassination of =Al-Mundar= of
Saragossa, at Granada.
1043 Death of =Gehwar= of Cordova. His son =Muhammed= succeeds.
1046 Ferdinand I of Castile besieges Toledo. The emir pays
tribute.
1060 =Muhammed Al-Muatedid= seizes Cordova, and then becomes
the most powerful leader of the Moorish rulers in Spain.
Muhammed Gehwar dies of grief.
1064 Last victories of Ferdinand I in Catalonia and
Valencia. Al-Mamun of Toledo captures Valencia, deposing his
brother-in-law, Al-Mudafar.
1070 Rise of the Almoravids in Africa due to Yusuf b. Tashufin.
1078 Ibn Abed of Seville takes Murcia.
1079 Conquest of Malaga by Ibn Omar, the vizir of Ibn Abed.
Alliance between Ibn Abed and Alfonso VI of Castile.
1081 Alfonso VI invades Toledo. Al-Aftas, emir of Badajoz,
drives him back.
1085 Capture of Toledo by Alfonso VI.
1086 Al-Mutamid, emir of Seville, asks Yusuf, the Almoravid
chief in Africa, for assistance. He comes, and defeats Alfonso
at Zallaka.
1087 Yusuf returns to Africa. The Cid defeats the Moors at
Al-Coraza, and captures Huesca.
1088 Yusuf recalled to Spain, but is able to accomplish
nothing, owing to discord and dissension among the emirs.
1089 The Moors besiege Alid, but are driven off by Alfonso.
Yusuf returns to Africa.
1090 Yusuf returns to Spain with a large army, and conquers
Granada.
1091 Conquest of Seville and Almeria by Yusuf. Al-Mutamin sent
to Africa a prisoner. Yusuf is now supreme in the Mohammedan
regions of Spain.
THE ALMORAVID DYNASTY (1091-1146 A.D.)
The Almoravids are a confederation of Berber sectaries who
have established a vast kingdom in Africa. The king, =Yusuf b.
Tashufin=, establishes his capital at Morocco, in 1069, and his
intrusion into the affairs of Spain is explained above.
1092 Valencia betrayed to the Almoravids. Al-Kadir, the emir,
slain.
1093 Yusuf captures Badajoz and puts the emir Al-Mutawakkil to
death.
1094 The Cid takes Valencia from the Moors.
1095 The Balearic Isles submit to Yusuf.
1099 Death of the Cid. Valencia comes under Moorish rule the
following year.
1103 Yusuf turns government over to his son =Ali=, and returns
to Africa, where he dies, 1106, at age of one hundred.
(Ninety-seven Christian years.)
1108 Victory of Ali over Alfonso VI of Castile, at Urcesia
(Ucles).
1109 Alfonso defeats the emir of Saragossa. Ali returns to
Africa after unsuccessful siege of Toledo. The centre of
government is at Morocco.
1114 The Pisans take the Balearic Isles from the Moors.
1117 Alfonso allies himself with the emir of Saragossa against
Ali. They take Lerida, and defeat the Almoravids.
1121 Rebellion of Cordova. Revolt of Muhammed b. Abdallah
(Al-Mahdi) in Africa. Rise of the Almohads (Unitarians).
1123 Siege of Morocco by the Almohads. Ali drives them off.
1130 Ali, son of Tashufin, defeated by Alfonso. Abdul-Mumin,
successor of Al-Mahdi, defeats Ali in Morocco.
1134 The Moors defeat and slay Alfonso I of Aragon at Fraga.
1138 Tashufin summoned to Spain by Ali to help him against the
Almohads.
1139 Alfonso, duke of Portugal, defeats the Moors at Ourique.
1143 Death of Ali. His son =Tashufin= succeeds. General
insurrection against the Almoravids.
1144 Abdul-Mumin totally defeats Tashufin in Africa. Death of
Tashufin in flight to Spain. His son =Ibrahim= raised to the
throne over such of his dominions as are left.
1145 Abdul-Mumin crosses into Spain.
1146 The Almohads take Seville. Castile and Aragon come to
assistance of the Almoravids. Ibrahim put to death.
THE ALMOHAD DYNASTY (1146-1232 A.D.)
1146 =Abdul-Mumin= recognised as supreme over the Moors in
Spain.
