The star [p] is of a deep yellow or orange hue. It has three_A Field Book of the Stars

stars above it, two of which form a pretty pair.

The star [z] has a companion, which is a test for an opera-glass.

The star [k] is a double for an opera-glass.

Note the fine star cluster (46 M.).

The star Markeb forms a small triangle with two other stars near it.

The Egyptians believed that this was the ark that bore Osiris and Isis

over the Deluge.

The constellation contains two noted objects invisible in this

latitude, Canopus, the second brightest star, and the remarkable

variable star [[^e]].

[Illustration: PUPPIS]

MONOCEROS (m[=o]-nos'-e-ros)--THE UNICORN. (Face South.)

LOCATION.--Monoceros is to be found east of Orion between Canis Major

and Canis Minor. Three of its stars of the fourth magnitude form a

straight line northeast and southwest, about 9[deg] east of Betelgeuze,

and about the same distance south of Alhena, in Gemini.

The region around the stars 8, 13, 17 is particularly rich when viewed

with an opera-glass.

Note also a beautiful field about the variable S, and a cluster about

midway between [a] and [b].

Two stars about 7[deg] apart in the tail of the Unicorn are pointer stars

to Procyon. These stars are known as 30 and 31. The former is about

16[deg] east of Procyon, and is easily identified as it has a

sixth-magnitude star on either side of it. About 4[deg] southwest of this

star a good field-glass will reveal a beautiful star cluster.

[Illustration: MONOCEROS]

ERIDANUS ([=e]-rid'-a-nus)--OR THE RIVER PO. (Face Southwest.)

LOCATION.--Three degrees north and 2[deg] west of Rigel, in Orion, lies

[b] Eridani, the source of the River. Thence it flows west till it

reaches [p] Ceti, then drops south 5[deg], thence east southeast, its

total length being about 130[deg].

The great curve the River takes, just east of the Whale, resembles a

horseshoe.

Acherna, the first-magnitude star in Eridanus, is too far south to be

seen in this latitude.

Note the pretty star group around [b] and a pair of stars of an orange

hue below [n].

The asterism known as "The Brandenburg Sceptre," consisting of four

stars of the fourth and fifth magnitudes, can be seen arranged in a

straight line north and south below the first bend in the River just

west of Lepus.

[Illustration: ERIDANUS]

METEORIC SHOWERS.

JANUARY TO APRIL.

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

| Zeta Cancrids |Jan. 2-4| ([z]) Cancri, | | | E. |

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

| | |[b] away from [g] | Sh. Sw. F. | Jan. 2-8 | N. |

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

|Alpha Draconids| Feb. 1 | Near Thuban | Sl. | Jan. 9 | N. |

| | | [a] Draconis | | Dec. 8 | |

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

| | | | | | Sky |

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

| Tau Leonids |Feb. 16 | [t] Leonis, | | Nov. 27 | |

| | | between Leo | Sl. Sk. | Dec. 12 | E. |

| | | and Crater | | Mar. 1-4 | |

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

| [a]-[b] |Mar. 1 | Between [a] | V. Sl. | July--Dec. | N.W. |

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

|Beta Leonids or|Mar. 14 | Near Denebola | Sl. B. | Mar. 3, 4 | S.E. |

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

|Kappa Cepheids |Mar. 18 | Near Polaris | Sl. B. | Oct. 4-17 | N. |

| | | | | Mar. 13-19 | |

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

| | | | | Apr. 10-16 | |

| Beta Ursids |Mar. 24 | Near [b] | Sw. | Mar. 13-14 | N. |

| | | Ursae Maj. | | Dec. 2-9 | |

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

|Zeta Draconids |Mar. 28 | Near the | Sl. | July 29 | N. |

+---------------+--------+------------------+---------------+-------------+----------+

The Abbreviations under _Characteristics_ are as follows:

V. Very

Sh. Short

M. Moderately

B. Bright

Sw. Swift

F. Faint

Sl. Slow

Sk. Streak leaving meteors

T. Train leaving meteors

If you know the constellations, and memorize the following rhyme you

will have ever at hand for reference at night, a reliable time-piece,

a compass, and a perpetual calendar.

