+--------------------+---------+--------------------+-------_A Field Book of the Stars

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A FIELD BOOK

THE STARS

WILLIAM TYLER OLCOTT

_Second Edition, revised and enlarged_

WITH FIFTY DIAGRAMS

G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS

NEW YORK AND LONDON

The Knickerbocker Press

WILLIAM TYLER OLCOTT

(For Second Edition)

[Illustration: The Knickerbocker Press, New York]

_Printed in the United States of America_

INTRODUCTION.

Considering the ease with which a knowledge of the constellations can

be acquired, it seems a remarkable fact that so few are conversant

with these time-honored configurations of the heavens. Aside from a

knowledge of "the Dipper" and "the Pleiades," the constellations to

the vast majority, are utterly unknown.

To facilitate and popularize if possible this fascinating recreation

of star-gazing the author has designed this field-book. It is limited

in scope solely to that purpose, and all matter of a technical or

theoretical nature has been omitted.

The endeavor has been to include in these pages only such matter as

the reader can observe with the naked eye, or an opera-glass.

Simplicity and brevity have been aimed at, the main idea being that

whatever is bulky or verbose is a hindrance rather than a help when

actually engaged in the observation of the heavens.

The constellations embraced in this manual are only those visible from

the average latitude of the New England and Middle States, and owe

their place in the particular season in which they are found to the

fact that in that season they are favorably situated for observation.

With this brief explanatory note of the purpose and design of the

book, the author proceeds to outline the scheme of study.

SCHEME OF STUDY.

The table of contents shows the scheme of study to be pursued, and to

facilitate the work it is desirable that the student follow the

therein circumscribed order.

A knowledge on the part of the reader of Ursa Major, or "the Dipper"

as it is commonly called, and "the Pleiades," the well-known group in

Taurus, is presupposed by the author.

With this knowledge as a basis, the student is enabled in any season

to take up the study of the constellations. By following out the order

dictated, he will in a few nights of observation be enabled to

identify the various configurations making up the several

constellations that are set apart for study in that particular season.

A large plate, showing the appearance of the heavens at a designated

time on the first night of the quarter, is inserted before each

season's work. This should be consulted by the student before he makes

an observation, in order that he may obtain a comprehensive idea of

the relative position of the constellations, and also know in what

part of the heavens to locate the constellation which he wishes to

identify.

A knowledge of one constellation enables the student to determine the

position of the next in order. In this work, the identification of

each constellation depends on a knowledge of what precedes, always

bearing in mind the fact that each season starts as a new and distinct

part to be taken by itself, and has no bearing on that which comes

before.

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION iii

SCHEME OF STUDY v

The Constellations of Spring.

MAP OF THE HEAVENS 9 P.M., APRIL FIRST 3

1. URSA MAJOR 4

2. URSA MINOR 6

Located by the pointer stars in Ursa Major.

3. GEMINI 8

Located by a line drawn through designated stars

in Ursa Major.

4. AURIGA 10

Located in the same manner as Gemini.

5. CANCER 12

Located by a line drawn from Auriga to Gemini

and prolonged.

6. HYDRA 14

The head of Hydra is to be seen just below Cancer.

7. LEO 16

Located by a line drawn from Gemini to Cancer

and prolonged.

8. COMA BERENICES 18

Position indicated by drawing a line through

designated stars in Leo.

9. CANIS MINOR 20

Located by a line drawn from Auriga to Gemini

and prolonged.

10. CORVUS 22

Located by a line drawn from Ursa Minor through

Ursa Major and prolonged.

11. CRATER 24

Located south of Leo and just west of Corvus.

METEORIC SHOWERS, APRIL TO JULY 26

The Constellations of Summer.

MAP OF THE HEAVENS 9 P.M., JULY FIRST 31

12. DRACO 32

Lies between Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, coiling

about the latter.

13. LYRA 34

Vega, its brightest star, is 12[deg] S.W. of the Dragon's

head.

14. CYGNUS 36

Deneb, its brightest star, is about 20[deg] east of Vega.

15. AQUILA 38

Located by a line drawn from the Dragon's head

through Vega and prolonged.

16. DELPHINUS 40

Located about 10[deg] northeast of Altair in Aquila.

17. SAGITTARIUS 42

Located by a line drawn from Cygnus to Aquila

and prolonged.

18. OPHIUCHUS AND SERPENS 44

Located by a line drawn from Delphinus to Aquila

and prolonged.

19. SCORPIUS 46

Located just under Ophiuchus, and west of Sagittarius.

20. LIBRA 48

Located about 15[deg] west of the head of Scorpius.

21. CORONA BOREALIS 50

Located just above the head of Serpens.

22. HERCULES 52

Located by lines drawn from either Vega or Altair

to Corona.

23. BO[:O]TES 54

Located just west of the Crown. Arcturus, its

brightest star, is about 30[deg] southeast of [[^e]] Ursae

Majoris.

24. VIRGO 56

Spica, its brightest star, is located by a line drawn

from Antares in Scorpius through [a] in Libra and

prolonged about 20[deg].

25. CANES VENATICI 58

Cor Caroli, its brightest star, is about 17[deg] south

of Alioth in Ursa Major.

METEORIC SHOWERS, JULY TO OCTOBER 60

The Constellations of Autumn.

MAP OF THE HEAVENS 9 P.M., OCTOBER FIRST 65

26. CASSIOPEIA 66

Located by a line drawn from Ursa Major through

the Pole star, the position of which is indicated

by the pointer stars [a] and [b] Ursae Majoris.

27. CEPHEUS 68

Located by pointer stars in Cassiopeia.

