Remarks on the Geology, Botany, and Zoology of the Highlands of Southern
Abyssinia.
Geology.
When the portion of North-eastern Africa that is to form the province of
inquiry received its present configuration, the fountains of the deep
may be supposed to have opened at once upon a surface, of which the
prior quality and condition has become so shut out from human
observation, that analogies, drawn from other countries under similar
circumstances, must supply this deficiency.
Porphyry forms the general basis of all the different volcanic
formations discernible. From the pinnacle of Jebel Goodah, on the Gulf
of Arabia, it may be traced, though indistinctly, in the minor
outrunners of the Abyssinian Alps, to the province of Efat, where it
passes under red sandstone. The principal Shoan range, and the high
westerly plateau towards the valley of the Nile, present solely
secondary formations, but the porphyry again emerges on the southerly
borders in the ranges of Garra Gorphoo and Bulga; whilst the left; bank
of the Hawash valley is distinctly of primitive crystalline formation.
The overlying rocks, which seem to have been poured from the centre of
this tract, consist of masses of trachyte and columnar basalt, of
pyramids of wacke, and beds of lava and tufwacke, with strata of
conglomerates and sandstones. The former of these, the trachyte and
basalt, belong to the lofty mountains of Abyssinia; whereas wacke, lava,
tuffo, and scoria, cover the surface, and form the hills of the desert
below; and many districts present volcanoes which, not half a century
ago, were in violent activity.
The hills of Mentshar, Efat, and Giddem, are detached ranges, running
nearly parallel to the Shoan alps. Disclosing in some few spots the
nature of their interior, it appears that immediately over the porphyry
lies a red sand-stone, embedding vast quantities of coal, and presenting
a true stratification. It consists of minute but quite perfect hexagon
dodecaeders of quartz in a white cement, is very soft, and cleaves
sometimes in regular squares. Its depth was not observed to be very
great, nor did the overlying formations, a marl and conglomerates, seem
to form obstacles to the miner.
The Shoan mountains, of alpine height, exhibit a structure of basalt,
wacke, and trachyte; the latter, in all its varieties, surrounds a
nucleus of basalt, basaltic wacke, and dolerite. The conglomerates and
tuffos at their feet, and partly on their terraces and tops, are of
trachytic nature, and sometimes pierced through by small dikes of
basalt. Veins of ochre and clay, holes filled with scoria, with
intrusions of larger or smaller fragments of various rocks and minerals,
and a kind of stratification, are the principal features of this
trachytic formation.
When the action began, craters or clefts were formed in the then
existing crust of trap-rocks, which in their turn were covered with
masses of trachytic lava; a little later, the tuffos and conglomerates
were deposited, which prove the importance of augite in their formation
by numerous crystals of pyroxen embedded in them. Subsequently new
basaltic eruptions either raised these deposits to their present height,
or pierced them through in their original sites, both cases occurring on
the same locality.
The basalt composing the hills about Ankober presents no vestige of
olivin, nor does it influence the magnetic needle; but a distinction
between basalt and greenstone in their finer-grained varieties is
difficult; and to determine in words the affinity which they bear to
each other in the present instance, the rock might be styled basaltic
greenstone. Columns, pentagonal or heptagonal, crown the tops of hills,
and seem rather a composition of hornblende than of augite and feldspar.
Scoriaceous varieties are found on the outsides of the later protruded
masses.
The trachyte is generally a compact mass of grey feldstein, which
contains crystals of glassy feldspar, irregularly embedded, and in
different quantities. Some varieties are porous, some full of small
holes, others black from grains of obsidian; and a few, especially near
the dikes, incline to phonolite.
To the westward the ridge terminates in a high plateau, the western
Galla provinces of the kingdom. This vast plain is crossed in various
directions by hill ranges, the greater part of which do not rise to any
considerable height. Here true basalt is disclosed in all the grandeur
of its columnar cleavage, but no other species of rock. Deep and narrow
ravines carry off the superabundant waters, and pits of tolerable
ironstone afford a supply of metal for the manufacture of weapons.
The chief bearing of the mountain chains in Shoa is north and south,
with spurs to the west and east. The towering height to which they
rise, in a nearly uninterrupted ascent, may be calculated to be from
eight to nine thousand feet above the level of the sea, and their single
pinnacles far exceed that limit. They are most abrupt, and difficult of
access, excepting by the only two passes to the high western plateau.
Ravines and chasms of a depth which admits the sun but for few hours,
tell of the catastrophe which resulted in their formation. Inaccessible
steep cliffs and dismal precipices everywhere line the tiresome footpath
of the lonely muleteer.
The hills of Efat present more rounded forms; their slopes are better
cultivated, and their tops afford the most eligible positions for the
abode of the Abyssinian farmer. During the rainy season, all the many
rivers which at other times carry only sufficient water for the purposes
of the cultivator, not only fill their deeply-excavated beds, but
overflowing and inundating all the lower parts of the hills, would sweep
off any of the fragile Abyssinian buildings within reach; but the soil,
when saturated with humidity, becomes so heavy and compact as to be not
easily washed away. The impetuosity of the mountain torrent undermines
the fast-decomposing rock, and frequently brings down large boulders and
loose stones, which, dashing against the sides of the ravine, are in no
small degree instrumental to its destruction.
Not less important are the changes going on in the high range, since the
time of their formation. Ice is of so uncommon occurrence, that we can
scarcely attribute to it any considerable cooperation; but the action of
water is materially assisted by occasional earthquakes. Gradual
decomposition and decay has produced on the base, and produces still,
conglomerates of various thickness and extent. The high plateau enjoys
a thick coat of fertile black soil. Lakes, pools, morasses, and swamps,
are frequent; the rivers of little fall have muddy and miry beds, which
on that account become unfordable during the rains.
A few hot mineral wells are known and made use of in Efat and Giddem.
Precious metals and precious stones have not yet been discovered; but of
useful mineral products, iron, sulphur, and coal, are the principal.
Iron ores are the riches of the high plateau, the oxy-hydrate being the
best of them. Enclosed in the basalt, it comes to view only in the
ravines, whence it is scraped out. From the western borders of the Adel
country, and from the extinct volcanoes of Mentshar, is derived the
small supply of native sulphur required; the pits are described as
exceedingly copious. Coal-beds appear to extend along the whole of the
eastern frontier of Shoa; but the combustible nature of the fossil is
scarcely known in the country. Copper, tin, zinc, and salt, are all
imported into Shoa; the Adaiel possessing the last commodity in
abundance. The Shoan clay proves a very indifferent material for the
manufacture of earthenware. Excellent quarries could be worked, but the
primitive fashion of the dwellings is independent of the use of stone.
Botany.
The provinces that compose the kingdom of Shoa enjoy not only political
but also natural and physical boundaries. From the luxuriant
vegetation, or the parched-up desert of a tropical clime, we suddenly
ascend to regions where the blessings of fertility are more equably
diffused, and which serve as granaries to the inhabitants of the
lowlands.
From the general nature of the rocks, it is obvious that the soil
consists chiefly of decomposed feldspar, which requires abundance of
water. Dews, rains, and springs, however, so moisten the mountain side,
that artificial irrigation need be resorted to but on few localities.
Along the foot of the hills, rude channels, dug out of the sandy or
gravelly soil, conduct abundance of water to plantations at a distance
from the river side; and, in these lower regions, periodical inundations
supply the want of rain.--
It is an established fact, that the _cryptogamic plants_ of cellular
construction, are in different zones nearly the same. Under similar
circumstances the same lichen covers the face of the rock in Europe as
in the continents of the torrid zone, the same mould lines decaying
matter, and the same fungus cleaves to bark and root. But, compared
with the other orders of plants, the cellulars are most defective in
numbers throughout Abyssinia, the peculiarities of the climate being
very unfavourable to their development.
Every kind of parasitic plant is looked upon with a suspicious eye in
Abyssinia; and those of the vascular orders furnish to the conjuring
practitioner his principal remedies. But the mushrooms (_Demastafi_),
the fungi and puff-balls (_Ya arrogie siet phis_), are believed to
pollute the finger that touches them, and to be downright poison.
Mould, of course, thrives exuberantly on every substance in so moist a
climate as that of Shoa. The blight is but too well known; the _Boletus
igniarius_ grows abundantly in the forests; _Parmeliae_ and other
lichens cover rocks, or depend fantastically from the withered branches
of gigantic trees. _Mosses_, however, are very scarce, and only of four
kinds.
The _vascular acotyledonic plants_, the ferns, might likewise be
expected in greater variety among the Abyssinian weeds than is actually
the case. The deep recesses of the few remaining forests harbour some
kinds which very closely resemble European forms, and belong to the
genera _Aspidium, Polypodium, Asplenium, Adiantum, Scolopendrium,
Ophioglossum_, and _Pteris_. No tree is among them, nor are the
Abyssinians aware of the useful properties of the tribe. _Adianthum
Capillus Veneris_ is called in Amharic "_Sera Besoo_" i.e. much work--
finely wrought.