The numbers above the star names indicate consecutively the months of

the year in which these respective objects rise about the first

instant in the eastern sky. In addition to first-magnitude stars the

rhyme refers to the head of Capricornus, the Sea Goat, the Great

Square of Pegasus, and Orion's Belt. All except Arcturus rise between

9 and 9.30 P.M. Arcturus rises at 10 P.M., February 1st.

First Regulus gleams on the view,

2 3 4

Arcturus, Spica, Vega, blue,

5 6

Antares, and Altair,

7 8 9

The Goat's head, Square, and Fomalhaut,

10 11

Aldebaran, the Belt, a-glow,

Then Sirius most fair.

Eight months of the year are identified by the position of the Dipper

at 9 P.M. In April and May it is north of the zenith. During July and

August it is west of north. In October and November it lies close to

the northern horizon and in January and February it is east of north

with the pointers highest.

THE PLANETS.

It is not within the scope of this work to dwell at length on a

discussion of the planets. Certain explanatory matter regarding them

is necessary, however, to prevent confusion; for the student must bear

in mind the fact that from time to time the planets appear in the

constellations, and unless identified would lead him to think that the

diagrams were inaccurate.

The reader is referred to any one of the four large plates that

precede each season. He will observe that a portion of an ellipse has

been traced on each of them, and that this line has been designated

the Ecliptic, which simply means the sun's apparent pathway across the

sky.

This pathway is divided into twelve equal parts of thirty degrees

each, and to these twelve divisions are given the names of the

constellations of the Zodiac in the following order: Aries ([Symbol:

Aries]), Taurus ([Symbol: Taurus]), Gemini ([Symbol: Gemini]), Cancer

([Symbol: Cancer]), Leo ([Symbol: Leo]), Virgo ([Symbol: Virgo]),

Libra ([Symbol: Libra]), Scorpio ([Symbol: Scorpio]), Sagittarius

([Symbol: Sagittarius]), Capricornus ([Symbol: Capricornus]), Aquarius

([Symbol: Aquarius]), Pisces ([Symbol: Pisces]).

The sun, starting from the first degree of Aries, the first day of

spring, passes through one constellation a month. The planets follow

the same pathway.

Confusion, therefore, respecting their identity can only arise in

connection with a study of one of the twelve constellations named

above, so that whenever a star of any size is seen in one of these

constellations, not accounted for in the diagram, the student may

conclude that this is a planet; especially if the unknown star does

not twinkle. It now remains to identify the planet.

This can best be done by referring to an almanac, which states what

planets are above the horizon, and which are morning and evening

stars. By morning star is meant that the planet is east of the sun; by

evening star, that it is west of the sun.

If the planet is in the west, and very brilliant, it is safe to assume

that it is the planet Venus.

If it is brighter than any of the fixed stars, and is some distance

from the sun, it is doubtless the colossal Jupiter.

If it is very red, it will probably be Mars.

Saturn is distinguished because of its pale, steady, yellow light.

As for Mercury, Uranus, and Neptune, the former is very near the sun,

and seldom seen; while Uranus and Neptune are so inconspicuous as to

lead to no confusion on the part of the novice.

A few notes of interest relative to the planets follow, taking them up

in regular order passing outward from the sun: Mercury, Venus, Mars,

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

MERCURY.

Mercury is the nearest to the sun of any of the planets. On this

account, and because of its rapid changes, it is seldom seen.

The most favorable time for observing it is just after sunset, or just

before sunrise, during the months of March, April, August, and

September, when it may be seen for a few successive days.

The greatest distance it ever departs from the sun on either side

varies approximately from sixteen to twenty-eight degrees. Its motion

resembles a pendulum, swinging from one side of the sun to the other.

VENUS.

Venus approaches nearer to the earth and is more brilliant than any

other planet. It is bright enough to cast a shadow at night, and is

sometimes visible even at noonday. It is almost as large as the earth,

and appears to oscillate, as Mercury does, on either side of the sun.