28. PEGASUS 70

The great square of Pegasus is located by a line

drawn from Polaris to Cassiopeia and prolonged.

29. ANDROMEDA 72

The star Alpheratz in Andromeda is at the northeast

corner of the great square of Pegasus.

30. PERSEUS 74

Lies 9[deg] east of [g] Andromedae.

31. PISCES 76

The Circlet in Pisces is to be seen just below

Pegasus.

32. TRIANGULUM 78

A line drawn from Pegasus to Perseus passes through

[b] in Triangulum.

33. AQUARIUS 80

The position of the water jar of Aquarius is determined

by pointer stars in Pegasus.

34. CAPRICORNUS 82

The head of the Sea Goat is located by a line drawn

from [a] Pegasi through [z] and [th] Pegasi and prolonged

about 25[deg].

35. ARIES 84

Lies just south of Triangulum. A line drawn

from [g] Andromedae through [b] Trianguli points

out [a] Arietis.

36. CETUS 86

The head of Cetus lies about 20[deg] southeast of

Aries.

37. MUSCA 88

Located between Triangulum and Aries.

METEORIC SHOWERS, OCTOBER TO JANUARY 90

The Constellations of Winter.

MAP OF THE HEAVENS 9 P.M., JANUARY FIRST 95

38. TAURUS 96

Contains the celebrated and unmistakable group,

The Pleiades, to be seen almost overhead in

the early evening during the Winter months.

39. ORION 98

The tips of the horns of the Bull are pointer stars

to Betelgeuze, in Orion.

40. LEPUS 100

Located just below Orion.

41. COLUMBA 102

Located south of Lepus, close to the horizon.

42. CANIS MAJOR 104

Located by a line drawn from the stars forming

Orion's girdle.

43. ARGO NAVIS 106

Located by a line drawn from Orion to Canis

Major and prolonged 18[deg].

44. MONOCEROS 108

Located just east of Orion.

45. ERIDANUS 110

Located just west of Rigel, in Orion.

METEORIC SHOWERS, JANUARY TO APRIL 112

THE PLANETS 115

THE MILKY WAY 124

THE MOTIONS OF THE STARS 126

METEORS, OR SHOOTING STARS 130

NAMES OF THE STARS AND THEIR MEANINGS 133

INDEX 159

THE DIAGRAMS.

The diagrams, it will be observed, are grouped under the seasons, and

they indicate the positions of the constellations as they appear at 9

o'clock P.M. in mid-season.

To facilitate finding and observing the constellations, the student

should face in the direction indicated in the text. This applies to

all constellations excepting those near the zenith.

The four large plates are so arranged that the observer is supposed to

be looking at the southern skies. By turning the plate about from left

to right, the eastern, northern, and western skies are shown

successively.

On many of the diagrams the position of nebulae is indicated. These are

designated by the initial letter of the astronomer who catalogued

them, preceded by his catalogue number, as for instance 8 M. signifies

nebula number 8 in Messier's catalogue.

The magnitudes assigned to the stars in the diagrams are derived from

the Harvard Photometry. When a star is midway between two magnitudes

the numeral is underlined, thus _2_, indicates a star of magnitude

2.5.

If a star's magnitude is between 1 and 1.5 it is regarded as a

first-magnitude star. If it lies between 1.5 and 2 it is designated

second magnitude.

THE CONSTELLATIONS OF SPRING.

[Illustration: Map showing the principal stars visible from Lat. 40[deg]

N. at 9 o'clock April 1st.]

URSA MAJOR (er'sa m[=a]'-jor)--THE GREAT BEAR. (Face North.)

LOCATION.--Ursa Major is probably the best known of the constellations,

and in this work I presuppose that the reader is familiar with its

position in the heavens. It is one of the most noted and conspicuous

constellations in the northern hemisphere, and is readily and

unmistakably distinguished from all others by means of a remarkable

cluster of seven bright stars in the northern heavens, forming what is

familiarly termed "The Dipper."

The stars [a] and [b] are called the pointers, because they always

point toward the Pole Star, 28-3/4[deg] distant from [a].

Alioth is very nearly opposite Shedir in Cassiopeia, and at an equal

distance from the Pole. The same can be said of Megres, in Ursa Major,

and Caph, in Cassiopeia.

The star [o] is at the tip of the Bear's nose. A clearly defined

semicircle begins at [o] and ends in the pair [i] and [k] at the

extremity of the Bear's right fore paw. This group of stars resembles

a sickle. Note little Alcor close to Mizar. This star was used by the

Arabs as a test of good eyesight.

Mizar and Alcor are known as the horse and his rider.

This plate shows the Bear lying on his back, his feet projected up the

sky; three conspicuous pairs of stars represent three of his four

feet.

The Chaldean shepherds and the Iroquois Indians gave to this

constellation the same name. The Egyptians called it "The Thigh."

[a] and [[^e]] are moving through space in a contrary direction to the

remaining five stars in "The Dipper."

[Illustration: URSA MAJOR]

URSA MINOR (er'-sa mi'-nor)--THE LITTLE BEAR. (Face North.)

LOCATION.--The two pointer stars in Ursa Major indicate the position

of Polaris, the North Star, which represents the tip of the tail of

the Little Bear, and the end of the handle of the "Little Dipper." In

all ages of the world, Ursa Minor has been more universally observed

and more carefully noticed than any other constellation, on account of

the importance of the North Star.

Polaris is a little more than 1-1/4[deg] from the true pole. Its light

takes fifty years to reach us.

A line joining [b] Cassiopeiae, and Megres, in Ursa Major, will pass

through Polaris.

At the distance of the nearest fixed star our sun would shine as a

star no brighter than Polaris which is presumably about the sun's

size.