Of the four orders into which the tribe of _monocotyledonic plants_ is
naturally subdivided, viz. the Grasses, the Lilies, the Orchides, and
the Palms, the first undoubtedly deserves our principal attention, for
it is by far the most numerous and important. The great elevation of
the Abyssinian plains is so favourable for the cultivation of all
_Cerealia_ of the temperate zone, that they may rival the very best
agricultural districts of Northern Europe, whilst the low country along
the foot of the mountains produces some kinds of tropical grain, and
would fully answer for the cultivation of rice, which at present is
unknown in the country.
The Abyssinian husbandman takes great trouble in improving the
cultivated sorts of grain, by changing the seed-corn at every season,
and sometimes by sowing promiscuously different sorts to produce new
varieties. Hence the astonishing number of distinguishable kinds
cultivated in a small compass of ground under certain established
appellations, and brought into use for very different purposes. Within
a circumference of five miles around Ankober are found, of juwarree, 28
varieties; of wheat, 24; of barley, 16; of rye, 2; of teff, 4; of oats,
2; of maize, 2. Various kinds of bread and cakes are prepared from some
of these; malt for beer is chosen from others; and the inferior kinds
are given to slaves and cattle.
The existing meadow-grasses answer so well, that an introduction of new
species, or a regular culture, is not attempted. In times of great
famine the seeds of some of these grasses come into use as food. In the
swamps and humid meadows, and in many rivulets, species of Cyperus and
Scirpus are very frequent, some of which attain immense height, being
used for thatching, or in the manufacture of baskets, mats, etc.
Papyrus also grows in the low countries of Efat.
The following species of grasses and grain are cultivated: Lorghum
vulgare (_Mashila_), the Juwarree of India, and Durrha of Arabia, in
many varieties, the principal of which are: a (_Sengada_), with red
spreading spike; b (_Wogari_), with yellow, compact pendent spike. The
young stalks contain a great deal of saccharine, and are chewed: they
attain, in good situations, the enormous height of eighteen feet. The
produce of Efat and Giddem in this grain is chiefly exported to the
countries of the Adaiel; but a small quantity comes to the Shoan marts
for inferior kinds of beer, unleavened bread, and the food of mules. In
Shoa itself Mashila cannot be raised on account of the low temperature.
Saccharum officinarum, the sugar-cane (_Shonkar_), is also planted to a
small extent in the low country. The art of making sugar being unknown,
it is only chewed; and although regarded a great luxury, and sent in
token of friendship by the great, no particular care is bestowed upon
improving its growth.
Elusine Tocussa (_Dagusa_), a minute grain in quarternaire crosswise
disposed spikes, is produced on a low grass extensively cultivated in
Northern Abyssinia; and the Emperor of Gondar is said to be forced by
etiquette to eat cakes of it, to the exclusion of other farinaceous
food.
Poa Abyssinica (_Teff_). This millet-like seed is a favourite with all
Abyssinians, although the bread made of it is extremely unwholesome and
insipid. Four varieties are found, two of a brown, and two of a white
kind. The latter has the preference; and the finest, called _Manya
Teff_, is grown only upon the king's fields, and can never be purchased
by the subject. The straw of the _Teff_ is regarded the best
stable-fodder.
Zea Maize (_Mar Mashila_), i.e. Honey-sweet Mashila, is principally
eaten when fresh and milky. A little roasted it is a most acceptable
offering to the visitor. Sixteen kinds of barley (_Geps_) are raised on
the hill-tops, and on the high plateau of the Galla country, where
neither juwarree nor wheat will thrive. Its greatest consumption is in
brewing, but mules and horses are also fed on it, and the finer sorts
are eaten (_Mariam Sahr Litch Alkuso Sandarash). Barya Settat_, i.e.
"the slaves' portion," as might be imagined, is not of first-rate
quality.
Secale cereale (_Damash Sanaf Kolo_) finds a limited consumption, mixed
with other flour in bread.
Triticum aestivum, hibernum, etc. (_Sendi_). Shoa can boast of
twenty-four varieties of wheat. Many of these were originally
cultivated by the Galla, and subsequently introduced. The other
provinces of Abyssinia have also furnished various kinds; but the most
esteemed are indigenous, viz. _Y'abuna ehel, Ya beri mangada, Ya gosh
gumbar_, i.e. "Aboon's grain;" "bullock's molar tooth;" "buffaloes'
forehead." Wheat is frequently eaten unground, in a mixture of parched
grain, called _Kolo_, which is the only store carried by the Amhara
warrior into the field.
Avena spec. (_Gherama_) is a small kind of oats, sown on the poorest
fields, in order that favourite mules and horses may crop it while yet
green. In times of scarcity the poor are compelled to resort to it.
Bambusa arundinacea (_Shemal_). The bamboo is not indigenous in any
part of the country, but groves are planted on the king's grounds, in
order to supply poles for the royal tents.
The following are the grasses found in every pasture:--Lolium temulentum
(_Enkerdad_), much dreaded as poison; Chloris spec. (_Agerma_);
Andropogon distachyum (_Gasha_); Anthistiria spec. (_Sambalet_);
Sporobolus spec. (_Ya teff sahr_) the seeds eaten as those of the teff;
Poa brizoides (_Ya Kiri sahr_); Kiri is a species of finch, which eats
the small seeds; Setaria spec. (_Ya oosha Sendado_).
The next order, that of the _Lilies_, is not so numerous as might be
expected of Africa, but when a species does appear, it covers vast
tracts with its lovely colours. None but the edible kinds of Allium are
cultivated in Abyssinia, ornamental gardens being quite unknown
throughout the country. Some grow in swampy meadows, especially those
with bulbs, more properly ranking as lilies: others, with perennial
stem, are found on dry waste places, such as the Asparagus and the Aloe.
The whole year round, the meads are graced by the lovely blossoms of
two Commelineae, viz. Commelina Africana, and Tradescantia spec. Both
having small oval tubers, they are called _Off angoon_ and _Off gola_,
i.e. "bird's egg" (_off_, a bird; _angoon_ and _gola_, or more commonly
_angola_, an egg). These tubers are eaten in times of famine. One
ixia, a very beautiful kind, of the morasses around Angollala, springs
up immediately after the termination of the rains. Haemanthus
coccineus, Amaryllis clavata, Gloriosa spec, are rare plants of Efat;
Bulbocodium spec, is a very transient form, observable a few days after
the "rains of Bounty." Onions and garlic (_Neitch Shongort_) are
favourite vegetables; various kinds of Aloe (_Ya jib Shongort_) adorn
the wastes of Efat, and furnish good fibres for making ropes. Asparagus
retrofractus (_Sareti_), and Asparagus Ethiopicus (_Kastanitcha_), are
fructiferous and climbing shrubs: a green twig of the first, stuck in
the hair of the sinciput, is a token of exultation after a successful
encounter with an enemy or wild beast; the wood of the second is of
peculiar hardness, and splitting well serves the Amhara scribe as a pen.
Lastly, one Smilax (_Ashkila_) affords the stick in common use as a
tooth-brush.
That equally beautiful and important order, the _Orchideae_, might be
supposed to find its natural ground in Abyssinia, where both atmosphere
and soil are so favourable; but ginger is still imported from Gurague:
arrow-root and salep are unknown, and not a single kind of the
respective genera is an inhabitant either of Shoa or Efat. The real
_Orchideae_ of the forests, moreover, are few in number. Epidendrum
capense, cleaving to the bark of the wild olive-tree, is the only
representative of that interesting group, the _Epidendreae_. Of the
plantain tribe, three species have been introduced from the south, but
apparently with little advantage; viz. _Mooz_, Musa paradisiaca, a
coarse kind of plantain, which is reared on some few spots in Efat for
the royal table, and two species of Urania, called _Ensete_ and _Koba_.
These are planted in Shoa for the sake of their leaves; they seldom
advance to flower and fruit, in consequence of the low temperature. The
only visible difference between them is, that in the Koba the middle rib
of the leaf is on the underside red, as also the stem; whilst in the
Ensete both are light green. Either of these trees, when suffered to
grow, attains a height of twelve feet in the stem, exceeding by far that
of the Mooz; the leaves are equal in size to those of the latter, and
are only used to bake bread upon. Their proper home is Gurague, the
famous seat of so many botanical riches. Seed-capsules of the Koba
brought from that country contain four or five angular nuts, full of a
mealy substance, like the finest arrow-root, which is boiled and given
to children to make them grow; the base of the fruit is filled with a
delicious pulp like that of the plantain. In Gurague the young shoots
of the Ensete form a principal part of the diet, but they are despised
by the Amhara, who are not at all addicted to vegetables. The fibres
are used in the manufacture of ropes and mats, which form an important
article of trade with Shoa. Ensete and Koba are hardier than the Mooz;
and towering above the enclosures of the lofty villages, impart an
aspect not properly belonging to the landscape, and strangely
contrasting with many alpine associates.