1147 Capture of Almeria by the Christian allies.
1148 Capture of Cordova by the Almohads.
1151 Abdul-Mumin continues conquests in Africa.
1156 Capture of Granada by the Almohads.
1157 The Almohads reconquer Almeria.
1158 Capture of Tunis by Abdul-Mumin.
1160 Abdul-Mumin returns to Spain.
1161 Badajoz, Beja, and Beira taken by the Almohads.
1163 Death of Abdul-Mumin. His son =Yusuf Abu Yakub= succeeds.
The war between the Christians and Moors continues.
1176 Yusuf invades Portugal.
1184 Death of Yusuf at siege of Santarem. His son =Yakub
Almansor= (Al-Mansur) succeeds.
1189 Sancho of Portugal captures Silves and Beja, but the Moors
recover them three years later.
1193 The Christian princes of Spain unite against the Moors.
1195 The Moors administer a crushing defeat to Alfonso VIII of
Castile at Alarcon.
1197 Capture of Madrid by the Moors.
1198 The Moors capture Calatrava and threaten Toledo.
1199 Death of Yakub. =Muhammed An-Nasir= succeeds. Rising of
the Almoravids which takes five years to suppress. Muhammed
makes preparations for a great conquest of Christian Spain.
1211 Muhammed besieges Salvatierra.
1212 Surrender of Salvatierra, followed by decisive defeat of
Muhammed at Las Navas de Tolosa. The fate of the Almohads is
sealed.
1213 Death of Muhammed. His infant son =Yusuf Al-Mustansir=
succeeds.
1223 Death of Yusuf. Civil war breaks out among the Almohads.
1224 =Abul-Malik=, successor of Yusuf, deposed at Murcia by
=Abdallah Abu Muhammed=, who succeeds. The Christian allies
take Huejada in Valencia.
1227 Al-Mamun succeeds Abdallah. Discontent with the Almohads
increases.
1232 Revolt of Al-Mutawakkil b. Hud, who drives Al-Mamun
to Africa. End of the Almohad dynasty. Al-Mutawakkil takes
Granada. Capture of the Balearic Isles by James I of Aragon.
1233 Great victory over the Moors by the Castilians.
1236 Capture of Cordova and part of Andalusia by Ferdinand III
of Castile. James of Aragon attacks Valencia.
1237 Murder of Al-Mutawakkil by his generals.
THE KINGDOM OF GRANADA (1238-1492 A.D.)
With Al-Mutawakkil perishes the last semblance of Moorish
unity. The emirs again become independent princes, but the
Christian encroachment has been such that none of them has any
considerable power, or territory, except =Muhammed (I) Ben
Al-Akhmar=, who in 1238 founds the kingdom of Granada.
1238 Reduction of Valencia by James I.
1245 Muhammed cedes the town of Jaen to Ferdinand III of
Castile, and becomes a tributary of Castile.
1248 Surrender of Seville to Ferdinand. Other cities follow.
1253 Muhammed founds the Alhambra at Granada.
1254 Alfonso X of Castile conquers many Moorish cities in
southern Spain.
1261 Muhammed attempts to cast off the yoke of Castile, and
encourages Andalusia and Murcia to rebel.
1264 Peace made with Castile. Granada is again tributary.
1266 Capture of Murcia by James I. All Spain is now Christian,
except Granada.
1273 The Merinids arrive in Spain, from Africa, to assist the
Moors. Death of Muhammed. His son =Muhammed II= succeeds. He
makes a treaty with Alfonso X of Castile.
1275 Abu Yusuf, king of the Merinids, brings a large army to
Spain. The Castilians and Aragonese are defeated, but Alfonso
checks the conqueror.
1278 The Merinids drive the remaining Almohads from Spain.
1281 Alfonso allies himself with the Merinids to suppress a
revolt in Castile.
1285 Death of Abu Yusuf.
1292 The Castilians take Tarifa, after defeating the Moorish
fleet at Tangiers.
1294 Unsuccessful attempt of the Moors to recapture Tarifa. The
Merinids finally withdraw from Spain.
1302 Death of Muhammed. His son =Muhammed (III) Abu Abdallah=
succeeds.
1308 Capture of Gibraltar by Ferdinand IV of Castile. Treaty
with the Granadans, who renounce some of their territory.