Polaris revolves around the true pole once in twenty-four hours in a

little circle 2-1/2[deg] in diameter. Within this circle two hundred stars

have been photographed.

The North Star is always elevated as many degrees above the horizon as

the observer is north of the equator.

Compare the light of the four stars forming the bowl of the "Little

Dipper," as they are each of a different magnitude. A standard

first-magnitude star is 2-1/2 times brighter than a standard second

magnitude star, etc.

[Illustration: URSA MINOR]

GEMINI (jem'-i-ni)--THE TWINS. (Face West.)

LOCATION.--A line drawn from [b] to [k] Ursae Majoris and prolonged an

equal distance ends near Castor, in Gemini. Gemini is characterized by

two nearly parallel rows of stars. The northern row if extended would

reach Taurus, the southern one Orion. Note the fine cluster 35 M.

Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781 a short distance southwest of it.

Two wonderful streams of little stars run parallel northwest on each

side of the cluster. Where the ecliptic crosses the solstitial colure

is the spot where the sun appears to be when it is farthest north of

the equator, June 21st. Castor is a fine double for a telescope, and

Pollux has three little attendant stars. An isoceles triangle is

formed by Castor, Aldebaran in Taurus, and Capella in Auriga. There is

a record of an occultation in Gemini noted about the middle of the

fourth century B.C.

The Arabs saw in this group of stars two peacocks, the Egyptians two

sprouting plants, and the Hindus twin deities, while in the Buddhist

zodiac they represented a woman holding a golden cord. Since classic

times, however, the figure has always been that of human twins.

At the point indicated near [th] a new star was discovered by Enebo in

March, 1912. It attained a maximum of about magnitude 3.5 and has at

this writing waned to the eleventh magnitude.

[Illustration: GEMINI]

AURIGA ([^a]-ri'-ga)--THE CHARIOTEER. (Face Northwest.)

LOCATION.--A line drawn from [d] to [a] Ursae Majoris, and prolonged

about 45[deg], ends near the bright Capella, in Auriga, a star of the

first magnitude, and one of the most brilliant in the heavens. It is

unmistakable, having no rival in brightness near it. Auriga is a

beautiful and conspicuous constellation. It is characterized by a

clearly defined pentagon. Note the three fourth-magnitude stars near

Capella known as "The Kids." The star [b] is common to Auriga and

Taurus, being the former's right foot and the latter's northern horn.

The field within the pentagon is particularly rich in clusters.

Capella forms a rude square with Polaris, [e] Cassiopeiae, and [o] Ursae

Majoris, and forms an equilateral triangle with Betelgeuze in Orion,

and the Pleiades in Taurus.

A line from [th] to [a] Aurigae prolonged about 20[deg] ends near [a]

Persei.

Capella is visible at some hour of every clear night throughout the

year. Of the first-magnitude stars it is nearest to the Pole, and it

rises almost exactly in the northeast.

To the Arabs Capella was "The Driver," because it seemed to rise

earlier than the other stars and so apparently watched over them, or

still more practically as "The Singer" who rode before the procession

cheering on the camels, which last were represented by the Pleiades.

[Illustration: AURIGA]

CANCER (kan'-ser)--THE CRAB. (Face West.)

LOCATION.--Cancer lies between Gemini and Leo. A line drawn from Nath

in Auriga to Pollux in Gemini, and prolonged about 15[deg], ends in

Praesepe, the Manger, the great star cluster in Cancer, which is also

called "The Bee Hive." It contains 300 stars. The stars [g] and [d]

are called the Aselli--the ass's colts feeding from the silver manger.

The star [b] lies about 10[deg] northeast of Procyon. Acubens, [a] lies on

the same line the same distance beyond [b]. These two stars form the

tips of the inverted "Y" which distinguishes Cancer.

An imaginary line from Capella through Pollux will point out Acubens.

Close to it are two faint stars. The Bee Hive lies within an irregular

square formed by [g], [d], [[^e]], and [th], and looks like a nebula to

the naked eye.

In June, 1895, all the planets except Neptune were in this quarter of

the heavens, and Halley's comet was in this constellation on its first

appearance in 1531.

The dimness of [g] and [d] is an infallible precursor of rain, and if

the Bee Hive is not visible in a clear sky, it is a presage of a

violent storm.

[Illustration: CANCER]

HYDRA (hi'-dra)--THE SEA-SERPENT. (Face South and Southwest.)

LOCATION.--The head of Hydra, a striking and beautiful arrangement of

stars, lies just below the Bee Hive, in Cancer, 6[deg] south of Acubens in

that constellation, and forms a rhomboidal figure of five stars.

Hydra is about 100[deg] in length and reaches almost from Canis Minor to

Libra. Its stars are all faint except Alphard, or the Hydra's heart, a

second-magnitude star remarkable for its lonely situation, southwest

of Regulus, in Leo. A line drawn from [g] Leonis through Regulus

points it out. It is of a rich orange tint. Castor and Pollux, in

Gemini, point southeast to it.

The constellations Crater, the Cup, and Corvus, the Crow, both stand

on the coils of Hydra, south of Denebola, the bright star in the tail

of the Lion.

Hydra is supposed to be the snake shown on a uranographic stone from

the Euphrates, 1200 B.C.

The little asterism Sextans, the Sextant, lies in the region between

Regulus and Alphard. It contains no stars brighter than the fourth

magnitude.

[Illustration: HYDRA]

LEO (le'o)--THE LION. (Face South.)