It never appears more than three hours after sunset, and as long

before the sunrise, and is never more than forty-eight degrees from

the sun.

MARS.

Mars is most like the earth of any of the planets, and, although not

as interesting an object to view as the more brilliant planets, Venus

and Jupiter, it claims our attention chiefly because of the surmises

respecting its habitability.

Mars appears to the naked eye as a bright red star, and when at a

favorable opposition to the earth (which occurs only once in every

fifteen years) it rivals Jupiter in splendor.

The planet may be mistaken for the first magnitude stars, Antares in

Scorpius, and Aldebaran in Taurus, near which it frequently passes.

The fixed stars, however, twinkle, while Mars glows steadily. If there

is any doubt in the student's mind as to the identity of the planet, a

few nights of observation, noting the changes in the planet's

position, will decide the point. It takes Mars about fifty-seven days

to pass through one constellation in the Zodiac.

JUPITER.

Jupiter is the largest of all the planets in the solar system, and it

is easily distinguished from the fixed stars because of its brilliancy

and splendor, exceeding in brightness all the planets excepting Venus,

and casting a perceptible shadow.

It moves slowly and majestically across the sky, advancing through the

Zodiac at the rate of one constellation yearly. It is therefore a

simple matter to forecast its position, for, in whatever constellation

it is seen to-day, one year hence it will be seen equally advanced in

the next constellation.

Although Jupiter appears to move slowly, it really travels at the

incomprehensible rate of five hundred miles a minute.

The most interesting feature about Jupiter for the amateur astronomer

consists in observing four of its moons, which are visible with a

small telescope. They appear like mere dots of light, and their

transit of or occultation with the planet (that is, their

disappearance before or behind its disk) can be watched, and is a

never failing source of pleasure. A large telescope alone reveals

Jupiter's four other moons.

SATURN.

Saturn is farther removed from the earth than any of the planets in

the solar system, visible to the naked eye. It is distinguished from

the fixed stars by the steadiness of its light, which is dull and of a

yellow hue, though to some it appears to be of a greenish tinge. It

seems barely to move, so slow is its motion among the stars, for it

takes two and one half years to pass through a single constellation of

the Zodiac.

Saturn has eight moons. Titan, its largest one, can be seen with a 3"

glass. Its celebrated rings are telescopic objects but a small glass

reveals them.

URANUS.

The student will hardly mistake Uranus for a fixed star, as it is only

under the most favorable circumstances that it can be seen with the

naked eye.

At its nearest approach to the earth, it is as bright as a

sixth-magnitude star. Uranus is accompanied by four moons, and takes

seven years to pass through a constellation of the Zodiac.

NEPTUNE.

Neptune is the most distant of the planets in the solar system, and is

never visible to the naked eye.

The earth comes properly under a discussion of the planets, but a

description of it is hardly within the scope of this work.

Confusion in identifying the planets is really confined to Mars and

Saturn, for Venus and Jupiter are much brighter than any of the fixed

stars, and their position in the heavens identifies them, as we have

seen before.

The following table of first-magnitude stars in the Zodiacal

constellations confines the question of identifying the planets to a

comparison of the unknown star with the following-named stars:

Castor and Pollux in Gemini.

Spica " Virgo.

Regulus " Leo.

Aldebaran " Taurus.

Antares " Scorpius.

The first four stars named above are white in color, so that either

Mars or Saturn is readily distinguished from them.

As for Aldebaran and Antares, which are both red stars, not unlike

Mars and Saturn in color and magnitude, the fact that the latter do

not twinkle, and that they do not appear in the diagrams, should

satisfy the observer of their identity. Reference to an almanac, or a

few nights of observation, will in any case set at rest any doubt in

the matter.

[Illustration: THE PLANETARY ORBITS]

[Illustration: COMPARATIVE SIZE OF THE PLANETS.]

THE MILKY WAY.

The Milky Way, or Galaxy as it is sometimes called, is a great band of

light that stretches across the heavens. Certain portions of it are

worthy of being viewed with an opera-glass, which separates this

seemingly confused and hazy stream into numberless points of light,

emanating from myriads of suns.