1309 Revolt in Granada. Muhammed is compelled to resign the
throne to his brother =Nasir Abu Abdallah=. The rebellion
continues, and
1313 Nasir is deposed by his nephew =Ismail Feraj=. He has
constant wars with the Christians.
1319 Great defeat of the Castilians in Granada.
1325 Assassination of Ismail by one of his officers. His son
=Muhammed IV= succeeds.
1328 Reduction of Baena by Muhammed.
1333 Muhammed obtains an army of Merinids from Africa, who
retake Gibraltar. Alfonso XI attempts to retake. Muhammed comes
to relieve the Merinids, but they assassinate him. His brother
=Yusuf Abul-Hagiag= succeeds.
1340 Yusuf besieges Tarifa, with the assistance of Merinid
auxiliaries. Alfonso IV of Portugal, and Alfonso XI of Castile,
relieve the town and administer a crushing defeat to the Moors,
on the river Guadacelito (Salado).
1343 Surrender of Algeciras to Alfonso of Castile, who makes
ten years’ treaty of peace with Yusuf.
1354 Assassination of Yusuf by a madman, while at prayer. His
son =Muhammed V= succeeds.
1359 Muhammed deposed by his brother =Ismail=, and retires to
Africa.
1360 =Abu Said=, Ismail’s prime minister, murders him, and
usurps the throne.
1361 Muhammed returns to Spain, and applies to Peter the Cruel
of Castile for support.
1362 Murder of Abu Said while on an appealing visit to Peter.
Muhammed regains the throne.
1370 Muhammed attacks Henry IV of Castile.
1376 Muhammed builds the great public hospital, and many other
buildings, at Granada.
1391 Death of Muhammed. His son =Yusuf (II) Abu Abdallah=
succeeds.
1392 His son attempts to dethrone him.
1396 Death of Yusuf. His younger son =Muhammed VI= succeeds,
and exiles his rebellious elder brother. Muhammed wars his
entire reign with the Christians.
1408 Death of Muhammed. His exiled brother =Yusuf III= obtains
the throne. This event marks the end of internal tranquillity
in the kingdom, and the beginning of its downfall.
1423 Death of Yusuf. His son =Muhammed (VII) Al-Haizar=
succeeds. Many revolts follow.
1426 Muhammed’s cousin =Muhammed (VIII) Az-Zaguir= deposes him
and seizes the throne.
1428 Muhammed VIII put to death by the Christians and Africans.
Muhammed VII is restored.
1431 Invasion of Granada by the Castilians. The Moors are
defeated, whereat they depose Muhammed, and declare =Yusuf
Al-Hamar= king. He dies in six months, and Muhammed is again
restored.
1435 The Castilians again invade Granada, and take Huesca.
1445 Deposition of Muhammed by his nephew =Muhammed Osmin=.
His entire reign is troubled by a rival claimant, his cousin,
Muhammed b. Ismail, who has support of Juan II of Castile.
1454 =Muhammed (X) Ismail= finally gets the throne from his
cousin. He quarrels with the Castilians, who defeat him, and
take the Ximena from him.
1466 Death of Muhammed. His son =Mulei Ali Abul-Hassan=
succeeds.
1478 War with Castile renewed when Abul-Hassan refuses to pay
tribute.
1482 Disastrous defeats of the Moors. Alhama taken.
Abul-Hassan’s son Abu Abdallah (Boabdil) revolts against him.
1483 Slight gain of Abul-Hassan over the Christians. =Abu
Abdallah=, encouraged by Ferdinand of Castile and Aragon in his
rebellion, is proclaimed king by one faction.
1484 Abul-Hassan compelled to resign his crown, and his brother
=Abdallah Az-Zagal= is made king, as rival to Abu Abdallah.
Ferdinand, taking advantage of this internal discord, makes
great progress with his arms.
1487 Surrender of Malaga to Ferdinand, after long siege and
several defeats of Abdallah. Ferdinand takes other towns.
1488 New Malaga surrenders to Ferdinand.
1489 Surrender of Guadix, Almeria, and Baza.
1490 Abdallah surrenders all his territories to Ferdinand.
Abdallah still holds Granada.
1491 Ferdinand begins siege of Granada.
1492 Surrender of Granada. Abu Abdallah is pensioned, and
returns to Africa. End of Mohammedan dominion in Spain.