LOCATION.--A line drawn from Pollux, in Gemini, to [g] in Cancer, and

prolonged about 12[deg], strikes Regulus, the brilliant star in the heart

of the Lion. Regulus lies about 9[deg] east of Acubens, in Cancer, and

about 12[deg] northeast of Alphard, in the heart of Hydra.

Leo is one of the most beautiful constellations in the zodiac. It lies

south of the Great Bear, and its principal stars are arranged in the

form of a sickle which nearly outlines the Lion's head. This group is

so striking as to be unmistakable. Regulus is in the handle of the

sickle. It is one of the stars from which longitude is reckoned, lies

almost exactly on the ecliptic, and is visible for eight months in the

year.

Denebola, the bright star in the Lion's tail, lies 25[deg] east of

Regulus, and about 35[deg] west of Arcturus, in Bo[:o]tes. It is the same

distance northwest of Spica, in Virgo, and forms with Spica and

Arcturus a large equilateral triangle.

[z] is double, and has three faint companion stars.

[e] has two seventh-magnitude companion stars, forming a beautiful

little triangle.

Regulus is white in color, [g] yellow, [p] red.

[g] is a beautiful colored telescopic double star and has a companion

visible in an opera-glass.

The figure of Leo very much as we now have it appears in all the

Indian and Egyptian zodiacs.

[Illustration: LEO

THE SICKLE]

COMA BERENICES (k[=o]'-ma ber-e-ni'-sez)--BERENICE'S HAIR.

LOCATION.--A line drawn from Regulus to Zosma, in Leo, and prolonged

an equal distance, strikes this fine cluster, which is 18[deg] northeast

of Zosma, [d] Leonis.

The group lies well within a triangle formed by Denebola, Arcturus, in

Bo[:o]tes, and Cor Caroli, in Canes Venatici, which triangle is the upper

half of the Diamond of Virgo.

Twenty or thirty stars in this group can be counted with an

opera-glass, and the group can be easily distinguished with the naked

eye, when the moon is not visible.

The first half of the month of April can be called the most brilliant

sidereal period of the year. At this time eleven first-magnitude stars

are visible in this latitude at 9 P.M. From east to west they are:

Vega, Arcturus, Spica, Regulus, Pollux, Procyon, Sirius, Capella,

Aldebaran, Betelgeuze, and Rigel, truly a glorious company, an

incomparable sight.

[Illustration: COMA BERENICES]

CANIS MINOR (k[=a]'-nis mi'-nor)--THE LESSER DOG. (Face West.)

LOCATION.--Procyon, the Little Dog Star, lies about 23[deg] south of

Pollux, in Gemini. A line drawn from Nath, in Auriga, to Alhena, in

Gemini, and prolonged about 18[deg], reaches Procyon.

Procyon is equidistant from Betelgeuze in Orion, and Sirius in Canis

Major, and forms with them an equilateral triangle. It forms a large

right-angled triangle with Pollux and Betelgeuze.

The light from Procyon is golden yellow. Four degrees northwest of it

is the third-magnitude star Gomeisa. The glass shows two small stars

forming a right-angled triangle with it.

Procyon was distinctly mentioned by Ptolemy. It rises in this latitude

a little north of east about half an hour before Sirius, the Dog Star,

hence it was called Procyon from two Greek words which signify "before

the dog."

Procyon is one of our nearest neighbors in space, at a distance of ten

light years, and is attended by a very faint companion which is only

visible in the largest telescopes.

[Illustration: CANIS MINOR]

CORVUS (k[^o]r'-vus)--THE CROW. (Face South.)

LOCATION.--A line drawn from the Bee Hive, in Cancer, through Regulus,

in Leo, and prolonged about 40[deg], ends near the conspicuous

quadrilateral which distinguishes Corvus. The brightest star in this

region of the sky is Spica, in Virgo. It lies about 10[deg] northeast of

Algorab.

[z] is a double star for an opera-glass. A faint pair of stars lie

close below and to the west of [b]. The Crow is represented as

standing on, and pecking at, the coils of Hydra. The star Al Chiba is

in the Crow's bill.

Corvus was known as the Raven in Chaucer's time.

[d] is an interesting telescopic double.

A line drawn from [g] to [b] Corvi and prolonged twice its length

locates the third-magnitude star [i] Centauri in the right shoulder of

the Centaur. The brightest stars in this constellation are not visible

in this latitude.

[Illustration: CORVUS]

CRATER (kr[=a]'-ter)--THE CUP. (Face South.)

LOCATION.--Crater is situated 15[deg] west of Corvus, and due south of

[th] Leonis. It is easily distinguished by reason of a beautiful and

very striking semicircle of six stars of the fourth magnitude, forming

the bowl of the cup.

The constellation resembles a goblet with its base resting on the

coils of Hydra.

The star Alkes is common to Hydra and Crater, and may be seen 24[deg]

southeast of Alphard in the heart of Hydra. It is distinguished by its

forming an equilateral triangle with [a] and [g], stars of the same

magnitude 6[deg] south and east of it.

Corvus and Crater are to be seen half-way up the southern sky during

the early evenings in spring.

[d] is now the lucida.

Crater is situated at about the centre of Hydra and is on the

meridian, April 26th. Owing to its many faint stars it is best seen on

a clear moonless night.

The zodiacal light is well worth observing at this season of the year.

It is to be seen in the western sky shortly after sundown, and is most

intense during the evenings of March.

[Illustration: CRATER]

METEORIC SHOWERS.

APRIL TO JULY.