The _Palms_ of the continents of the eastern world are, with very few
exceptions, inhabitants of the sea-borders, and do not thrive at any
considerable elevation or even distance inland. The coast of the Adaiel
is therefore the only locality where three species of this tribe, viz.
Phoenix dactylifera, Hyphaene crucifera, and Borassus flabelliformis,
appear; but so scantily, that the date must be imported from Arabia.
Baskets and mats are manufactured of the leaves of all, and some toddy
is prepared of the Borassus especially.
The preceding enumeration of acotyledonic and monocotyledonic plants is
not sufficient to determine the systematic place due to the Abyssinian
vegetation in general. The Dicotyledones, comprising two-thirds of all
the plants, will necessarily help to show, that although included within
the tropics, the Flora of Shoa, and of some of the Galla provinces to
the west, is, on the whole, subalpine. The avenues of approach to them
from the eastward, evince in their scanty dress the influence of a
tropical sun; and between these two extremes, a happy and most fertile
province intervenes, where, by the side of the hardy grain, cotton and
coffee may be raised--where a tea-plant and many species of indigo grow
wild--and where, in fact, a temperate and a torrid clime exchange their
products as it were upon neutral ground.
The _Chlamydoblasta_ number but very few species in Abyssinia. One
Nymphaae only, on the lakes of Shoa, and one Aristolochia (bracteata) of
the Adaiel country, could be discovered. This latter, called _Gerbaad_,
is a secret remedy with the Danakil against poisoned wounds, and in fact
they are prone to attribute mysterious qualities to the most of their
weeds. Pepper is not found either in a wild or cultivated state,
although nothing would oppose the introduction of that favourite
condiment, which at present, under the appellation of _Gunda Berberi_
(_Gunda_, an ant; _Berberi_, hot spice) is imported from Arabia and
India.
Of _apetalous Gymnoblasts_, some important species are to be recorded,
since they form the chief pride of the forests. And justly beginning
with the Coniferae, the fir (cedar), which graces the Alps of Northern
Abyssinia, is replaced in Shoa by a gigantic juniper, Juniperus excelsa
(_Det_). This noble tree of the woods as well as of the churchyards
attains in its life of one century a height of upwards of one hundred
and sixty feet, with four to five in diameter at the base. Growing
nearly in the shape of a cypress, it throws off continually the lower
branches, which shoot out almost at a right angle from the stem, so that
two-thirds of the same are void of green; the top is always a pyramid,
and generally scanty. The wood is very inferior, but splitting readily,
it supplies, in the absence of proper carpenters' tools, the chief
timber used in the construction of huts and churches; and it forms,
besides, the common fuel. Neither is any use made of the resin or
berries; but twigs lopped off the melancholy trees that overshadow the
cemetery, are often strewn upon the corpse before the grave is filled
up. A yew tree, Taxus elongata, _Sigba_, also of the Shoan forests,
keeps within more moderate dimensions; sixty feet in height, and five in
circumference, is the utmost. The tough wood, like that of the wild
olive-tree, furnishes the timber for works of art which are to last some
time. To tarry beneath its shade, or to inhale the smoke of burning yew
wood, is regarded as particularly noxious.
The low temperature reigning in the Alps of Abyssinia does not prohibit
the growth of a species of fig, which contrasts strangely enough with
the tall juniper. The _Shoala_, a kind of Banyan tree, with large,
oval, acute, serrated, and subcordate leaves, and racemes of fruits
attached only to the stem and principal branches, measures frequently
seven feet in diameter, with a height of forty feet, at an age of
two-score years. Its roots are partly above ground; but of secondary,
or branch-roots, there is no vestige. Requiring no small space for
expansion, it stands commonly on the outskirts of the forests, or quite
alone, but its shade is extremely dense and unfavourable to other
vegetation. The fruit, of the size of a pigeon's egg, brown and
insipid, might be eaten by people in distress. In the low country the
Sycamore Fig-tree makes its appearance; it is called _Worka_, i.e. "the
Golden," by the Amhara, and _Woda_ by the Galla; and has, with those of
the latter nation, who are still in the bonds of idolatry, a sacred
signification. Being planted over the tombs of notable persons,
conjurers, or heroes, offerings are brought to it, and hung up on the
branches at certain festivals, when the neighbouring tribes feast
together upon that holy and neutral ground. The Worka stands always
near running water, towering far over the jungle, although the undivided
stem is scarcely ten feet high. The leaf has a yellow tomentum below;
and the fruit forms a favourite food of monkeys and of various birds,
but is not touched by man.
The _Kuaraf_, Gunnera spec, another plant of the same family, of
_Artocarpeae_, is an important vegetable during the strict fast of Lent.
It grows in swamps and rivulets, and is an annual low plant from a
perennial root, with large radical leaves and a leafless stalk, bearing
the minute flowers on a bunchy raceme. The petioles, ribs of leaves,
and stalks, are eaten fresh when stripped of the epidermis; and their
taste is similar to that of the sorrel. The common stinging-nettle
(_Sama_) is, by boiling, also prepared into an indifferent food during
the quadragesimal low diet. The troublesome weed grows everywhere to a
height of five feet.
Of the many _Polygoneae_, a few must be noticed on account of their
frequent occurrence and of their use. Polygonum tomentosum (_Ba Waha
lay_, i.e. "upon the water,") and Polygonum serratum, cover the margins
of morasses and lakes. Polygonum frutescens (_Umboatoo_) is the most
common hedge-shrub. Rumex arifolius (_Makmako_), frequent in swampy
meadows, yields, in its fleshy root, a reddish dye for colouring butter.
The root of another species of Rumex, called _Tutt_, is believed to be
a nostrum for barbarous and criminal purposes; but, happily, it is quite
innocent. Instead of these species, which all belong to the Flora of
Shoa, there appear in the Adel country several Boerhaaviae. Introduced
into Shoa is a kind of willow (_Aheia_), much employed in the
manufacture of saddles.
The _monopetalous Gymnoblasts_, being a class next to the highest and
most important, contain a large number of plants, of which the following
are pointed out: Plantago Capensis (_Ya gura wosfi_), and Plantago
Egyptiaca (_Burrh_), both common weeds in Shoa; Plumbago Capensis, with
large white corolla, in Efat, and Scabiosa decurrens (_Adai_), with
snowy heads, in Shoa, are highly ornamental; Echinops horridus, growing
to the height of ten feet about Angollala; Carthamus tinctorius (_Suf_),
extensively cultivated in Efat for the oil of the seeds and for the dye
yielded by the flowers; Carduncellus spec. (_Dorakus_),--a decoction of
the dried flower-heads is administered in ague. Several twining species
of Mikania adorn the forests of Shoa; two fructiferous Cacaliae, full of
a balsamic sap, and one Klenia, exhibit the brightest scarlet in the
jungles of Efat. Pteronia spinosa, and Helichrysum vestitum, are hardy
shrubs found on the slopes. Species of Gnaphalium and Bidens are
annoying weeds in the cotton-fields. The numerous kinds of Radiatae
contain only one of importance, viz. the Polymnia Abyssinica (_Nug_),
which is the chief oil plant. _Suf_ and _Nug_ oil mixed is called
_Kabanug_, and only used for burning, since it possesses strong purging
qualities. The family of the _Compositae_ furnishes altogether but a
small number of useful plants in proportion to its extensiveness.
The _Campanulaceae_ are low annual insignificant weeds, one Lobelia
excepted, viz. the Rhynchopetalum montanum, or _Jibera_. This strange
perennial plant, with the aspect of a palm-tree, grows chiefly in moist
ravines among the high mountains, and is especially frequent about
Ankober. The stem attains upwards of fifteen feet in height, and five
inches in diameter. The top carries a crown of large leaves; and the
spike is one foot and a half long. When the seeds are ripe, the plant
dies suddenly. One Erica (_Asta_), five feet in height, assists
likewise to dispel the aspect of a European Flora, which is conveyed by
the Veronica Beccabunga and Anagallis of the meadow rivulets.
Scrophularia frutescens (_Djodjo_), with a strong smell of camphor, is
used as a febrifuge and charm; two kinds of Orobanche are also among the
conjurer's infallible medicines. Acanthus carduifolius is the choicest
camel-fodder in the desert. Rare specimens of Hyperanthera Moringa, the
same as in Arabia, stand near the pools of the low country: a gum,
becoming instantly red in the air, flows freely out of any bruise, but
is applied to no use. Mint, thyme, and other plants of the family
_Labiatae_, so replete with aetheric oils, do not enjoy the reputation
due to them. Of the many kinds only three have names and use, viz.