THE FATIMITE DYNASTY OF EGYPT (908-1171 A.D.)
Fatimites claim descent from Mohammed through his daughter
Fatima wife of Ali, although their title to this claim is
disputed. First to claim power is
908 =Obaid Allah=, a pontiff of the Ismailian sect, who is
proclaimed Al-Mahdi. Displaces Aglabites in Kairwan. Makes his
capital at Mahdiya, on the coast, to be safe from Berbers and
to establish strong sea power. Fatimites oppose Aglabite emirs
in Sicily.
916 Fatimite and Aglabite contentions in Sicily enable Latins
and Italians, in alliance with Byzantines, to drive Saracens
out of Italy.
917 Akhmed, Aglabite emir of Sicily, defeated at sea. Fatimites
control Sicily. They attack Liguria, and take Genoa; attack
Omayyads by sea--also come in contact with Omayyads on land.
924 Fatimites conquer Fez, capital of Edrisites. Northern
Africa, with exception of Egypt, under Fatimite rule; Omayyads
kept out during life-time of Obaid Allah. When Fatimite capital
is removed to Cairo, Jusuf b. Zairi is left as governor in this
region. His descendants become independent, and rule until
displaced by Almoravids.
936 Death of Obaid Allah, succeeded by his son =Abul-Kasim=,
who had conquered Alexandria in 919, but was soon driven out
again.
945 =Al-Mansur= succeeds his father Abul-Kasim; makes friends
with Arabian Shiites in Hedjaz and Yemen.
953 =Muiz ad-Din= succeeds Al-Mansur.
969 Sends army under Jauhar against Egypt; enters Fostat.
Becomes first Fatimite caliph in Egypt. Hedjaz and Yemen
acknowledge his supremacy. Syria also added to his dominions.
972 Fatimites found New Cairo. Great mosque Al-Azhar built,
university of Egypt, still filled with students from all parts
of the Mohammedan world. Soon after, Fatimite fleet meets
Byzantine off Damascus, but no battle is fought.
973 Caliph sends embassy to Otto the Great. Egypt invaded by
Hassan, who is defeated.
975 Death of Muiz, succeeded by his son =Al-Aziz=. Jaufar sent
against Iftikir, Turkish chief in Damascus; is defeated, but
Iftikir afterwards conquered by Aziz at Ramla.
981 Fatimites take Damascus.
982 Battle between Fatimites and Otto II in Calabria. Emperor
defeated.
996 Death of Aziz, succeeded by his son =Al-Hakim=.
1006 Hisham, an Omayyad prince of Spain, invades Egypt; at
first successful, afterwards captured and put to death by
caliph.
1010 Hakim destroys Christian churches in Syria. Founds sect of
Druses. Is murdered by his sister, who becomes regent, in
1021 for his son =Dhahir=. Dhahir makes treaty with Byzantine
Romanus Argyrus, permitting him to rebuild church in Jerusalem.
From Dhahir’s reign dates decline of Fatimite power in Syria.
1023 Aleppo taken by Salih ben Mardas, and Ramla by Hassan of
the tribe of Tai.
1036 =Mustansir Abu Temim= succeeds to caliphate. Aleppo
retaken and Syria conquered.
1058 Fatimite caliph publicly recognised caliph in Baghdad by
Buyids. About this time occurs persecution of Christians in
Alexandria.
1060 Beginning of Norman conquest in Sicily.
1061 Commencement of struggle between blacks and Turks in Egypt.
1069 Great famine in Egypt, followed by pestilence. Nasir
ad-Daulah (Turk) conquers caliph, who is only nominal ruler
thereafter till death of Nasir (1072).
1071 Aleppo recognises Alp Arslan. All Syria taken by Turkomans.
1072 Assassination of Nasir. Gemali, general and governor of
Damascus, recalled.
1076 Egypt invaded by Turkomans, Kurds, and Arabs, under Aksis;
routed in second battle by Gemali.
1086 Mahdiya captured and burned by Pisans and Genoese.
1090 Last Sicilian town surrenders to Normans.
1094 Death of Mustansir, succeeded by his son =Mustali
Abul-Kasim=. Government in hands of Afdal, son of Gemali. In
his reign occurs First Crusade.
1098 Jerusalem, taken by Afdal from Turks, a few months later
yields to crusaders.