+--------------------+---------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+--------+

+--------------------+---------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+--------+

| Beta or Mu |Apr. 9-16| The Dragon's head | | | N.E. |

| Draconids | Apr. 18 | | Sw. F. | Apr. 17-25 | |

+--------------------+---------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+--------+

| rich shower | Apr. 20 | Vega toward | V. Sw. | | N.E. |

+--------------------+---------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+--------+

| fine annual shower | | Jar | | | |

+--------------------+---------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+--------+

| Alpha Coronids, | May 11 | Near Gemma | Sl. F. | May 7-18 | N. |

+--------------------+---------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+--------+

| | | Square | | 10 P.M. | |

+--------------------+---------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+--------+

+--------------------+---------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+--------+

| | | ([b]) Cassiopeiae | Sw. |July 19, Aug.| N. |

| | | | | 25, etc. | |

+--------------------+---------+--------------------+---------------+-------------+--------+

The Abbreviations under _Characteristics_ are as follows:

V.--very.

M.--moderately.

Sw.--swift.

Sl.--slow.

Sh.--short.

B.--bright.

F.--faint.

Sk.--streak-leaving meteors.

T.--train-leaving meteors.

THE CONSTELLATIONS OF SUMMER.

[Illustration: Maps showing the principal stars visible from Lat. 40[deg]

N. at 9 o'clock, July first.]

DRACO (dr[=a]'-ko)--THE DRAGON. (Face North.)

LOCATION.--About 10[deg] from [a] Ursae Majoris--from [a] to [d] is

10[deg]--slightly south of, that is above, the line from [a] to Polaris,

is Giansar, [l] in the tip of the Dragon's tail. Above [l], and almost

in line with it, are two more stars in Draco, which form with two

stars in Ursa Major a quadrilateral. (See diagram.) Draco now curves

sharply eastward, coiling about the Little Bear as shown, then turns

abruptly southerly, ending in a characteristic and clearly defined

group of four stars, forming an irregular square, representing the

Dragon's head. This group is almost overhead in the early evening in

summer. The star in the heel of Hercules lies just south of the

Dragon's head. The brilliant Vega will be seen about overhead, 12[deg]

southwest of the Dragon's head. Eltanin, one of the Dragon's eyes, is

noted for its connection with the discovery of the law of aberration

of light. It is of an orange hue, while the star [b], near it, is

white. Note Thuban, once the Pole Star, at one corner of a

quadrilateral that Draco forms with Ursa Major.

Thuban could be seen by day or night from the bottom of the central

passage of several of the Pyramids in Egypt.

The rising of Eltanin was visible about thirty-five hundred years B.C.

through the central passages of the temples of Hathor at Denderah. The

Egyptians called Draco "The Hippopotamus."

Vega and the four stars in the Dragon's head offer an opportunity to

compare the first five stellar magnitudes with which all should be

familiar.

[Illustration: DRACO]

LYRA (l[=i]'-ra)--THE LYRE.

LOCATION.--Lyra may be easily distinguished because of the brilliant

Vega, its brightest star, which is situated about 12[deg] southwest of the

Dragon's head. It is unmistakable, as it is the brightest star in this

region of the heavens, and the third brightest in this latitude. In

July and August Vega is close to the zenith in the early evening.

The six bright stars in Lyra form an equilateral triangle on one

corner of a rhomboid. A very characteristic figure.

[e] is a pretty double for an opera-glass, and a 3" glass reveals the

duplicity of each star of this pair. [e] is therefore a double double.

[z] is a double for a good glass.

[b] is a variable, changing from magnitude 3.4 to 4.4 in twelve days.

At its brightest it is about equal to its near neighbor [g] Lyrae.

The noted ring nebula lies between [b] and [g]. A 3" glass reveals it

but a powerful telescope is required to render its details visible.

If the distance from the earth to the sun equalled one inch, the

distance from the earth to Vega would be 158 miles.

Vega was the first star to be photographed, in 1850. It is visible at

some hour every clear night, and has been called the arc-light of the

sky. Its light has the bluish-white hue that suggests "a diamond in

the sky."

The spectroscope reveals that Vega is a star probably only in its

infancy, as hydrogen is its predominating element.

[Illustration: LYRA]

CYGNUS (sig'-nus)--THE SWAN, OR THE NORTHERN CROSS.

LOCATION.--Deneb, the brightest star in Cygnus, is at the top of the

cross, and a little over 20[deg] east of Vega. It forms a triangle with

Vega and Altair in Aquila--Altair being at the apex, about 35[deg] from

Deneb and Vega.

[b] Cygni is at the base of the cross, and a line drawn from Vega to

Altair nearly touches it. It is a beautiful colored double for a small

telescope.

Note "61," one of the nearest stars to us. It was the first star whose

distance was measured (by Bessel in 1838). It is a double star and

10.4 light years distant.

The cross is nearly perfect and easily traced out. It lies almost

wholly in the Milky Way.

Note "The Coal Sack," one of the dark gap in the Milky Way.

Cygnus contains an unusual number of deeply colored stars and variable

stars.

[o] Cygni has a sixth-magnitude companion, and [g] is in the midst of

a beautiful stream of faint stars.

This region is perhaps richer than any similar extent in the heavens.

An opera-glass will reveal many of its beauties.

Herschel counted 331,000 stars in an area of only 5[deg] in Cygnus.

[Illustration: CYGNUS]

AQUILA (ak'-wi-l[:a])--THE EAGLE, AND ANTINO[:U]S. (Face Southeast.)

LOCATION.--Half-way up the sky in the Milky Way, you will see three

stars in a line, the middle one much brighter than the other two. This

bright star is Altair, in Aquila. It forms with Vega and Deneb an

isosceles triangle. Altair is at the apex, about 35[deg] from the other

two. A triangle is formed by Vega, Altair, and Ras Alhague, in the

Serpent Bearer, which is about 30[deg] west of Altair.