Origanum spec. (_Kassi_), and Ziziphora spec. (_Lomi shett_, i.e.
"lime-smell"), which are used in the fomentation of boils; Leonotis
spec. (_Ras Kimr_), as anthelminthicum by a decoction of the dried
leaves, mixed with a little oil. Several _Convolvulaceae_ and
_Boragineae_ pass disregarded. Of the former. Convolvulus pes caprae
binds the sand of the sea-beach; of the latter, a few specimens of
Cordia Abyssinica (_Wanzey_) grow in Efat.
Capsicum frutescens (_Geich Berberi_, i.e. "red pepper"), the most
important of hot spices in warm climes, and Nicotiana Tabacum
(_Tombako_), also an indispensable commodity to many of the Moslem
population, are objects of diligent cultivation in the lower country:
yet the only tolerable tobacco must be imported from the Ittoo Galla.
Solanum marginatum (_Umboi_), a shrub, the seeds of which are strewed on
the surface of ponds to stupify the fish, which are nevertheless still
eatable, and Atropa arborea (_Amoraroo_), the red juice of whose berry
is used by the Amhara women to stain their palms and nails, are common
hedge-shrubs in Shoa. Of the narcotic qualities of the Datura
Stramonium (_Atafaris_), the Abyssinian sorcerer is well aware. The
thief-detector makes a youth smoke the dried leaves of it in order to
cause stupefaction, and thus promote the semblance of powers of
divination. Neither the potato nor any other edible kind of Solanum has
yet been introduced into Shoa.
The families of _Contortae, Rubiaceae, Ligustrinae_, have many
representatives in the low country. Stapelia pulvinata and Calotropis
gigantea are the most prominent: the former has a fleshy, quadrangular,
and four-winged stem of two feet height, and when in flower is scarcely
approachable; the latter furnishes good charcoal for gunpowder.
Kannahia laniflora, with particularly sweet-smelling flowers, lines the
borders of the rivulets in Efat; Carissa spec. (_Agame_) has edible
berries, and flourishes both in Efat and Shoa. Melanea verticillata
(_Adguar_), is a jungle-tree of ten feet height, with purging berries.
Psychotria spec. (_Doda Gula_), is a shrub found in Shoa; Coffea Arabica
(_Boon_) grows wild in many of the warmer provinces, but is diligently
plucked out by the Christian population, who consider the use of the
berry to be as foreign to salvation as the doctrine of the false
prophet. Where his followers abide in greater numbers, or uncontrolled,
as in Giddem and in the countries of the Ittoo and Aroosi Galla, the
coffee-tree grows unmolested, no care, however, being taken of it; but
its proper home seems to lie far to the west and south, in the kingdoms
of Caffa and Enarea, where a donkey's load is sold for the twentieth
part of a dollar. Two kinds of jessamine grace with their fragrant
flowers the hedges and groves. Olea spec. (_Woira_) is, with the
juniper and yew, the principal forest-tree of Shoa; sixty to eighty feet
in height, and four in diameter, are its common dimensions. The wood of
the wild olive-tree affords excellent fuel and timber; but no use is
made of the fruit, which attains the size of a large pea.
Among the _polypetalous Gymnoblasts_, in which vegetation has attained
the highest degree of perfection with respect to variety of shape and
colour, as well as medical and nutritious qualities, we find several
important families altogether wanting in the Flora of Abyssinia. The
Pomaceae and Amygdaleae are absent, and the existing scarcity of
fruit-trees, whether wild or cultivated, is indeed most apparent.
Others of more limited utility are very numerous, as the Tricoccae,
Rhocadeae, Amarantinae; but the Leguminosae form by far the largest
family of polypetalous phanerogames.
Of _Umbelliferae_ there exists in the low country one Ferula, a small
tree of unknown properties. In Shoa there are several Caucalis
(_Karambashu_), growing on pasture grounds, and poisonous to cattle.
Coriandrum sativum (_Dumbelan_), and Anethum foeniculum, the well-known
European spices, are cultivated. Berberis tinctoria of the forests
yields a good yellow dye for mourning apparel. Clypea spec.
(_Engotshid_), is a creeper with pellate leaves, upon which small cakes
are baked. Ranunculus trilobus (_Goodie_) is a troublesome weed on the
meadows. Nigella sativa (_Asmud_) is occasionally cultivated as a
spice. Several species of Polygala flourish unnoticed. Some
_Balsamineae_ grow in shady places; one of them, Impatiens grandis
(_Girshid_), has a tuberous root, with the juice of which the women
paint their palms and faces red. Thlaspi bursa pastoris (_Ya bug elat_,
i.e. "sheep's tail"), the cosmopolitan weed, follows agriculture also in
Abyssinia. Sinapis Nigra (_Sanafitch_) grows wild, and is sometimes
resorted to as an additional ingredient of the pepper sauce called
_wotz_. Brassica spec. (_Goomun_), a cultivated coarse kind of
cow-cabbage, perennial, and five feet high, is eaten as a vegetable
after much boiling; the seeds are also used for oil. Of the numerous
_Capparideae_, Cadaba Indica is particularly important in the Adel
desert, being for many scores of miles the only shrub which affords
shelter from the noontide sun. Two species of Capparis make
impenetrable hedges in Efat. Cucumis Africanus (_Ya medur oomboi_) is
an annual plant, of sandy and desert places; the seeds are a favourite
medicine in Shoa, and also with the Galla. Cucumis colocynthis is
frequent in the valleys adjoining the Bahr Assal, but is not collected
either for home use or for exportation. Cucurbita lagenaria (_Kel_)
grows wild, and is cultivated in Efat for water-bottles. Cucurbita
pepo, a common coarse pumpkin in Shoa, serves as a vegetable. Bryonia
scabrella (_Ya Amor a M'sa_) is a much dreaded poison. Two species of
Flacourtia, _Koshim_ and _Menedem_, have edible berries.
Viola montana, a violet without smell, grows in the forests of Shoa.
_Tamaricinae_ occur in the desert, from the sea-shore as far as to the
Hawash; the presence of the principal kind, called _Sagan_, is, to the
Dankali herdsman, a sure indication of water near the surface. The
genus Hypericum has only showy plants. The _Chenepodeae_,--chiefly
weeds, contain one species (called _Amedmadoo_) which is used for
polishing metal. Achyranthes spec. (_Talineh_) is a styptic medicine.
Phytolacca Abyssinica (_Endott_) is a common shrub in Shoa and Efat; a
cold infusion of the dried and pounded berry possesses wonderful
cleansing qualities, and is used instead of soap. Silene dianthoides
(_Siakul_) is a pretty flower found on the high mountains. Calanchoe
verea (_Endehahoola_) is a very common succulent plant, the leaves of
which are dried and smoked like tobacco in phthisical affections, or the
juice of them administered as refrigerants in inflammatory fevers.
Epilobium villosum (_Ya lahm tchau_, i.e. "cows' salt") is regarded as
an excellent and wholesome fodder for homed cattle, if given
occasionally Punica granatum (_Rooma_), sometimes cultivated in Efat,
was introduced from Arabia. Several species of Grewia bear edible
fruits in the desert, where their acidity is very grateful.
To the various kinds of _Byttneriaceae_ and _Malvaceae_, no particular
interest is attached, except to the cotton (_Det_) Gossypium Nigrum,
which is cultivated in two varieties, the finer and smaller species
growing in the shade of the taller and more hardy. Both are regarded as
indigenous to Abyssinia. Grain and cotton-cloth form the principal
staple commodities of Shoa. Linum usitatissimum (_Tulbah_) is
cultivated merely for the seeds, of which oil is made: flax-dressing not
being understood. Vitis vinifera (_Woin Saf_), planted as a curiosity
in the king's gardens, bears plentifully, and would doubtless answer
well upon volcanic soil. Several species of Cissus interlace the
jungles of Efat; one, especially, is a constant companion of the
Camel-thorn Acacia in the desert.
Euphorbia Abyssinica (_Kolqual_), a singular sconce-like milk bush of
the Abyssinian groves, gives charcoal for gunpowder; with the corrosive
sap it is frequently attempted to stop ulcers of a phagedenic nature.