1099 Fatimite army under Afdal defeated at Askalon.
1101 Death of Mustali, succeeded by his son =Emir=, aged five
years. Country governed by Afdal until Emir reaches majority,
when he puts Afdal to death. Baldwin takes Ptolemais.
1104 Baldwin takes Tripolis.
1129 Emir put to death by partisans of Afdal, whose son Abu
Ali Akhmed usurps government, making =Hafidh=, grandson of
Mustansir, nominal caliph.
1149 =Dhafir=, son of Hafidh, succeeds to caliphate. After
short reign, on account of his licentiousness is in
1154 assassinated by his vizir. Succeeded by =Al-Faïz=, only
five years old. Reign filled with contentions of rival vizirs.
1160 Death of Faïz, succeeded by =Adid=, grandson of Hafidh,
and last of Fatimite caliphs. Contentions of vizirs continue.
1162 Adil, son of Adid, dispossesses Shawir of his government
in Upper Egypt. Shawir marches against Adil, kills him,
and makes himself vizir in his place. Is put to flight by
Al-Dirgham, and takes refuge with Nur ad-Din.
1163 Nur ad-Din sends army under Shirkuh to reinstate Shawir.
Dirgham defeated, and Shawir restored. He soon throws off
allegiance to Nur ad-Din, and allies himself with crusaders.
Shirkuh withdraws.
1165 Nur ad-Din again sends Shirkuh to Egypt with a great
army, accompanied by Saladin. Battle at Al-Babain, victory of
invaders. Alexandria falls into their hands. Crusaders oppose
them; Adid beseeches aid from Nur ad-Din. Shirkuh sent again.
Shirkuh and Saladin enter Cairo. Shirkuh appointed vizir by
Adid; on his death, succeeded
1169 by Saladin as vizir.
1171 Adid’s name suppressed in prayers, by order of Nur ad-Din.
Adid dies without knowing of his degradation.
THE KINGDOM OF ARMENIA (189 B.C.-1375 A.D.)
The Armenians throw off the Macedonian yoke in 317 B.C.,
choosing Ardvates as king. He dies about 284, and the country
returns to Seleucid rule. In 189 B.C. (according to Roman
historians), after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by Rome,
=Artaxias= or =Ardashes= and =Zadriades=, the governors
of Armenia Major and Armenia Minor respectively, become
independent kings with the connivance of Rome. Artaxias rules
at Artaxarta. Hannibal takes refuge at his court.
B.C.
166 Antiochus IV takes Artaxias prisoner, but restores him to
his kingdom.
149 According to Armenian historians Mithridates I of Parthia
establishes his brother Valarsaces (Waharshag) on the Armenian
throne and the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia is founded. Following
the Armenian king list
127 =Arshag I= succeeds his father.
114 =Artaces= succeeds his father.
94 =Tigranes I (II)= succeeds his father. He is the next king
mentioned by Roman historians. He is put on the disputed throne
by Mithridates II the Great of Parthia. Tigranes removes the
capital to Tigranocerta, and conquers Lesser Armenia and many
Parthian provinces. He assumes the title “King of Kings.”
83 Tigranes makes himself master of the whole of Syria, having
been invited by the Syrians to put an end to the civil strife
among the Seleucid princes.
76 Tigranes’ father-in-law Mithridates the Great of Pontus
instigates him to invade Cappadocia.
69 Tigranes refuses to surrender Mithridates to the Romans. War
with Rome results, and Lucullus defeats him at Tigranocerta.
66 Tigranes surrenders his conquests to Pompey. Armenia becomes
a vassal state of Rome. The Parthian monarch recovers the title
“King of Kings.”
64 Defeat of Tigranes by Phraates III of Parthia. Pompey
settles their dispute.
56 Death of Tigranes. His son =Artavasdes I= succeeds. He is
the ally of Rome in Crassus’ campaign against the Parthians.
36 Artavasdes joins the Romans in the campaign against
Artavasdes of Media. He deserts Antony and the expedition fails.
34 In revenge Antony proceeds against Artavasdes and captures
him. His son =Artaxias II= is placed on the throne. He is
defeated by the Romans and flees to Parthia. He soon recovers
the throne and massacres all the Romans in Armenia.