This is a double constellation composed of Aquila and Antino[:u]s. Altair

is in the neck of the Eagle, Alschain in the head of Antino[:u]s.

When the moon is absent, a rude arrowhead can be traced out, embracing

almost all the stars in Aquila.

[[^e]] is an interesting variable star, changing from magnitude 3.5 to

4.7 and back again within a period of 7 days 4 hours 12 minutes.

Altair rises about 8[deg] north of the exact eastern point on the horizon.

In A.D. 389 a wonderful temporary star flashed out near Altair that

equalled Venus in brightness and vanished within three weeks' time.

[Illustration: AQUILA

ANTINO[:U]S]

DELPHINUS (del-fi'-nus)--THE DOLPHIN, OR JOB'S COFFIN. (Face

Southeast.)

LOCATION.--The little cluster of five stars forming Delphinus is to be

seen about 10[deg] northeast of Altair, and, though there are no bright

stars in the group, it can hardly escape notice. A line drawn from

Vega to Albireo, and prolonged about 20[deg], strikes the star [e] in the

tail of the Dolphin. The four other stars of prominence in the

constellation are a little above [e], and form a diamond-shaped

figure.

The little asterisms Sagitta, the Arrow, and Vulpecula and Anser, the

Fox and Goose, are shown just above Delphinus.

Delphinus is also called Job's Coffin. The origin of this appellation

is unknown.

In Greece, Delphinus was the Sacred Fish, the sky emblem of

philanthropy. The Arabs called it the "Riding Camel."

The star [g] Delphini is a fine double for a small telescope with a

marked and beautiful contrast of colors.

The names for [a] and [b] reversed spell "Nicolaus Venator," the

Latinized name of the assistant to the astronomer Piazzi.

[Illustration: DELPHINUS]

SAGITTARIUS (saj-i-t[=a]-ri-us)--THE ARCHER. (Face South.)

LOCATION.--A line drawn from Deneb, in Cygnus, to Altair, in Aquila,

and prolonged an equal distance, terminates in Sagittarius about 10[deg]

east of its distinguishing characteristic, the Milk Dipper.

Sagittarius is one of the signs of the zodiac, and lies between

Capricornus, on the east, and Scorpius, on the west.

The bow is easily traced out. [g] marks the arrow's tip.

Note the star [m], which serves to point out the Winter Solstice,

where the solstitial colure intersects the ecliptic.

On a clear night, the pretty cluster known as Corona Australis, the

Southern Crown, can be seen about 10[deg] below the bowl of the Milk

Dipper. Its lucida, the fourth-magnitude star Alfecca Meridiana

culminates at 9 P.M., August 13th.

Sagittarius is about due south, in a splendid position for

observation, during the month of July, between the hours of

nine-thirty and eleven o'clock P.M.

Observe with an opera-glass the fine clusters 20 M. and 8 M., also an

almost circular black void near the stars [g] and [d], and to the east

of this spot another of narrow crescent form.

The stars [ph] and [z] in the Milk Dipper are moving in opposite

directions. Future generations therefore will not have this

time-honored figure to guide them in locating the Archer in their

summer night skies.

[Illustration: SAGITTARIUS]

OPHIUCHUS (of-i-[=u]-kus)--THE SERPENT BEARER, AND SERPENS. (Face

Southwest.)

LOCATION.--A line drawn from [e] Delphini to [g] Aquilae, prolonged

about 30[deg], strikes the star Ras Alhague, the brightest star in the

constellation and the head of Ophiuchus. It is at one angle of an

isosceles triangle, of which Altair is at the apex, and Vega the third

angle.

Two constellations are here combined. Ophiuchus is represented as an

old man, holding in his hands a writhing serpent.

Ras Algethi, marking the head of Hercules, lies just west of Ras

Alhague.

Equally distant southeast and southwest of Ras Alhague are to be seen

two stars close together, representing the shoulders of Ophiuchus. His

foot rests on the Scorpion just above Antares.

The head of Serpens is the star group in the form of an "X" just below

the Crown.

1604 indicates the spot where in that year a famous temporary star

appeared, called Kepler's star.

Note the asterism the "Bull of Poniatowski" just east of [g]. The star

marked 70 is one of the most distant stars for which a parallax has

been obtained. Its distance from the earth = 1,300,000 radii of the

earth's orbit, or 120 quadrillion miles.

There is something remarkable in the central position of this gigantic

figure. It is situated almost exactly in the mid-heavens, being nearly

equidistant from the poles, and midway between the vernal and autumnal

equinoxes.

[Illustration: OPHIUCHUS

SERPENS]

SCORPIUS (sk[^o]r'-pi-us)--THE SCORPION. (Face South.)

LOCATION.--Scorpius, one of the signs of the zodiac, is a beautiful

star group, and one that is easily traced out. It lies just under the

Serpent Bearer, between Sagittarius and Libra.

The resemblance to a Scorpion is not difficult to see, hence this

constellation is perhaps the most aptly named of any.

The ruddy star Antares, the brightest star in the constellation, is in

the heart of the Scorpion. It lies about 40[deg] southwest of Ras Alhague,

in Ophiuchus, and a little over 20[deg] west of the bow of Sagittarius.

The fact that it is the most brilliant star in this region of the sky

renders its identity unmistakable. It is one of the reddest stars in

the firmament.

There are several star clusters and double stars to be seen in this

constellation. Their position is indicated in the diagram.

The curved tail of the Scorpion is very conspicuous. [l] and [y] are a

striking pair and the fine clusters above them can be seen with the

naked eye.

A record of a lunar occultation of [b] Scorpii in 295 B.C. is extant.

