indifferently well made, but not either vigorous or active. Those of the
city are of a fair complexion; but the peasants, and such as are obliged
to be much abroad in the sun, are swarthy. Their hair is commonly black,
or of a dark chesnut-colour; and it is very rare to see any other than
black eyes amongst them. Both sexes are tolerably handsome when young;
but the beard soon disfigures the men; and the women, as they come early
to maturity[437], fade also as soon, and in general look old by the time
they reach thirty. The greater part of the women are married from the age
of fourteen to eighteen, and often sooner. The tender passion of love can
have very little share in promoting matrimony among them, for the young
folks never see one another till the ceremony is performed. A slender
waist, far from being admired, is, on the contrary, rather looked on as a
deformity in the ladies of this country; so that they do all they can to
make themselves plump and lusty.
The men are girt very tight round the middle with a sash. The womens
girdles are not only very slight and narrow, but loosely put on; which,
with the warmth of the climate, and frequent use of the bagnio, is
probably one principal reason why their labours are much easier than
those in _Britain_; the most delicate being seldom confined above ten or
twelve days, and those of the villages are rarely hindered from going
about their usual employments the next day. Women of all conditions
suckle their own children, and seldom wean them, till either the mother
is again with child, or they arrive at the age of three, and sometimes
four years.
The people of distinction in _Aleppo_ may justly be esteemed courteous
and polite, if allowance is made for that superiority which the
_Mohammedan_ religion teaches those who profess it to assume over all
who are of another faith. And as this prejudice is observed to encrease
among the people in proportion to their vicinity to _Mecha_, the
natives of _Aleppo_ have still a much greater proportion than those
of _Constantinople_, _Smyrna_, and other parts at a greater distance;
though, even here, it has greatly declined within these few years,
insomuch that several _bashaws_ have conferred many public honours and
civilities on the _Europeans_, that formerly would have caused great
popular discontent. As to the common people, an affected gravity, with
some share of dissimulation, is too much their characteristic. And though
few in the world are more given to harsh language and quarrelling, yet
none are less guilty of fighting. One can seldom pass a few yards in the
street without being witness to some noisy broil; yet in many years you
may perhaps never see one blow struck, except the person who gives it is
very well assured that it will not be returned. But though they are so
prone to anger upon the most trifling occasions, yet no people in the
universe can be more calm when it is their interest so to be. This, I am
sorry to say, is but too generally a true representation: but it would be
very ungrateful, as well as unjust in me, not to acknowledge that there
are many amongst them of all sects who deserve a much better character,
and whom I know, from repeated experience, to be persons of the utmost
honour and integrity.
Their usual bread is of wheat flour, not well fermented, made into thin
flat cakes ill-baked, and for the most part ate soon after it comes out
of the oven. The better sort have small loaves of a finer flour, well
fermented, and well baked. Besides these, there are a variety of rusks
and biscuits, most of which are either strowed on the top with the seeds
of sesamum or fennel-flower. The _Europeans_ have very good bread, baked
in the _French_ manner.
Coffee made very strong, and without either sugar or milk, is a
refreshment in very high esteem with every body; and a dish of it,
preceded by a little wet sweet-meat (commonly conserve of red roses,
acidulated with lemon-juice), and a pipe of tobacco, is the usual
entertainment at a visit. If they have a mind to use less ceremony, the
sweet-meat is omitted; and, if they would shew an extraordinary degree
of respect, they add sherbet, (some syrup, chiefly that of lemons, mixed
with water) a sprinkling of rose or other sweet-scented water, and the
perfume, with aloes-wood, which is brought last, and serves as a sign
that it is time for the stranger to take his leave. This is looked upon
as an entertainment sufficient for the greatest men in the country,
only that such have a piece of embroidered or flowered silk thrown over
their knee when they drink the coffee and sherbet: and if it is a visit
of ceremony from a _bashaw_, or other person in power, a fine horse,
sometimes with furniture, or some such valuable present, is made him at
his departure. People of inferior rank (or even others, if they have any
favour to ask) commonly bring a small present (a flower is frequently
thought sufficient) when they visit.
Tobacco is smoked to excess by all the men, and many of the women. Even
the labourers or handicraft-tradesmen have constantly a pipe in their
mouths, if they can afford it. Those pipes are made of the twig of a
rose-bush, cherry-tree, _&c._ bored for that purpose: those of the better
sort are five or six feet long, and adorned with silver. The bole is of
clay, and often changed; but the pipes themselves last for years. Many
who are in easy circumstances have lately adopted the _Persian_ manner of
smoking the nargeery[438]; which is an instrument so constructed, that
the smoke of the tobacco passes through the water before it comes into
the mouth. The method of drawing it is different from that of a pipe;
and a good part of the smoke seems to descend some way into the breast.