20 The discontented Armenians complain to Augustus about
Artaxias and ask that his brother Tigranes, then at Rome, be
made their king. Tiberius Nero is sent after Artaxias, who is
murdered by his relatives, and =Tigranes II (III)= is crowned
by Tiberius. After a short reign Tigranes is succeeded by his
son =Tigranes III (IV)=. The land is full of civil discord.
6 Augustus places Tigranes’ brother =Artavasdes II= on the
Armenian throne.
5 Tigranes recovers his kingdom. Both kings seem to rule
simultaneously. They are finally driven out.
2 =Ariobazanes= or, according to some historians, =Tigranes IV
(V)= is placed by Augustus on the disputed throne. He may have
been a Mede or perhaps an Armenian exile.
A.D.
2 Death of Ariobazanes. =Erato=, probably widow of Tigranes III
(IV), succeeds.
4 According to Armenian historians a son of Ariobazanes
(Artavasdes III) takes the throne from Erato, but she regains
it in a few months. After Erato’s death or deposition (date
uncertain) and a short interregnum,
16 =Vonones= the exiled monarch of Parthia is chosen king, but
Tiberius persuades him to retire to Syria.
18 =Artaxias III= chosen king after a short interregnum. He is
succeeded by (date unknown) =Arsaces I=, placed on the throne
by his father Artabanus III of Parthia.
35 Death of Arsaces through treachery of Mithridates, brother
of Pharasmanes king of Iberia. =Mithridates= invades Armenia,
and Tiberius gives him the throne. Caligula summons him to
Rome, imprisons him, but restores him about 47.
52 Mithridates slain by his nephew =Rhadamistus= of Iberia.
54 Vologases I of Parthia expels Rhadamistus and makes his own
brother =Tiridates I= king.
58 Corbulo drives out Tiridates I and puts Tigranes V (VI)
Herodes the Cappadocian on the throne.
61 Vologases crowns Tiridates king of Armenia and proceeds
against Tigranes.
66 Tiridates goes to Rome to receive the crown as a gift from
Nero. Meanwhile, =Erorant=, of the younger Arsacid branch, has
established himself, about 58, over a large portion of Armenia.
He is the contemporary of Tiridates, and after the latter’s
death, probably rules the whole country. He cedes Edessa and
Mesopotamia to the Romans.
78 =Exeardes=, son of Pacorus II of Parthia, is appointed to
the throne. He is several times driven out, but always manages
to recover his throne.
112 Osroes, brother of Mithridates VI of Parthia, expels
Exeardes and makes =Parthamasiris=, another son of Pacorus,
king, for which act Trajan invades Armenia. Parthamasiris is
humbled.
117 Trajan appoints =Parthamaspates=, son of Oroes, king. He
is expelled, and recovers the kingdom from Hadrian. He is
succeeded by his son, =Achæmenides=, and he in turn by =Soemus=
or =Sohæmus=.
162 Vologases III of Parthia expels Sohæmus, who is friendly to
Rome, and makes =Pacorus= king.
163 or 164 Sohæmus restored by the Romans, and is succeeded
(date unknown) by his son, =Sanatruces= or =Sanadrug=, who is
established on the throne by Septimius Severus.
212 Caracalla seizes Sanatruces.
Armenian historians speak of a Chosroes I, the Great, who rules
about this time, but the Romans do not mention him. Sanatruces
seems to have been followed by =Vologases=, his son, and he in
turn by his son =Tiridates II=, who escapes from the Romans to
Vologases V of Parthia, about 227. His successor is =Arsaces
II=, brother of Artabanus IV of Parthia. He wars against
Ardashir, the Sassanid.
258 Sapor I of Persia puts =Artavasdes III= on the Armenian
throne.
285 About this date =Tiridates III=, the rightful heir of the
throne and a Christian, is established by Diocletian. Narseh
expels him after a few years, and this brings on a war between
Persia and Rome. Tiridates is restored.
341 Probably at this date =Arsaces III= ascends the throne,
after his father, Tiridates III, has been imprisoned by Sapor
II of Persia. He assists Sapor in his wars with Rome, and then
allies himself with Rome.
363 Arsaces deserts the Romans in the siege of Ctesiphon. He is
seized by Sapor, and imprisoned. Sapor puts =Aspacures= on the
throne, but =Para=, son of Arsaces, is also acknowledged king,
with the help of the Romans.