The inspissated juice of two other species of Euphorbia, _Birgut_ and
_Anderfa_, serves as a drastic purgative. The ostrich-hunting Somauli
poisons his arrows with the milk of Euphorbia antiquorum, which does not
make the meat injurious. Ricinus Africanus (_Gulo_) affords in its
seeds a famous medicine for cattle, and is frequent in Efat. Rhamnus
spec. (_Gesho_) is a tonic, and a decoction of the leaves of this
cultivated shrub is used in the manufacture of hydromel and beer instead
of hops. Celastrus spec. (_Chaat_) is a species of the tea planted and
used in Efat, but more extensively in Caffa and other countries of the
interior. In Efat the fresh leaves are both chewed and used as an
astringent medicine, or taken in order to dispel sleep: a decoction in
water or milk being also drunk as a beverage, which tastes bitter
enough. Hagenia Abyssinica (_Cosso_) affords, in a cold infusion of the
dried flowers and capsules, the famous drasticum purgans and
anthelminthicum of the Abyssinians. The tree is one of the most
picturesque in appearance. Balsamodendron Myrrha (_Kurbeta_) grows on
the borders of Efat, in the jungle of the Hawash, and in the Adel
desert. The resinous gum called _Hofali_, is collected for exportation.
Balsamodendron Opobalsamum (_Besham_) is commonly found with the
former, and grows even at Cape Aden. Citrus medica (_Lomi_) flourishes
wild in the jungles of Giddem, and is cultivated in Efat: Citrus
aurantium (_Bahr Lomi_), lately introduced from Arabia, and Citrus
decumana var. (_Trunco_), with apple-like solid pulp, are both found in
the royal orchards. Rubus pinnatus (_Injori_) yields the best of all
wild-growing fruits in Abyssinia--a true blackberry of the forests.
Rosa Abyssinica (_Kaga_), a tree-like dog-rose, bears an edible hip.
The Brayera Abyssinica, which serves in Tigre instead of _Cosso_, is not
known in the southern provinces.
Trifolium saxatile cespitosum (_Nagad_) is sown on the best meadows for
green fodder. Vicia faba (_Bakkela_) is most extensively cultivated in
Shoa and in the Galla countries to the west; the beans are eaten either
fresh and green during the season, or, when dry, made up into soups.
Ervum lens (_Missur_), Cicer arietinum (_Shimbrah_), Pisum sativum
(_Attur_), Phaseolus spec. (_Adunguari_), are produced in Efat and other
warm provinces of the kingdom. Many species of Indigofera, wild and
unheeded, grow in the desert and on the borders of cultivation.
Pterolobium lacerans (_Kantuffa_) is an impenetrable hedge-shrub
abounding in Efat: the bark gives a red dye for leather. Tamarindus
Indica attains a majestic size in the jungles of Efat, but is quite
neglected; as are also various kinds of Senna (_Senamaki_).
Dichrostachys cinerea. Acacia eburnea. Acacia planifrons, and other
Camel-thorn trees called _Gerar_, are of the utmost importance to the
wilderness and desert; in the latter, the umbrella-like tops collect man
and beast beneath their scanty shade during the hottest hours of the
day. Some yield superior gum arabic; the twigs serve as food for the
camel, and the pods for goats and sheep.
The foregoing list of Abyssinian plants comprehends nearly all those
which are of importance to the cultivator, farmer, or physician; but no
doubt double the number could be added by any people more enterprising
and inquisitive than the inhabitants of Shoa. All kind of vegetation
not directly useful and beneficial is regarded as a weed, and receives
no special appellation; and few of the population know the names of any
plant that is not a daily necessary of the kitchen. The physician's
lore is kept a profound mystery; and there is not much lost by its
limited diffusion, since the whole is a motley collection of very
questionable experience and most degrading superstition.
Zoology.
Of the lowest order of animals, the _Radiates_, nearly the same may be
said that was remarked above respecting the lowest order of plants;
namely, that their species are in a less degree bound to certain limits
of geographical distribution than those in which the respective types
hasten in more marked characters to the highest possible perfection.
None of the numerous tribe of _Radiatae_ are, in their proper home,
directly exposed to the external air and its changes. They live in a
medium, which generally preserves a mean temperature, with extremes not
prohibiting the possibility of animal existence, and their ephemeral
life is little liable to be cut short by any sudden change. Thus we
find that the waters and animal humours produce, in different climes,
similar beings, in which either the deficiency in bulk is made up by
countless multitudes of individuals, or the deficiency in number by high
reproductive powers.
Intestinal worms (_Wosfat_) prove one of the chief plagues of the
Abyssinians. Not only ascarides, but also tape and thread worms (Taenia
and Filaria), are to be constantly contended with. The frequency of
this disposition must have its source in the usual diet, consisting of
unleavened dough-like bread and raw meat, which the accompanying pepper
sauce is not sufficient to correct. Once in every month the _Cosso_ and
other powerful purgatives are resorted to, and bring momentary relief;
but the Guinea-worm, living in the fleshy parts of the limbs, must be
endured until it shall have perforated the skin.
The influence exercised upon the nature of the _Articulated Animals_ or
_Insects_ by the quality of the other visible organised beings, both
plants and animals, is much more apparent than in the above-named order
of the _Radiatae_. Being bound by the strongest ties to the limits of
those beings which are assigned to them as food and home, their species
present distinctly marked characters of geographical distribution
throughout the world.
In Shoa and Efat there appears with the increase of vegetation a larger
number of insects, but the most noxious of them remain only during the
height of the season. This is most perceptible in the migrations of
locusts and caterpillars, which, by a few cold rains, are induced to
descend into the open wildernesses and deserts. Such a sudden relief
from countless hosts of the locusts, called _Anbasa_, is invariably
ascribed, by the superstitious farmer, to the special interposition and
agency of his guardian saint, at whose shrine, in the hour of need,
offerings and vows are liberally made. Various grasshoppers (_Sada_),
mantidae (_Feenta_), and cockroaches, do considerable damage during the
hot season. A large black ant (_Goonda_), which bites ferociously,
constructs no water-tight habitation, but intrudes at the beginning of
the rains into the huts, from which it is expelled with the utmost
difficulty. The Egyptian honey-bee (_Neb_), either kept in the
farm-yards within baskets, or existing wild in the woods, finds
abundance of odoriferous flowers. Honey is an important article of
consumption, both in its natural form and when converted into mead.
Although so cold, the country is not free from the annoyances of flies
(_Sembi_), and musquitoes (_Tenang_). White ants (_Mest_) are not so
numerous and destructive in the upper as in the lower country. Small
colonies of them live and build their chambers beneath loose stones, but
they never come into the houses, and, in fact, the juniper timber of the
fragile edifices is seldom attacked by any wood vermin. Various most
beautiful butterflies, phalaenes, and moths, while in the caterpillar
state (_Tel_), despoil trees and plants that are of no value to the
Abyssinian; but his plantations of cotton and cabbage rarely suffer.
Neither the silkworm nor the mulberry-tree are found in the country.
Numerous varieties of beetles, of those families especially which remove
animal matter and soil, with others of more cleanly habits, are
comprised under the general appellation of _Densissa_. Among the
former, the Coprophaga, many Egyptian species may be met with, as Copris
Isidis, Ateuchus sacer, and others; among the latter, chiefly Cetoniae,
are found species nearly allied to or identical with some of Senegambia.
One notable Inca, the male of which is armed with a powerful head
excrescence, lives principally on the sap of wounded trees; Lycus
appendiculatus frequents chiefly the flowers of Umbelliferae; many
Curculionides inhabit the plants of the family Compositae, but
Coccinellae are the most numerous. Species of Lytta abound, but no use
is made of them, the Shoans having no real medicine prepared from the
animal kingdom. Spiders (_Sherarit_) and scorpions (_Kind_) are
studiously avoided, or destroyed, as particularly impure and noxious,
though the former never attack aught save their prey, and the sting of
the latter is little dangerous. Total disregard of cleanliness is
punished with a frightful increase of bodily vermin, as fleas
(_Kunitsha_), lice (_Kemal_), bugs (_Tochan_), and acarus scabici
(_Ekak_).
The large number of water-birds upon the lakes and morasses of Shoa
effectually restrain an increase of _Snails_ and _Shells_; some species
of Bulimus (_Kendautchi_), minute Helices, Pupa, and Limax, are so few,
that the damage done by them is not perceptible. Neither serve the
larger kinds as food.
The known fresh-water _Fish_ are insignificant in quality and quantity,
and only serve to feed the numerous crocodiles which infest the main
stream of the Hawash. Its various tributaries, when they first escape
from the mountains, carry small species of Salmo and Perca (_Asa_),
which are in great request during Lent; but the manner of taking them is
primitive and imperfect.
All the _Amphibia_ are objects of apprehension and superstition.
Serpents (_Ebab_) are not numerous, and are chiefly of small kinds, nor
venomous, but the awe in which they are held is quite ridiculous.