This wonderful feature of the heavens is seen to best advantage during

the months of July, August, September, and October. Beginning near the

head of Cepheus, about thirty degrees from the North Pole, it passes

through Cassiopeia, Perseus, Auriga, part of Orion, and the feet of

Gemini, where it crosses the Ecliptic, and thence continues into the

southern hemisphere, beyond our ken in these latitudes.

It reappears in two branches in the region of Ophiuchus, one running

through the tail of Scorpius, the bow of Sagittarius, Aquila,

Delphinus, and Cygnus; the other above and almost parallel to it,

uniting with the first branch in Cygnus, and passing to Cepheus, the

place of beginning.

The student should note especially the strange gap between [a], [g],

and [e] Cygni. This dark space has been called the "Coal Sack."

The Milky Way in the vicinity of Cassiopeia is particularly rich, and

well repays a search with an opera-glass.

"The Galaxy covers more than one tenth of the visible heavens,

contains nine-tenths of the visible stars, and seems a vast

zone-shaped nebula, nearly a great circle of the sphere, the poles

being at Coma and Cetus."

THE MOTIONS OF THE STARS.

It may be that the student desires to proceed in this conquest of the

sky at a more rapid pace than the scheme of study permits. To assist

such, it should be borne in mind that the circumpolar constellations,

as Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Draco, Cepheus, and Cassiopeia, are

designated,--are visible in our latitude in the northern sky every

night.

A reference to their diagrams, and a glance at any of the large plates

showing the entire group in their respective positions, will suffice

for the student to identify them.

The hours of darkness alone limit the speed with which a knowledge of

the constellations can be acquired.

Let us suppose that the student begins his search for the constellations

on the night of April 1st, at nine P.M. He has for his guide the large

plate, and the spring group of eleven constellations set forth in the

diagrams. The remaining three constellations of the circumpolar group

are, as we have seen before, visible in the north.

If he faces the western sky, he will see Andromeda just setting, and

Perseus, Taurus, Orion, Lepus, and Canis Major but a short distance

above the horizon. If he is so fortunate as to be able to identify

these, and the spring group, he may turn his attention wholly to the

eastern sky, where new constellations await him.

In the southeast he may see Virgo. In the east well up blazes

Arcturus, the gem of Bo[:o]tes, below which is the beautiful Northern

Crown, with the diamond in the head of Serpens beneath it. Hercules is

rising, and Vega in the Lyre should be seen just flashing on the view

in the northeast.

This completes the list of wonders visible at this precise time, but

the stars apparently are never still, and doubtless, while the student

has been passing from one constellation to another in the western and

southern skies, others have been rising in the east and northeast.

At ten P.M. the Lyre is well up, and Ophiuchus and Libra can be

discerned. At midnight Scorpius and Cygnus are ready to claim the

attention. By two o'clock A.M., Aquila, Delphinus, and Sagittarius

have risen, and at break of day Andromeda, Pegasus, and Capricornus

can be seen if the student has had the courage to remain awake this

length of time.

In no way can the seeming movement of the stars be better understood

than by actual observation. The observer must bear in mind that the

movement is an apparent one: that it is the earth that is moving and

not the stars. He has only to think of the analogy of the moving train

beside the one that is standing still, and the true state of affairs

will at once be evident.

To further appreciate this apparent change in the situation of the

constellations, the student should refer to the large plates

successively. In each successive one he will note the advancement

westward of the constellations mentioned above, rising in the east

late at night.

The student can best get an idea of this westward apparent movement of

the stars by noting the position of some bright first-magnitude star

from night to night. He will soon be able to calculate the position of

this star a month or more ahead, and this calculation applies to all

the constellations and stars.

It is not within the scope of this work to go into this matter in

detail. The author merely desires to mention this fact of apparent

change of position in the stars, a fact that will be noticeable to the

observer in a short time, and a fact that it is hoped he will be able

to explain to his own satisfaction with the aid of the foregoing

remarks.