374 or 377 Valens, dissatisfied with Para, has him put to
death. Para’s nephew, =Arsaces IV=, succeeds, together with
a brother, =Valarsaces II=, who dies soon. Arsaces proves so
weak a ruler that Theodosius the Great and Sapor III decide to
divide the kingdom.
387 or 390 Division of Armenia between Rome and Persia. Arsaces
continues to reign in the Roman dominions. Sapor gives his (the
eastern) portion to a Persian noble, =Khosrau=, or =Chosroes=.
389 Death of Arsaces IV. Theodosius confers his portion upon
his general, =Casavon=, who plots with Chosroes to bring all
Armenia under Roman dominion. Bahram IV of Persia seizes
Chosroes and
392 puts the latter’s brother, =Bahram Sapor=, on the vassal
throne of eastern Armenia.
414 Chosroes restored by Yezdegerd I.
415 Death of Chosroes. Yezdegerd’s son, =Sapor=, becomes king.
419 Death of Sapor. Interregnum until
422 when =Artasires=, son of Bahram Sapor, is appointed king by
Bahram V.
429 The Armenian nobles apply to Bahram to remove Artasires.
The Persian king decides to make Armenia a province, and
deposes Artasires. Henceforth the province is known as
Pers-Armenia.
From 429 to 632 Armenia is ruled by Persian governors, who
are remarkable chiefly for their cruel attempts to subvert
Christianity.
632 Heraclius restores Armenia to the Roman Empire, but in
636 it passes under Mohammedan rule.
885 The caliph Mutamid crowns =Ashod I=, one of the
Bagratid family, king of Armenia. He rules in central and
northern Armenia, and founds a dynasty that lasts until the
assassination of =Kagig II=, in 1079, when the kingdom is
incorporated with the Byzantine Empire.
908 The Ardzurian family, claiming to be descendants of
Sennacherib, founds a dynasty in the province of Vashpuragan,
or Van. Kagig is crowned by the caliph Mutadir, and the family
rules until 1080.
962-1080 The Bagratids found and rule a dynasty in Kars.
962 The Bagratids found a dynasty in Georgia, which continues
until that country is absorbed by Russia, in 1801.
984-1085 The Meravind dynasty of Kurds rules the country west
of Lake Van.
1080 =Rhupen=, a relative of Kagig II, the last Bagratid king
of Armenia, founds the kingdom of Lesser Armenia. It allies
itself with the crusaders. Among the kings is
1224 =Hayton I.=
Some of the kings are Latin princes, who are trying to make
their subjects conform to the Roman church, break up the
country into discordant factions, until
1375 it is conquered by the caliph of Egypt. King =Leo VI=, the
last king of Armenia, is driven out, and dies at Paris in 1393.
[Illustration]
CHAPTER I. THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE
[Sidenote: [250 B.C.-228 A.D.]]
The battle of Arbela (331 B.C.) made Alexander the heir of the Persian
Empire. In the volumes devoted to Grecian history we have shown how he
verified his claims of conquest, subdivided his empire among satraps of
his own appointment, and left the enormous heritage, when he died, to
“the best man.” It was further shown how no one man among the generals
of the Alexandrian school could prove himself the best man, and how, in
consequence, the empire fell into a chaos of civil wars until at last
certain major divisions assumed a particularly definite form--among
them the Ptolemaic Egypt, and the Iran of Seleucus and his family the
Seleucidæ, among whom the name Antiochus frequently appears, the city of
Antioch in Syria being taken as a capital. The degeneracy of these rulers
was the opportunity of the obscure race of Parthians, who, with qualities
and customs that in many ways remind one of the American Indian, rose to
a power so great that under the first Cæsars the Romans thought of them
as dividing the power of the world with Rome.
The only continuous ancient history of this race is that of Justin, which
ends with the year 9 B.C. and shows a gap between 94 and 55 B.C. We quote
this unique account entire; but the reader is cautioned that it is not
to be given full credence everywhere: it is introductory to the more
critical modern account that follows.[a]
JUSTIN’S ACCOUNT OF THE PARTHIANS
[Sidenote: [331-9 B.C.]]
The Parthians, who are now in possession of the empire of the East,
having, as it were, divided the world with the Romans, came originally
from Scythian exiles. This too is evident from their name: for in the
Scythian language the word _Parthi_ signifies exiles. This nation, in the
times both of the Assyrians and Medes, was the obscurest in the East.