Tribes in the far west, described as being the meanest of men, and
scarcely above the beasts, are charged by the Abyssinians with the
heinous custom of eating snakes, and ornamenting their persons with
necklaces of the backbone of that accursed animal. Two kinds of
tortoises (_Yeli_) are found in the low country, Testudo Graeca and
Indica; the latter attains an enormous size in the deep impenetrable
jungles of Mentshar. The dread entertained of the Saurii comprises all
kinds, the harmless and the formidable. The Egyptian Gecko
(_Enkakela_), the chameleon (_Eist_), the Seineus officinalis, and other
numerous lizards, which make themselves most useful by the removal of so
many annoying insects, are unrelentingly doomed to destruction, whilst
the crocodiles (_Azo_) roam unmolested on the abandoned shores of the
larger rivers and lakes.
The _Feathered Tribe_ exist in great variety of species, which may in
some degree be due to the preponderance of migratory birds. The
_Scansores_, however, are principally stationary, their food seldom
failing throughout the year. The noblest of them is a parrot-like
Coliphimus (_Sorit_) of the Shoan forests. Lovely shades of green, and
many tints of the brightest red, a stately crest, and a long rounded
tail, make it a favourite with the Abyssinians. A tail-feather fastened
in the hair of a daring warrior, is a token of late achievements in the
battle-field. Two other kinds, called _Wans Sorit_, i.e. Sorit of the
river-side, and _Aheia_, i.e. donkey, from its asinine tunes, are much
inferior in beauty, though not in size. One, Coliphimus concolor, is of
a dull greyish green; the other, C. fasciatus, black and white, with
white zones, across the tail; the beak of the female is green; both live
in Efat upon different grains and wild figs. Two small kinds of parrot
inhabit the fig and tamarind trees of the lower country: their name,
_Donkoro_, is also used figuratively of persons talking nonsense. One
corresponds almost with Psittacus Taranta. In the other, which is a
little larger, the sexes are distinguished by the gay plumage of the
male, which is green above and red below, whilst the female is greyish
brown and yellow. Centropus Jardini, a beautiful kind of cuckoo, lives
solitary on the fig-trees in Efat: several species of woodpeckers, which
do not seem to differ from the South African kinds, are found on acacias
and tamarinds.
Among the _Ambulatores_ many migrate during winter-time from the
mountains to the eastern plain; others arrive during summer from the
North, most likely from Sennaar and Egypt. They rarely do any
considerable damage on the plantations of Teff and Juwarree, whilst
their services in destroying numberless vermin are most conspicuous.
Bird-catching for food or for amusement is not a sport with the Amhara,
but, on the other hand, there is no privilege in favour of the
songsters--a study and imitation of the tunes of which might greatly
improve the execrable attempts of music, vocal and instrumental, vented
by the unskilful Abyssinian performer.
Two gaudy kinds of Alcedo play on the rivulets--Merops Bulockii and
Nubicus. These truly African species of the flycatcher are in the
lower, Upupa epops, the common hoopoe, in the upper country. Certhia
tacazze and chalybea, with two other equally beautiful kinds of the
humming-bird, proceed with the seasons to their flower-gardens, when the
return of rain here, and of warmth there, elicits the most fragrant
blossoms, and covers the shrubs of the mountain-side, or the
jungle-trees, with soft honey-insects. One of these humming-birds
suspends its baglike nest, ingeniously woven of raw cotton, by a string
of the same material, to reeds, or cotton-plants. Buphaga Africana
picks the larvae of gad-flies out of the galled backs of camels, oxen,
and mules, in spite of the struggles of the tortured animal. Jeterus
larvatus, and other species of stares, weave their nests of grass, and
line them inside with the woolly flowers of an Achyranthes. These nests
are suspended in great numbers to the lower branches of solitary trees,
and may have given origin to the story of the wonderful groves, where
all the fruits are birds enclosed in a shell. Lamprotomis auratus, and
some other kinds of thrushes, consume, during their short stay in Shoa
of two months, immense numbers of insects. Among the Sylviadae are some
eminent songsters, especially Sylvia Pammelaina, and also species of
Motacilla, and Saxicola, whilst one Muscipeta, the male of which has two
tail-feathers three times as long as the whole body, is quite silent.
The head and neck of this remarkable bird are steel-blue, the other
parts of the plumage rusty-brown, except the two elongated middle
feathers of the tail, which are snowy white, with black quills, and a
brown plot at the extremity: they are used as an ornament for royalty.
Lanius humeralis (_Gurameile_) is one of those fatal birds, the sudden
appearance of which before an army at its outset, forebodes ill-success,
and all manner of misfortune to single persons, if the tail be directed
towards them. To the other kinds of shrikes no such unhappy celebrity
is attached, although they seem not less litigious, and anxious to draw
off by their noise the attention of a wayfarer from the vicinity of
their nests. Alauda alpestris comes from the West, and returns again
after two months, April and May. The most numerous kinds of finches,
Ploccus, Pyrgita, Linaria, etc., are all comprised under the appellation
_Off_, i.e. small bird: they seem generally to have fixed quarters.
Colius Capensis (_Rasa_) is solely in Efat, in company with the Wans
sorit.
Ravens and crows are of three kinds, but one of them (_Kura_) is
particularly remarkable on account of its beak, which is much higher
than the crown, carrying a considerable protuberance on the top, the
nostrils being situated in an excavation, which runs forward in a broad
furrow; the bill is very massive, twice as high as it is broad, and
terminating in a small hook; the colour of the plumage is deep brownish
black, except a broad bar of white feathers across the sinciput, and
sometimes a narrow white line down the back of the neck. Its voice and
mode of living and walking is just like that of our crows, but it does
not suffer the approach of other species.
Swallows are never failing, but the species vary in their visits.
Hirundo Capensis and rustica appear to avoid each other, not being seen
together in the same localities. Cypselus apus and Caprimulgus species
are rarely met with. Coracias afra and Abyssinica live only in the
lower country, also the various kinds of Hornbill. _Erkoom_, Buceros
Abyssinicus, by far the largest, is mischievous to the Juwarree fields;
but the damage done is compensated by his great liking for field-mice
also. The Erkoom runs swiftly, and rises seldom into the air: the white
wing-feathers are much esteemed as an ornament of the hair by the
triumphant warrior. Buceros nasutus, and another species, which differs
slightly in colour and size, eat small lizards and chameleons. Buceros
erythrorhynchus (_Sholak_), the most frequent of them, rids the
plantations of many noxious insects.
The tribe of _Raptores_ (_Amora_) is uncommonly numerous, and on the
whole very useful in Abyssinia. Those that feed on living animals
seldom stoop even at a stray fowl, whilst all their other prey is quite
indifferent to the farmer, and the carrion-birds remove quickly whatever
the indolent grazier has dragged outside his door. Finding plenty of
food, they have no need to wander widely or periodically; yet the large
species have their nests at considerable distances from their hunting
districts, and commonly on inaccessible precipices.
Strix bubo, the only but very common owl of the up-country, and one Otus
of the low plain, are treated as birds of ill-omen. From the entrails
of the former the necromancer prepares a potent charm. The eagle,
Aquila naevia (Nas'r), comes seldom near the villages, nor is he forward
in his depredations. Falco biarmicus fights his superiors in size, and
deprives them forcibly of their prey; it has got hence the appellation,
_Ya Amora Alaka_, i.e. chief of the birds of prey. Morphnus occipitalis
(_Adagoota_), a beautiful crested falcon, lives in the lower country of
Giddem, and is particularly inert. Several species of Astur and
Accipiter (_Bazi_) feed on small songsters and mice. Ternis, spec.
(_Goodie_), removes innumerable quantities of locusts; and Milvus
parasiticus (_Tshelvit_) cleans streets and premises in company with the
crows. Gypaetos barbatus (_Cheffie_), extremely frequent in Shoa, draws
near to butchers, and waits patiently for his share--the paunch and
other rejected parts of the victim. Vultur arrianus and fulvus
(_Vellos_) smell their food many miles off, and gather round it in great
numbers. The periodically returning wars, and the extensive stock of
cattle kept throughout the habitable parts, feed, with never-failing
supplies of carrion, horrible gangs of hyenas, jackals, dogs, and
vultures. Cathartes perenopterus and Neophron Niger are less frequent,
and always solitary.
The tribe of _Rasores_ contains the few birds that are considered fit
for Christian food; yet the common fowl (_Doroo_), the only domesticated
kind, kept almost in every compound, is very much neglected, and not
being of a superior breed, remains small and lean. All other meat is
eaten raw by the Abyssinians, but fowls, either tame or wild, must be
cooked. The wild ones, pintado, partridge, quail, and grouse, are not
prohibited, but still suspected as unwholesome food; and if even long
after an indulgence of such meat the gourmand falls sick, he invariably
looks back upon that trespass as the cause of his indisposition. Numida
cristata (_Chickra_), in bevies of many hundreds, range throughout the
lower country. A very large kind of partridge (_Kok_) is found, not in
coveys, but in pairs, running swiftly through furrows of the
corn-fields. Dogs are taught to catch them without injury; and before
being eaten, the bird is kept for some days, to obviate the bad effects
of any unclean food which it may possibly have taken. This partridge
attains the size of the pintado. Another kind, living on the high
plateau, and also hunted down with dogs, resembles more that of middle
Europe. Pterocles arenarius, and other species of grouse, occur in the
deserts.