The _Persian_ tobacco is what they use in this instrument, which has
an agreeable flavour; attended with this further advantage, that, when
smoked in this way, neither the taste or smell of it remain after washing
the mouth.
The vulgar, in imitation of their superiors, have at the coffee-houses an
ordinary instrument of the same construction: in this they use the common
tobacco, wetted a little with dibbs and water, or an infusion of raisins,
adding at times _sheera_[439], to make it intoxicating; and they will
draw in such vast quantities of smoke, that when they throw it out again
at the mouth and nostrils, it appears surprising where they found room to
contain it.
Opium is not of so high esteem with the inhabitants of _Aleppo_ as at
_Constantinople_, and some other places; nor could I ever find the taking
it so general a practice in _Turky_ as is commonly apprehended, being
chiefly practised only by debauchees. They who take it to excess are
commonly stiled _teriaky_; and the _Theriac. Andromach._ is called in
_Turkish_ _teriack_, which perhaps may countenance a conjecture that this
was the original form they used it in. At present they not only use it in
that form, but have various other electuaries or confections wherein it
is mixed with aromatics. Some few use it pure; and the greatest quantity
I ever knew taken was three drachms in twenty-four hours. The immediate
effects that I observed it to have upon such as were addicted to it
was, that their spirits were exhilarated, and, from a dosing, depressed
state which they fell into after passing the usual time of taking their
dose, they became quite alert. The consequences of a long use of it are,
that they soon look old and besotted, like such as in _Europe_ have
ruined their constitutions by hard drinking. And it may be considered as
point of fact, that they but seldom live to a good old age: though they
are rarely carried off by dropsies, or such other diseases, the usual
consequences of hard drinking amongst us; but rather having first lost
their memory, and most of their intellectual faculties, they decline, in
all appearance, in the same way as those who sink under the weight of
years.
In _Aleppo_ there are a number of public bagnios, which are frequented by
people of all sects and conditions, except those of a very high rank, who
have mostly baths in their own houses. The first entrance in the public
bagnio is a large, lofty room; in the middle of which is a fountain,
with a bason, which serves for washing the linen, that hangs upon lines
at a considerable height all over the room. In this first apartment are
broad benches, where they dress and undress; and the air is here not at
all influenced by the heat of the bath, except it be just at the door, by
which you pass into a small room, which is pretty warm, and from thence
into a larger very hot. About the sides of these two rooms are placed
round stone-basons, of about two feet and a half diameter, with two
cocks, one of hot, and the other of cold water; so that you may temper
it according to your own pleasure, and there are copper-bowls for you
to lave it upon your body. In the corners of the inner room there are
small retiring-chambers; in one of which there is frequently a cistern of
warm water, about four feet deep, and large enough for bathing the whole
body. All these rooms are surmounted by cupolas; and the inner receive
their light from small openings in their domes, which are covered with
glasses. The outer room receives its light, not only from the lanthorn
of its dome, but also from windows. Some few bagnios are solely for the
men, others are appropriated to the women only; yet the generality of
them admit both sexes, though at different times; that is, the men in the
forenoon, and women in the afternoon.
When a man goes into the hot room, the first thing he does is to apply
the _dewa_[440], (or medicine for taking off the hair), to the pubis and
armpits. This is suffered to remain till the hair is quite loose, and
then must be immediately washed clean away with great care. After this,
one of the servants of the bagnio begins with chaffing, or kneading
violently, first the tops of the shoulders, and then by degrees the whole
body. When he comes to the hand, he pulls the joints of the fingers, so
as to make each crack separately; then laying the person on his back,
with his arms across his breast, he raises him forcibly by the back part
of the neck, so as to make the greatest part of the vertebræ crack. He
then chaffs the back a little more, and, throwing a quantity of warm
water over the whole body, rubs him hard with a bag made of a fort of
coarse camelot, which is drawn over the servant’s hand, for some time. He
is next rubbed over with a soap-lather; and the whole being washed clean
off, he puts one towel round his middle, another round his head, and
perhaps a third over his shoulders; in which manner he goes out to the
great room, where he generally smokes a pipe, drinks coffee, and perhaps
eats some fruit, before he dresses.