It will be noticed that the stars on the diagrams are all numbered and

lettered. The numbers refer to the magnitude of the star,--that is,

the brightness of it, the first-magnitude stars being the brightest,

the second-magnitude stars two-and-a-half times less bright, etc.

The letters are those of the Greek alphabet, and the student if not

familiar with it is advised to consult a Greek grammar.

In the text, in referring to certain stars in the constellations, the

genitive case of the Latin name of the constellation is given; for

example, Vega is known as [a] Lyrae, meaning alpha of Lyra, Aldebaran

as [a] Tauri, alpha of Taurus, etc.

The twilight hour affords an excellent opportunity of fixing the

relative positions of the first-magnitude stars in the mind, for at

that time they alone, save the planets, are visible.

METEORS, OR SHOOTING-STARS.

As this work is designed primarily to cover what is observable in the

starlit heavens with the naked eye, the subject of meteors, or

shooting-stars, comes properly within its scope.

There are few persons, if any, who have not witnessed the sight of a

splendid meteor speeding across the sky, and such a sight always calls

forth exclamations of wonder and delight.

Apparently these evanescent wanderers in space are without distinctive

features, and baffle classification; but, like all that nature reveals

to us, they have been found, for the most part, to conform to certain

laws, and to bear certain marks of resemblance that permit of their

identification and classification.

By careful observation for over fifty years the meteors, generally

speaking, have been so arranged that they come under the head of one

of the nearly three hundred distinct showers which are now recognized

by astronomers.

Many of these showers are too feeble and faint to be worthy of the

attention of one not especially interested in the subject, but certain

ones are well worth observing. There is always a pleasure in being

able to recognize at a glance a certain definite manifestation of

nature, be it a rare flower or a flashing meteor.

The generally accepted theory respecting the meteors is that they were

all originally parts of comets now disintegrated, and the four

well-known showers of April 20th, August 10th and 14th, and November

27th, bear testimony to this theory.

The apparent velocity of the meteors is between ten and forty-five

miles a second, and their average height is about seventy-six miles at

first appearance, and fifty-one miles at disappearance. Occasionally a

meteor is so large and compact as to escape total destruction, and

falls to the earth. Specimens of these meteorites are to be found in

our best museums.

I have seen fit to divide the principal meteor showers into four

groups, according to the seasons in which they appear, and have placed

them respectively at the conclusion of each season's work on the

constellations.

By radiant point is meant the point from which the meteors start on

their flight. This point is an apparent one, however, due to an

illusion of perspective, for the meteors really approach the earth in

parallel paths.

The dates given for these showers are those of the maxima, and the

meteors should be looked for several nights before and after the dates

specified.

The showers that are to be seen after midnight are, unless of special

note, omitted.

There are, besides the meteors that have been classified, certain

shooting-stars that apparently have no determined radiant point. These

are called sporadic meteors.

In these lists of meteors, the radiant point is only approximately

given; for scientific purposes a far more exact position is required

in terms of right ascension and declination. There are several good

lists of meteoric showers to be obtained, which afford this

information for those who care to pursue the matter more in detail.

See the Rev. T.W. Webb's book, entitled _Celestial Objects for Common

Telescopes_. For purposes of identification, the radiant points here

given will be found for the most part sufficient.

NOTE.

Many readers of this book may be the fortunate possessors of

small telescopes. It may be that they have observed the

heavens from time to time in a desultory way and have no

notion that valuable and practical scientific research work

can be accomplished with a small glass. If those who are

willing to aid in the great work of astrophysical research

will communicate with the author he will be pleased to

outline for them a most practical and fascinating line of

observational work that will enable them to share in the

advance of our knowledge respecting the stars. It is work

that involves no mathematics, and its details are easily

mastered.

THE NAMES OF THE STARS AND THEIR MEANINGS.

ACUBENS, [a] _Cancri_, "the claws."

Situated in one of the Crab's claws. It is white in color

and culminates[1] March 18th.

A-DAR'-A, [e] _Canis Majoris_, "the virgins," a name for

four stars, of which Adara is brightest.

The star [p] is of a deep yellow or orange hue. It has three little