Pigeons are frequent both in Shoa and in the eastern provinces. _Wani,
Ergeb_, and _Kumroo_, are appellations of different kinds, all too wild
to tempt the Abyssinian to any exertion to catch or domesticate them.
_Wani_ is the largest, above brown, below slaty-grey; the head grey,
with a black zone across the sinciput. Another is all grey, except a
white zone on the upper neck, and a collar of darker arrow-headed
feathers; a third also grey, but with a white head, and brown edges on
the wing-feathers. _Ergeb_ has a peculiarly inflated beak; head and
neck grey, shoulders and back olive-green, breast and belly
citron-yellow, wing and tail-feathers whitish edged and tipped.
_Kumroo_ is the turtle-dove, one kind of which has elongated
tail-feathers.
Otis Arabs, the largest bustard, which is as swift as the ostrich,
destroys a great number of locusts and scorpions, and is therefore never
eaten. Another smaller bustard (_Wato_) is variously coloured; it lives
on the borders of the desert. Charadrius spinosus is a rare visitor of
the lakes near the Hawash. Tachydromus isabellinus is an inhabitant of
the plains of Efat; and Himantopus atropterus of the morasses near
Angollala.
Abundance of water makes the provinces of Shoa a favourite place of
resort to many species of _Grallatores_. Among the herons are
remarkable Ardea ephippiorhyncha, and another called _Alaka fattah_,
having particularly long wing-feathers of a darker colour than the
remainder of the body, which is above grey, below white. The former
lives in the valley of the Abai, the latter about Angollala, but
migrates also to the West. Smaller kinds, as Garzetta, Nycticorax,
arrive from the North in February, but commonly pass on still more
southward, whence they return in May. Ibis religiosa stays for some
months on the lakes of the upper country; Numenius, spec. (_Gaga_),
about Ankober. The common snipe, some kinds of peewits, the spoonbill,
and the flamingo, sometimes extend their migrations as far as Shoa.
Geese and ducks swarm unmolested over the lakes of the western
provinces; a few descend also to the plain. Chenalopex Egyptiacus
builds its nest upon high trees on the river side in Efat. Another rare
species carries on the frontal basis a thinly-feathered flexible bunch.
All the birds of this class are strangely inapprehensive of danger when
moulting or hatching. During their stay in Shoa they are occupied with
both of these processes, but the rigorous proscriptions regarding food
usually afford them protection.
Of _Mammalia_, the _Rodentia_ seem to have no great extension through
the cultivated provinces of Shoa. One small house rat (_Eid_), and a
field mouse, Otomys albicaudatus, are very obnoxious indeed to the
grain, but snares and traps keep them easily down on well-managed farms.
Lepus capensis (_Dindjel_) frequents more the plains both of the low
and of the up country, and does little damage. To eat of its flesh
would be considered downright criminality, not less than myophagy
itself. Hystrix cristata (_Shart_) lives only in abandoned
termite-cones in the desert. A very rare large squirrel is found upon
tamarind trees.
Cattle-breeding is, on the whole, in a more advanced state among the
Galla than among the Amhara, who prefer agricultural pursuits. The
common sheep (_Bug_) of Shoa is small, with coarse black wool; the
Adaiel have the Hejaz lamb, short haired, with fat tail; the Galla, a
most superior tall fleecy kind, also with fat tail, and without horns.
With the latter the Amhara cross their breed. The Galla of Northern
Abyssinia rear a peculiar kind with immensely long hair, commonly white;
its fleece, dyed black, and then called _Lophisa_, is a dress much
prized by chiefs and men of renown throughout the country. The cured
skin (_Dabbalo_) of the common sheep is an indispensable part of the
male dress. From the wool a kind of camlet cloth is woven. Goats
(_Fial_) thrive better in the mountains; they are tall, horned, with
short matted hair of many colours; in fact, quite identical with the
European kind. The Adel have no breed of their own, but drive down
annually from the Shoan marts vast herds into their savannas.
The Abyssinian horse (_Feras_) is small, and held in little repute. The
donkey (_Aheia_), of a sturdy and strong race, is indispensable to
communication and commerce, and as a beast of burthen suffers less than
the camel from long privation. The mule (_Bagalo_), higher priced than
the mare itself, is eminently useful in the hills, being more
sure-footed and better-winded than the horse; it is, however, much
better cared for. The she mules are larger and stouter, but the males
are the most enduring. The breed from the horse-mare and
donkey-stallion is patronised by the Abyssinians, but despised by their
more warlike neighbours, the Galla, with whom the horse is a favourite.
A wild donkey (_Ya meida aheia_, neither Zebra nor Quagga), a little
larger than the common ass, herds in the prairies of the Adaiel country,
and is timid, cautious, and swift of foot.
Bullocks (_Beri_ or _Ferita_) are similar to the Zebu, but the hump is
smaller. Some Galla tribes possess a peculiar breed (_Sanga_), the
horns of which attain an enormous size, and serve for bottles; from the
smaller horns drinking-cups are manufactured. The calves are not used
for food. No work except dragging the plough and thrashing is required
of the ox.
The wild buffalo (_Gosh_), Bubalus Pegasus, fierce and as yet untamed,
inhabits the forests and jungles of Bulga and Mentshar all along the
river Hawash; its chase is considered one of the most dangerous pursuits
of the hunter, several human lives being frequently expended on the
conquest of one beast. Strepsiceros capensis (_Agazin_), and Oryx
capensis (_Sala_), are hunted on the borders of the desert. In the
latter species, accident sometimes causes the loss of one horn,--a fact
which probably gave rise to the story of the unicorn; moreover, the
parallel horns are placed so near each other, that when the animal is
seen _en profile_ from a distance, it might well appear single-horned.
Gazella Mhorr wanders in large herds through the desert; Antilope
Saltiana (_Medaqua_) abounds from the sea-coast to the foot of the
mountains.
Hyrax Abyssinicus (_Ashkoko_), a harmless inhabitant of nooks and
corners of the rocks, is common to Shoa as well as to the hills of the
Adel. Bruce's Rhinoceros (_Worsisa_), combining the more striking
characters of the Asiatic and African species, that is, the two horns of
the latter and the plaits and folds of the former, deserves a closer
investigation; it lives in the deep jungles of Mentshar, on the banks of
the Hawash. Phascochoerus Africanus (_Erya_), the African hog, infests
the woods of the warmer districts, and is a horrible-looking brute.
Hippopotamus amphibius (_Gomari_) hides its colossal frame during the
day in the floods of the Hawash, the Jumma, and other large rivers and
lakes. The Wato, a certain caste among the Galla, subsist upon its
flesh; and the thick skin is cut into shields or whips. Elephas
Africanus (_Zihoon_) is dispersed in many small families, and destroys
the plantations of sugar-cane and Juwarree along the foot of the
mountains. Not the slightest attempt is made to put a stop to his
ravages, the paltry weapons in use being of no avail, whilst severe loss
of life follows the footsteps of the enraged animal. A small trade in
ivory is notwithstanding carried on with the coast in the tusks found
accidentally.
Lutra inunguis (_Devil's sheep_), rarely surprised on the banks of the
river Bereza, furnishes in its body divers secret medicines to the
initiated. Viverra Civetta (_Angeso_) is wild, but frequently kept in
cages in the Galla countries to the south-west of Shoa. The Civet
(_Dering_), taken out of the bag by means of a small spoon, and
collected in cow-horns, is one of the precious articles which the slave
caravans proceeding from the interior through Shoa to the coast, barter
for their daily food. One Ichneumon (_Mootsheltshella_) robs the
poultry-yard. The lion (_Anbassa_), and the leopard (_Nabr_), are
well-known throughout Abyssinia. The former seldom pays a visit to the
hills, hunting nightly along the banks of rivers, and lurking during the
day in his jungle retreats; the latter is more common, and shuns less
the presence of man. Both are run down on foot by bodies of men armed
solely with lances, which they shower over the slowly retreating beast
under a deafening yell. The spoils are an indispensable part of a
chief's dress, and objects of importation from the West; the most
prized, however, is the skin of the black leopard (_Gasela_), living in
and beyond Gurague.