Afterwards too, when the empire of the East was transferred from the
Medes to the Persians, they were an easy prey to the conquerors, like
a vulgar herd without a name. At last, they came under the Macedonian
yoke, when they carried their triumphant arms into these parts of the
world; so that it is really strange that they should have arrived to such
power as to rule over those nations, whose slaves they had formerly been.
Being thrice attacked by the Romans, under the conduct of their greatest
generals, in the most flourishing times of the republic, they alone of
all nations were not only a match for them, but came off victorious;
yet perhaps it was still a greater glory for them to be able to rise,
amidst the Assyrian, Median, and Persian kingdoms, so famous of old, and
the most opulent empire of Bactria, consisting of a thousand cities,
than that they defeated a people that came from so remote a part of
the world; especially when at that time they were incessantly alarmed
by the Scythians and their other neighbours, and exposed to so many
uncertainties of war. They being forced to leave Scythia by seditions
at home did, by stealth, possess themselves of the deserts between
Hyrcania, the Dahæ, the Arians, the Spartans, and Margians. After which,
their neighbours not resisting at first, they at last, in spite of their
opposition, when they came too late to hinder them, so far extended their
frontiers that they not only took possession of vast plains, but also
of craggy hills and steep mountains. And hence it comes that the heat
and cold are excessive in several provinces of Parthia; for the snow is
troublesome in the mountainous parts, and the heat in the plains.
THEIR CUSTOMS
[Sidenote: [323-250 B.C.]]
[Illustration: A PARTHIAN NOBLE]
This nation was under kingly government, after their revolt from the
Macedonian Empire. With them the chiefs of the populace were next in
power to the king. Out of them were chosen their generals in war and
their governors in peace. Their language is a mixture of the Median
and Scythian, borrowing words from both. Their habit was formerly very
particular; but after they were increased in power, it was like that of
the Medes, full flowing and thin. They are armed like the Scythians,
from whom they are descended. Their armies are not, like those of other
nations, composed wholly of freemen, but chiefly of slaves; the numbers
of which increase prodigiously, none having the power of manumitting.
They treat these with as much care as their children, and teach them
with great industry both riding and shooting. Everyone furnishes his
prince with horsemen, in proportion to his ability. To conclude, when
fifty thousand horsemen met Antony, upon his attacking the Parthians,
four hundred of them only were freemen. They are ignorant of the art of
besieging towns, or of engaging in close fight. They fight on horseback,
sometimes advancing, and sometimes turning back upon their enemies.
They often counterfeit flight, that they may have an advantage of their
pursuers, less upon their guard. The signal for battle is not given by
trumpet, but by drum. They do not hold out long in fight; and indeed it
would be impossible to stand before them, if their perseverance was equal
to the fury of their onset. For the most part, they quit the battle in
the very heat of an engagement, and on the sudden renew it with great
vehemence; so that one is in greatest danger from them when he thinks he
has conquered them. A sort of strong coats, made of little plates, in
the fashion of feathers, are used by them, to cover both them and their
horses. They use no gold nor silver, but only in their arms.
Each particular man was allowed to have several wives, for the pleasure
of variety; and they punish no crime so severely as adultery. To prevent
it, they not only exclude their women from their feasts, but forbid
them the very sight of men. They eat no flesh, but what they take by
hunting. They ride on horseback at all times; on horse they go to feasts;
pay civilities, public and private; march out, stand still, traffic,
converse. This, in fine, is the difference between slaves and freemen,
that the slaves go on foot, the freemen on horseback. Their common way of
sepulture is being devoured by dogs or birds, and after that, burying the
bare bones in the ground. In their superstition and worship of the gods,
the principal veneration is paid to rivers.
The nation is naturally proud, treacherous, seditious, and insolent; for
a boisterous rough behaviour they think manly. Gentleness, they think,
belongs to women, as their character. They are restless to be engaged in
some quarrel, at home or abroad; taciturn by temper, and more ready to
act than speak; wherefore they conceal their good or bad fortune by their
silence. They are strictly subject to their princes, not out of duty
however but through fear. They are much addicted to lust, though very
temperate in their diet; and they pay no more regard to their word, than
suits with their interest.
SELEUCUS AND ARSACES
[Sidenote: [250-155 B.C.]]