The women having the additional trouble of combing and washing, as well
as unplaiting and plaiting their hair, besides very frequently that of
a number of children to wash, remain generally in the hot room for a
considerable time; but refresh themselves at intervals, by going out into
the other rooms, where they smoke, converse, and drink coffee, with one
or other of the various parties that are commonly there. Every company of
two or three are attended by an old woman, whose business it is to rub
and wash them; but do not chaff and crack their joints as the men, and
their bag for rubbing is much finer. They also use the _dewa_.
Each company, generally speaking, has its collation, which they eat in
the middle room before dressing: and as the bagnio is the principal place
where they have an opportunity of showing their fine cloaths, seeing a
number of company, or enjoying the freedom of conversation, though with
their own sex only, it is not to be wondered that they are very fond of
it, though their entertainment may not be so elegant as _Europeans_ might
expect.
The first time a woman of the country (whether _Christian_, _Turk_, or
_Jew_) goes to the bagnio after child-bearing, she must have what they
call the _shdood_; which is thus performed. She is set down in one of
the washing-places of the inner room, and the midwife rubs her over with
a composition of ginger, pepper, nutmegs, and other spices, made into
a sort of ointment, or rather electuary, with honey. In this manner
she sits for some time, the other women in the mean while singing and
warbling with their voices in a particular tone, which is their usual way
of rejoicing in this country. After this the lady is washed clean, and
the ceremony finished. This they imagine strengthens them, and prevents a
great many disorders that would otherwise ensue after delivery; and they
use it also after recovery from any very severe fit of sickness.
The people here have no notion of the benefit of exercise, either for the
preservation of health, or curing diseases; and it is with reluctance
that they use much, either for business or pleasure. To walk or ride
to the gardens once or twice a-week at the proper seasons, is as much
as most of them do for the last mentioned purpose; and the other is
different, according to the nature of their employments.
The people of condition, and their dependents, should however be excepted
in some instances, they being commonly very active on horseback, and in
sporting, or the _jareed_[441], using very violent exercise. This however
is but seldom, and hardly compensates for the time they spend in that
indolent indulgence, of lolling on their divans, which is the way the
generality pass much the greatest part of their time.
As they have no coaches, persons of condition ride on horseback in the
city, with a number of servants walking before them, according to their
rank; which, though it may not be so convenient in bad weather, has
certainly a more manly, if not a grander appearance, than our coaches.
The ladies, even of the greatest figure, are obliged to walk on foot,
both in the city, and when they go to any garden, if it is but at a
moderate distance. In longer journies, the women of rank are carried by
mules in a litter, close covered up; and those of inferior condition on
these occasions are commonly stowed one on each side of a mule, in a sort
of covered cradles.
Most of the natives go to bed in good time, and rise early in the
morning. They sleep in their drawers, and at least one or two
waistcoats, and some of them in winter in their furs. Their bed consists
of a matrass laid on the floor, and over this a sheet (in winter a
carpet, or some such woollen covering), the other sheet being sowed to
the quilt. A divan-cushion often serves for a bolster and pillow; though
some have a bolster and pillow as we have. When the time for repose draws
nigh, they sit down on this matrass, and smoke their pipe, till they find
themselves sleepy; then they lay themselves down, and leave their women
or servants to cover them when asleep; and many of the people of fashion
are lulled to rest by soft music, or stories told out of the _Arabian
Nights Entertainment_, or some other book of the same kind, which their
women are taught to repeat for this purpose. If they happen to wake in
the night, they sit up, fill their pipe, have a dish of coffee made, and
sometimes, especially in the long winter-nights, eat some of their sweet
pastry, and so sit till they drop asleep again. In the summer their beds
are made in their court-yard, or on the house-top; in the winter they
chuse for their bed-chamber the smallest and lowest-roofed room on the
ground-floor. There is always a lamp burning, and often one or two pans
of charcoal; which sometimes proves of bad consequence even to them, and
would certainly suffocate such as have not been accustomed to this bad
practice.
The coffee-houses are only frequented by the vulgar. The masters of these
houses have often, for the entertainment of their customers, a concert
of music, a story-teller, and, in time of _Ramadan_ particularly, an
obscene, low kind of puppet-show, and sometimes tumblers and jugglers;
and these, properly speaking, are all their public diversions.