The domestic cat is a rarity in Shoa; only great men place them as
guardians in their storehouses. The dog (_Oosha_), generally a
half-wild companion of the farmer, and inmate of his premises, becomes
attached and useful when allowed to share the master's protection. It
is taught to keep the herds in order, to catch birds, to defend
property, to give warning on the approach of wild beasts. Not the tenth
part of the quickly-multiplying race possess owners; but their utility
as scavengers proves their safeguard. Canis Anthus (_Dahela_), a
wolf-like dog and an offensive thief, frequent in Efat, is caught in
pitfalls; its liver has some mysterious virtue. The jackal (_Kabbaro_),
and Hyaena crocuta (_Gib_), make nightly inroads into villages and
towns; they fight the dogs, and for want of other prey drag off some of
these. On the borders of the low country, the night camps must be
fenced round with thorns, as a protection against their inroads.
Cercocebus griseo-viridis (_Tota_), lives upon wild figs. Cynocephalus
Hamadryas (_Zingiro_), the male, with the mane of a lion and a powerful
frame, is very mischievous and even dangerous; it congregates in caves
and fissures of the rocks. Colobus (_Guresa_), the prettiest of all
monkeys, and one duly patronised by the Abyssinians on account of its
retired habits, is always on the top of the highest trees, commonly on
the Woira, which bears its food.
_Filfil_, an animal that throws up mole-hills, baffles all attempts to
catch it. Pteropus Egyptiacus and Nycteris Thebaica (_Lelit off_, i.e.
night-bird), are harmless, but suspected inhabitants of ruined
buildings. An obscure idea of a former supremacy of man over the beasts
of the field causes the Abyssinian Christian to view, in a literal
sense, those legends which his pious ancestors have recorded of the
singular dealings of holy men with the arch-fiend; and he still
figuratively personates every evil passion of the human heart by some
savage, treacherous, or subtle animal of the inferior creation.
The highlands of Abyssinia can, however, offer but a small number of
wild animals, and even of these very few are exclusively her own. The
cultivation of the greater portion of the land, the absence of extensive
forests, jungles, morasses, caverns, and other places of retreat, added
to the great diversity of the clime from that of the adjacent countries,
which at once excludes the migratory tribes, are the causes of the
fortunate contrast presented to the lowlands of the Adaiel, where the
dominion of man has yet been very imperfectly established.
Appendix, Number III.
On the Coffee Tree, Tea Plant, and Cotton, of Southern Abyssinia.
Tradition assigns to the countries of Enarea and Caffa the indigenous
residence of the coffee tree. In Shoa Proper the cultivation and
consumption are strictly interdicted, as savouring too strongly of the
abhorred Mohammadan; but in proper situations it grows strong and
healthy, and in all the bordering districts subject to Sahela Selassie,
where the restriction is not enforced, the plantations are numerous and
thriving.
Planted before the rains, the seed soon appears above the ground, and
when six months old, the offspring is transferred to take the place of
some worn-out tree. Water and the manure of the sheep are plentifully
supplied, and the crop, which, from a full bearing adult, is generally
from thirty to forty pounds, is gathered in March and April. Averaging
from eight to ten feet in height, with dark shining foliage, and
branches loaded with fruit, it grows luxuriantly in the valleys in any
sheltered situation, delighting especially in the soil produced by a
decomposition of trap rock, which has been washed down from the adjacent
heights; and although taking six years to arrive at maturity, it yields
a slight return on the second season of its transplantation.
The berries are in the first instance of a dark green hue, which before
pulling is suffered to turn red, a white milky-looking pulp called
_gullaboo_ meanwhile filling up the space between the cuticle and the
seed. Having been shaken and gathered from the branches, the crop is
spread in the sun until the pulp becomes sufficiently dry to admit of
its removal, which, by continual free ventilation out of doors, is
usually the case in one month. The seeds intended for the plantation
are not divested of the husk, but sown by the handful in a small plot,
which is carefully manured and watered; and the (_gullaboo_), sold
separately from the bean, is employed as a beverage with the decoction
of the _chaat_.
For the better security of his own monopoly at the ports of Zeyla and
Berbera, the Ameer of Hurrur opposes the importation of coffee into his
own dominions, both from Shoa and from the country of the Galla. The
plant is extensively and successfully cultivated; but the price given at
Hurrur is high in comparison with that paid in Abyssinia; and the
average demanded on the coast by the merchants of the former
principality, varying from five pence to seven pence per pound, would
seem to be in unison with that customary at Massowah in the Red Sea.
The difficulties attending the tedious road to the coast; the lazy
indifferent character of the Danakil camel owners, who, regardless of
the value of time, spend months upon the journey; and the fitful caprice
evinced by the various chieftains though whose territories the caravan
must pass--all form great obstacles to the conveyance of the cheaper
produce from Abyssinia, although these might doubtless be overcome
within a reasonable period by the well-directed efforts of British
perseverance. In Caffa and Enarea, coffee grows wild like a weed over
the rich surface of the country. The beverage is in universal use among
the inhabitants; the price paid is almost nominal; and the convenience
of water carriage is alone wanting towards the transportation of the
product in unlimited quantities to every portion of the globe.
_Chaat_ is a shrub very extensively cultivated, both in Shoa and in the
countries adjacent. It is in general use among the inhabitants as a
substitute for tea, which, in all its properties and qualities, it
closely resembles. The plant is said to have been brought originally
from the western mountains, of which the elevation being from five to
eight thousand feet, agrees with that of the Chinese tea districts,
whilst the average temperature does not exceed 60 degrees Fahrenheit.
In a light gravelly soil it attains the height of twelve feet; and the
leaves being plucked during the dry season, and well dried in the sun,
fetch from one penny to two-pence the pound. They are either chewed, or
boiled in milk, or infused in water; and by the addition of honey, a
pleasant beverage is produced, which, being bitter and stimulative,
dispels sleep if used to excess.
The virtues of the _chaat_ are equally to be appreciated with those of
the _yerba mate_, recently introduced into England from Brazil and
Paraguay. It is already known under the appellation of "Celastrus
edulis," and belongs to Pentandria Monogynia _Linn_, and to the natural
family of Celastrineae, or to that sub-family of the Rhamneae, which
have in the flower the stamens alternating with the petals. The family
of Rhamneae, namely, the genus Rhamnus itself, supplies to the poorer
classes in China a substitute for tea, and is known under the name of
Rhamnus Theezaus _Linn_.
[The _chaatt_ may thus be characterised:--Frutex inermis; foliis
oppositis, petiolatis, oblongis, serrato-dentatis, glabris. Calyx
minimus, persistens. Petala 5. Stamina 5-petalia alternantia. Fructus
superus, oblonge baccatus, 5-locularis, polyspermus, vel abortive
monospermus. Inflorescentia axillaris, cymosa: cymi dichotome
stipulati. The plant supplying the Paraguay tea is a species of ilex,
and belongs to the same family of Celastrineee, sub-order
Aquifoliaceae.]
Cotton of two kinds grows in the sequestered nooks of the eastern face
of the mountains of Shoa, and in the valleys at the extreme foot of the
range; but from the superior luxuriance of the plant, and the amount of
crop produced in the lower situations, the natural climate would appear
to exist in those sheltered spots, which in atmosphere much resemble the
more favoured parts of Western India. The Efat shrub varies, according
to the locality and supply of water, from three feet in height to
upwards of seven, and usually assuming the form of a pyramid, extends
its lower branches to a width equal to the stature--the size of the
leaves, and the soft and yielding nature of the stem, imparting a strong
external resemblance to the Bourbon cotton. Eight and nine inches in
circumference are not unfrequently attained; and the advantages of a
very productive crop twice in each year, the existence of the plant
during five seasons, and the heavy return of the particularly fine wool
during the very first, award to the species a most deserving
pre-eminence.
[Gossypium Efatense. Seeds completely covered with a close down.
Cotton white; capsules 3-celled, 3-valved; flowers small, with a red
fundus; leaves 3 to 5-lobed; lobes acuminated.]
The indigenous plant of Efat is not, however, so much esteemed as that
from Gondar, which, instead of rising tall and straight from the ground,
assumes a spreading dwarfy appearance. The wool is considered superior,
and the cloth produced is softer and more elastic, but its existence is
limited to three years. Both are planted indiscriminately in the same
field, although, when gathered, the crops are preserved unmixed; and
after the fifth year the Efat shrub is cut over close to the ground,
which is then ploughed up, and sown with wheat or other grain, when, on
the removal of the harvest the young cotton shoots are well above the
ground, and will yield during two further seasons.
[Gossypium Gondarense. Seeds sprinkled with short hairs. Cotton white;
capsules 3-celled, 3-valved; flowers large, yellow; leaves 3 to 5-lobed;
lobes commonly obtuse.]
The seed, having been placed for some time in wood-ashes, is well rubbed
with red earth before planting; and wherever the locality is favourable
to irrigation, water is not spared. The pod, when ripe, is cut with a
knife, the husk removed, and the wool deposited in a bag, with the
utmost care to exclude extraneous matter. One full bearing bush
produces twice during the twelve months between four and five pounds of
raw stuff.
End of Volume II.
Volume 3, Chapter I.