Note a pair just below [b]. They are known as [[^o]]^1 and [[^o]]^2.

In this region of the sky have appeared many of the brilliant

temporary stars, the first one in astronomical annals being discovered

in 134 B.C.

Scorpius is mentioned by all the early writers on astronomy and is

supposed to be so named because in Egypt it was a sickly time of the

year when the sun entered this sign.

[Illustration: SCORPIUS]

LIBRA (l[=i]'-bra)--THE SCALES. (Face Southwest.)

LOCATION.--Libra is one of the signs of the zodiac, and lies between

Virgo and Scorpius. Its two chief stars, [a] and [b], may be

recognized west of and above the head of the Scorpion.

The star [i] Librae is about 20[deg] northwest of Antares in the Scorpion.

Spica in Virgo, a star of the first magnitude, is a little over 20[deg]

northwest of [a] Librae.

A quadrilateral is formed by the stars [a], [b], [g], [e], which

characterizes the constellation.

The star [a] Librae looks elongated. An opera-glass shows that it has a

fifth-magnitude companion.

[b] is a pale green star. Its color is very unusual.

Lyra, Corona, and Hercules are almost directly overhead in the early

evening, during July and August, and can best be observed in a

reclining position. Thus placed, with an opera-glass to assist the

vision, you may study to the best advantage the wonderful sight spread

out before you, and search depths only measured by the power of your

glass.

When the sun enters the sign Libra the days and nights are equal all

over the world and seem to observe a certain equilibrium like a

balance, hence the name of the constellation.

[Illustration: LIBRA]

CORONA BOREALIS (k[=o]-r[=o]'n[:a] b[=o]-r[=e]-a'-lis)--THE NORTHERN

CROWN.

LOCATION.--A line drawn from [a] Cygni, to [a] Lyrae, and projected a

little over 40[deg], terminates in the Crown, which lies between Hercules

and Bo[:o]tes, and just above the diamond-shaped group of stars in the

head of the Serpent.

The characteristic semicircle resembling a crown is easily traced out.

The principal stars are of the fourth magnitude excepting Gemma, which

is a second-magnitude star and known as the "Pearl of the Crown."

Gemma, sometimes called Alphacca, forms with the stars Seginus and

Arcturus, in Bo[:o]tes, an isosceles triangle, the vertex of which is at

Arcturus.

Close to [e] a famous temporary appeared suddenly May 12, 1866, as a

second-magnitude star. It was known as the "Blaze Star" and was

visible to the naked eye only eight days, fading at that time to a

tenth-magnitude star, and then rising to an eighth-magnitude, where it

still remains.

The native Australians called this constellation "The Boomerang." To

the Hebrews it was "Ataroth" and by this name it is known in the East

to-day. No two of the seven stars composing the Crown are moving in

the same direction or at the same rate.

[a] Coronae is seventy-eight light years distant and sixty times

brighter than the sun.

[Illustration: CORONA BOREALIS]

HERCULES (her'-k[=u]-l[=e]z)--THE KNEELER.

LOCATION.--A line drawn from either Vega, in Lyra, or Altair, in

Aquila, to Gemma, in Corona Borealis, passes through this

constellation. The left foot of Hercules rests on the head of Draco,

on the north, and his head nearly touches the head of Ophiuchus on the

south.

The star in the head of Hercules, Ras Algethi, is about 25[deg] southeast

of Corona Borealis.

[a] Ophiuchi and [a] Herculis are only about 5[deg] apart.

The cluster 13 M., the Halley Nebula, can be easily seen in an

opera-glass. In a recent photograph of this cluster 50,000 stars are

shown in an area of sky which would be entirely covered by the full

moon.

Hercules occupies the part of the heavens toward which the sun is

bearing the earth and planets at the rate of twelve miles a second or

373 million miles a year.

On a clear night the asterism Cerberus, the three-headed dog, which

Hercules holds in his hand, can be seen.

This constellation is said to have been an object of worship in

Phoenicia. There is a good deal of mystery about its origin. The

ancient Greeks called it "The Phantom" and "The Man upon his Knees."

The stars [e], [z], [[^e]], and [p] form a keystone shaped figure that

serves to identify the constellation.

[Illustration: HERCULES]

BO[:O]TES (b[=o]-[=o]'t[=e]z)--THE HERDSMAN, OR BEAR DRIVER. (Face West.)

LOCATION.--Bo[:o]tes lies just west of the Crown, and east of Cor Caroli.

It may be easily distinguished by the position and splendor of its

principal star, Arcturus, which shines with a golden yellow lustre. It

is about 35[deg] east of Denebola, in Leo, and nearly as far north of

Spica, in Virgo, and forms with these two a large equilateral

triangle. A line drawn from [z] to [[^e]] Ursae Majoris and prolonged

about 30[deg] locates it, as does one from [d] Herculis to [g] Coronae

prolonged its length.

The brightest stars in Bo[:o]tes outline a characteristic kite-shaped

figure. Arcturus is mentioned in the Book of Job and is often referred

to as "The Star of Job."

Three stars of the fourth magnitude are situated in the right hand.

They are about 5[deg] north of [[^e]] Ursae Majoris.

Contrast the color of Arcturus with Spica, Antares, and Vega.

The trapezium [b], [g], [d], and [m], was called "The Female Wolves,"

by the Arabians; [th], [i], [k] and [l], "The Whelps of the Hyenas."

They knew the constellation as "The Vociferator."

Arcturus is the fourth brightest star in the northern hemisphere. It

is 1000 times the size of our sun and rushes through space toward

Virgo at the astounding rate of ninety miles a second. It is forty

light years distant.