Their amusements within doors are playing at chess, in which they are
very expert, and a fort of backgammon, both borrowed from the _Persians_;
draughts, mankala, tabuduk, and the play of the ring, as they call
it, which is what the great men often amuse themselves with in the
winter-evenings. It consists merely in guessing what coffee-cup, out of
a number that are placed on a large salver, the ring is hid under. They
have several engaged in the play on each side; and the parties that win
have the privilege of blacking the faces of their antagonists, putting
fools caps on their heads, and making them stand before them while they
sing _extempore_ songs in their own praise, and in derision of the
losers. But it is only their servants, or ordinary people, that they
treat in this manner; and some of these, especially if they have any turn
to buffoonry, are always of the party on purpose.
Though some Christians have learned of the _Europeans_ to play for money;
yet these games are only used by the _Turks_ for amusement, and chiefly
to pass the long winter-evenings. Sometimes, ’tis true, they will go so
far as to play for an entertainment.
Dancing is not, as in _Europe_, reckoned an accomplishment for people
of fashion, and is scarce practised, even among the vulgar, but by such
as make a trade of it. Their dexterity does not consist in agility,
but chiefly in the motion of the arms and body, putting themselves in
different attitudes, many of which (particularly of the women) are none
of the most decent. Their manner is not ill described by _Juvenal_[442].
At their festivals they have also wrestlers as a part of their
entertainment. They have still a resemblance to the _athletæ_ of the
ancients, in anointing their naked bodies, having nothing on but a pair
of breeches, and strut and vaunt so much at their entry as seems to
promise great matters; but they make but very sorry figures in their
performance.
I should not omit among their amusements to mention buffoons, who are the
constant attendants at all merry-makings, and without whom their mirth
and conversation would soon languish, or conclude.
The music of the country is of two sorts; one for the field, the other
for the chamber. The first makes part of the retinue of the _bashaws_,
and other great military officers, and is used also in their garrisons.
It consists of a sort of hautboy[443], shorter, but shriller than ours;
trumpets[444], cymbals[445], large drums[446], the upper head of which
is beat upon with a heavy drum-stick, the lower with a small switch. A
_vizir-bashaw_ has nine of these large drums, while a _bashaw of two
tails_ has but eight, the distinction by which the music of one may be
known from that of the other. Besides these, they have small drums[447],
beat after the manner of our kettle-drums. This music at a distance has a
tolerable good effect.
Their chamber-music consists of a dulcimer[448], guittar[449], dervises
flute[450], blown in a very particular manner; _Arab_ fiddle[451],
a couple of small drums, and the diff[452], which serves chiefly to
beat time to the voice, the worst of all their music; for they bellow
so hideously, that it spoils what without it would be in some degree
harmonious. This diff is a hoop, (sometimes with pieces of brass fixed in
it to make a jingling) over which a piece of parchment is distended. It
is beat with the fingers, and is the true tympanum of the ancients; as
appears from its figure in several relievos, representing the orgies of
_Bacchus_, and rites of _Cybele_. It is worth observing, that, according
to _Juvenal_, the _Romans_ had this instrument first from hence[453].
They also have a kind of flute, like the ancient _syrinx_; but it is not
much used among them, there being but few that can play upon it.
Besides the above mentioned instruments, they have likewise a sort of
bagpipe, which numbers of idle fellows play upon round the skirts of the
town, making it a pretence to ask a present of such as pass.
[Illustration: _facing page 95._ Pl. XIV
_Miller Sc:_]
Though they understand the different measures in music, and have names
for them; yet they have no method of writing the notes. They learn
entirely by the ear; yet it is observable, that when several persons play
together they keep time very exactly. They have neither bass, nor other
different parts in music, all playing the same.
The print annexed represents a _Turkish_ concert, drawn from the life;
in which care has been taken also to show, through a window, the inner
court-yard of a house, with the little garden, fountain, _&c._ and
through another is seen part of a mosque, with the minaret, from whence
the _imaums_ call the people to prayers. The dress of the performers also
show the different kinds wore by the ordinary people, according to their
sect, _&c._ The first, who beats the diff, represents that of an ordinary
_Turk_; the next a slovenly ordinary Christian; the middle figure is a
Dervise; the fourth is a Christian of a middle rank, playing upon the
_Arab_ fiddle. What is peculiar in his dress, is, that the sash of the
turbant is strip’d with, blue, and his slippers red. The last is an
ordinary fellow, beating the small drums with his fingers, as they often
do, instead of drumsticks. His head-dress is such as is worn by many
_Janizaries_, and commonly by the _Arabgarlees_, a race of _Armenians_,
who attend upon the _Europeans_.
Whatever figure the inhabitants of this country made formerly in
literature, they are at present very ignorant. Many _bashaws_, and even
farmers of the customs, and considerable merchants, cannot either read or
write. It must be observed, however, that their youth of late years are
better taught than formerly; though, even at this time, their education
seldom extends farther than just to read a little of the Koran, and
write a common letter, except such as are bred to the law or divinity,
which are closely allied in this country. The professors of both usually
pretend likewise to some skill in physic. In the time I lived there,
only one inhabitant of the place understood enough of astronomy to be
able to calculate the time of an eclipse; for which he was looked upon
as a very extraordinary person. Numbers there are who imagine they
understand judicial astrology, in which the natives have great faith: but
it would take up too much time even so much as to mention their various
superstitions in this and many other respects.
In the city there are a great number of colleges, but very little taught
in them; they being generally built by such as have raised great estates
by oppression, and other bad means, and are intended by the founders,
partly as an atonement for their wickedness, and partly to secure an
estate in the family, their descendents being commonly appointed curators
of these endowments, and seldom fail to apply to their own private use
what seemed intended for public benefit; and thus the school soon runs to
decay. Many of these have a sort of library belonging to them, and a few
private men among the learned have some books; but these are very rarely
good for much, and are kept more through vanity, than for any use they
either make of them themselves, or suffer to be made of them by others.
Though the _Turks_ are predestinarians, they are taught however to
believe, that tho’ God has afflicted mankind with diseases; yet he has
sent them also the remedies, and they are therefore to use the proper
means for their recovery: so that practitioners in physic are here well
esteemed, and very numerous. These are chiefly native Christians, and a
few _Jews_. The _Turks_ seldom make this their profession. Not one of the
natives, however, of any sect is allowed to practise without a licence
from the _Hakeem Bashee_; but a few sequins are sufficient to procure
this to the most ignorant; and such most of them are egregiously, for
they have no colleges in which any branch of physic is taught: and as the
present constitution of their government renders the dissection of human
bodies impracticable, and that of brutes is a thing of which they never
think, they have a very imperfect idea of the situation of the parts, or
their functions.
Of the use of chemistry in medicine they are totally ignorant; but now
and then one amongst them just acquires a smattering enough of alchemy to
beggar his family by it.
Many of them are brought up under masters who live by the profession
of physic; but these are seldom capable of teaching them much; and, to
conceal their own ignorance the more effectually, they commonly pretend
to a number of secrets not to be disclosed: so that such of them as know
any thing, must obtain it by their own reading and observation. But to
the latter they are seldom much indebted, as they look upon whatever
they find in any book as an established fact, and not to be by them
contradicted, however opposite it may appear to their own experience.
The books they have amongst them are some of the _Arabian_ writers;
_Ebensina_ in particular, whose authority is indisputable with them. They
have likewise some translations of _Hippocrates_, _Galen_, _Dioscorides_,
and a few other ancient _Greek_ writers. But their copies are in general
miserably incorrect. Hence it may easily be seen, that the state
of physic among the natives in this country, as well as every other
science, is at a very low ebb, and that it is far from being in a way of
improvement.
But, ignorant as they are in regard to physic, they are great matters in
temporising, and know how to suit a plausible theory to the patient’s way
of thinking; in doing which they scruple not to quote the authority of
_Hippocrates_, _Galen_, and _Ebensina_, in support of opinions the most
ridiculous and absurd.
It is from the pulse alone that they pretend, and are expected to
discover all diseases, and also pregnancy: from their confidence in
which last they are daily the death of numbers of infants, by persuading
the women that their complaints are from obstructions, and giving them
medicines accordingly; while many others, under real diseases, are amused
with the hopes of pregnancy till past recovery.
Their practice is very trifling in most cases, and commonly adapted
rather to suit the opinion of the sick, and those about them, than the
cure of the disease. While they apprehend the sick to be in no danger,
they attend close, and give quantities of medicines; but, as soon as
they think they are in danger, they do not go near them unless sent for,
and then give no medicines, but advise the relations to use some trifling
things; for which indeed they have some reason, for commonly the last
medicine taken is held to be the cause of the patient’s death.
What has been said with regard to practitioners in physic, relates solely
to the natives; for the _Europeans_, of whom there are several, practise
in their own way, and are greatly respected by the inhabitants; though,
partly to save their money, and partly from a notion of their giving
violent medicines, they seldom apply to them, till they have tried their
own doctors to no purpose.