The ancient Greeks called this constellation "Lycaon," a name which

signifies a Wolf. The Hebrew name for it was "The Barking Dog."

[Illustration: BO[:O]TES]

VIRGO (ver'-g[=o])--THE VIRGIN. (Face West.)

LOCATION.--An imaginary line drawn from Antares in Scorpius through

[a] Librae and prolonged a little over 20[deg] strikes Spica, the brightest

star in Virgo, which star is about 30[deg] southwest of Arcturus.

Arcturus, Cor Caroli, Denebola, and Spica form a figure about 50[deg] in

length, called the Diamond of Virgo.

The equator, ecliptic, and equinoctial colure intersect each other at

a point close to the star [[^e]]. This is called the autumnal equinox.

The star [e] is known as the "Grape Gatherer." It is observed to rise

just before the sun at vintage time.

Within the rude square formed by Denebola, and [e], [g], and [b],

Virginis, the telescope reveals many wonderful nebulae; hence this

region of the sky has been called "The Field of the Nebula."

Spica is an extremely beautiful pure white star. It rises a very

little south of the exact eastern point on the horizon.

[g] is a fine double star for a small telescope.

Virgo is mentioned by the astronomers of all ages. By the Egyptians it

was intended to represent the goddess Isis, and the Greeks knew it as

Ceres. Spica represents the ear of corn held in the Virgin's left

hand.

[Illustration: VIRGO]

CANES VENATICI (k[=a]'-n[=e]z ve-nat'-i-c[=i])--THE HUNTING DOGS.

(Face Northwest.)

LOCATION.--Cor Caroli, the bright star in this constellation, when on

the meridian is about 17[deg] south of [e] Ursae Majoris. A line drawn from

[[^e]] Ursae Majoris, through Berenice's Hair, to Denebola, in Leo, passes

through it.

The dogs, Asterion and Chara, are represented as being held in leash

by Bo[:o]tes, the herdsman, in his pursuit of the Great Bear.

Cor Caroli is in the southern hound, Chara, and represents the heart

of Charles II of England. It is a beautiful double star in a small

telescope.

The so-called "Diamond of Virgo," is clearly shown on this plate. It

is formed by connecting with lines the stars Cor Caroli, Denebola,

Spica, and Arcturus.

The fifth-magnitude star La Superba, about 7[deg] north and 2-1/2[deg]

west of Cor Caroli, is especially noteworthy because of the flashing

brilliancy of its prismatic rays.

[Illustration: CANES VENATICI]

METEORIC SHOWERS.

JULY TO OCTOBER.

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

|Vulpeculids or | July 4 | Cygnus and | Sw. | Apr. 20, | E. |

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

| | | | | 6-Aug. 16 | |

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

| ([a])-([b]) |July 25 | and | after | Sept. 15, | N.E. |

| Perseids | | ([b]) Persei | 10 P.M. | Nov. 13 | |

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

| | | Dragon's head | |Aug. 21-25 | |

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

|Alpha Aurigids |Aug. 21 | ([a]) Aurigae | P.M. | Oct. 2 | N.E. |

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

|Draconids. Rich|Aug. 22 | Dragon's head | Sl. T. | Aug. 21-25 | N |

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

| | | of Great Sq. | | 25, etc. | |

+---------------+--------+----------------+---------------+----------------+--------+

The Perseids are of a yellowish color, and move with medium velocity.

Their line of flight is from northeast to southwest. They are probably

visible for more than a month, from the latter half of July to the

last week in August.

The August meteors are known as the "Tears of St. Lawrence."

The Abbreviations under _Characteristics_ are as follows:

v.--very

Sl.--Slow

Sk.--Streak-leaving meteors.

M.--Moderately

B.--Bright

T.--Train-leaving meteors.

Sw.--Swift

F.--Faint

Sh.--Short meteors.

THE CONSTELLATIONS OF AUTUMN.

[Illustration: Map showing the principal stars visible from Lat. 40[deg]

N. at 9 o'clock, October first.]

CASSIOPEIA (kas-i-[=o]-p[=e]'-ya)--THE LADY IN THE CHAIR. (Face

North.)

LOCATION.--A line drawn from [d] Ursae Majoris, through Polaris,

strikes [a] Cassiopeiae. It is situated the same distance from Polaris

as Ursa Major, and about midway between Polaris and the zenith in the

Milky Way. Cassiopeia is characterized by a zigzag row of stars which

form a rude "W," but in mid-autumn, to an observer facing north, the

"W" appears more like an "M," and is almost overhead. Note the spot

marked 1572. This is where a very famous temporary star appeared in

that year. It was bright enough at one time to be seen in full

sunshine. The star [[^e]] is sixteen light years distant.

Caph is equidistant from the Pole, and exactly opposite the star

Megres in Ursa Major; with [a] Andromedae and [g] Pegasi it marks the

equinoctial colure. These stars are known as "The Three Guides."

The chair can be readily traced out; [b], [a], and [g] mark three of

the four corners of the back, and [d] and [e], one of the front legs.

The word "Bagdei," made up of the letters for the principal stars,

assists the memory.

The stars [g] and [b] are pointer stars to a fifth-magnitude star the

lucida of the asterism Lacerta, the lizard about 15[deg] from [b].

Cassiopeia makes an excellent illuminated clock. When [b] is above

Polaris it is noon, when it is in the west at right angles to its

first position it is 6 P.M. At midnight it is on the northern horizon,

and at 6 P.M. it is due east.

This is sidereal time which agrees with mean time on March 22d, and

gains on the latter at the rate of two hours a month.

[Illustration: CASSIOPEIA]

CEPHEUS (s[=e]'-f[=u]s) (Face North.)