Though their bards are the last mentioned, yet they are far from being
the least worthy of notice; for at times a poetical genius shows himself
among them, and produces some things which they greatly esteem.
[Illustration: Pla. XV. _facᵍ. p. 100._
_J. Mynde Sc._]
[Illustration: _facing page 101_ Pl. XVI
_Miller del. et sc._]
A particular description of their dress, as it would be foreign to my
purpose, so it would carry me beyond my proposed limits. Some tolerable
idea of it may be gathered from Plate XIV. XV. and XVI.[454]. All that
I shall say, therefore, on this head is, that, notwithstanding their
peculiar attachment to ancient customs, they are of late become not a
little extravagant in this article. And though their fashions do not
alter so quick as in _Europe_, yet they do alter, and that not seldom.
Such of their singularities, however, in respect to dress and ornament,
as seem more immediately to regard their health, it may be proper to
mention.
Some of the old men dye their beards, and the old women their hair, of a
red colour, with henna, which gives them a very whimsical appearance; and
many of the men dye their beards black, to conceal their age[455].
Few of the women paint, except among the _Jews_, and such as are common
prostitutes; but they generally black their eye-brows, or rather
make artificial ones, with a certain composition which they call
_hattat_[456]. This practice, however, is daily declining.
Upon a principle of strengthening the sight, as well as an ornament, it
is become a general practice among the women, to black the inside of
their eye-lids, by applying a powder called _ismed_[457]. Their method
of doing it is by a cylindrical piece of silver, steel, or ivory,
about two inches long, made very smooth, and about the size of a common
probe. This they wet with water, in order that the powder may stick to
it; and applying the middle part horizontally to the eye, they shut the
eye-lids upon it, and so drawing it through between them, it blacks the
inside, leaving a narrow black rim all round the edge. This is sometimes
practised by the men, but is then regarded as foppish.
Another singular method of adorning themselves the women have, which
is, by dying their feet and hands with henna; which is brought in great
quantities from _Egypt_, chiefly for that purpose, as the practice is
general amongst all sects and conditions. The common way is only to dye
the tips of the fingers and toes, and some few spots upon the hands and
feet, and leave them of a dirty yellow colour, the natural tincture from
the henna, which to a _European_ looks very disagreeable. But the more
polite manner is to have the greatest part of the hands and feet stained
in form of roses, and various figures, and the dye made of a very dark
green[458]. This however, after some days, begins to change, and at last
looks as nasty as the other.
The women in some of the villages, and all the _Arabs_ and
_Chinganas_[459], wear a large silver or gold ring through the external
cartilage of their right nostril. I have seen some of at least an inch
and an half diameter. It is usual for these people likewise, by way of
ornament, to mark their under-lip, and sometimes their breasts and arms
with a blue colour. This is done by pricking the part all over with
a needle, and then rubbing it with a certain powder, which leaves a
distinct and indelible mark, like that which one so often sees among the
sailors and common people in _England_.
With respect to the people in general, these remarks may be sufficient.
But as, in their manner of living, the _Turks_ differ from the
Christians, and the _Jews_ from both, it may not be improper to take a
view of each.
To begin with the _Turks_, who are the most numerous; such as can afford,
and dare show it, live well, and are far from being the abstemious people
that many imagine them to be. As soon as they get up in the morning, they
breakfast on fried eggs, cheese, honey, leban, _&c._ About eleven o’clock
in the forenoon in winter, and rather earlier in summer, they dine.
Their table is round, and as well as their dishes, is made either of
copper tinned, or for _bashaws_, and other persons of high distinction,
of silver. It is placed upon a stool about a foot or fourteen inches
high. A piece of red cloth, cut in a round form, is spread upon the divan
under the table, to prevent that from being soiled; and a long piece
of silk-stuff is laid round, to cover the knees of such as sit at the
table, which has no covering but the victuals. Pickles, sallads, small
basons of leban, bread, and spoons, are disposed in proper order round
the edges. The middle is for the dishes, which (among the great people)
are brought in one by one; and, after each person has ate a little,
they are changed. Their fingers serve them for knives and forks; but
for liquids they are obliged to have spoons, which are made of wood,
horn, or tortoise-shell, for silver or gold is not permitted them for
that purpose by their religion. The first dish is generally a sort of
broth, or soup[460], and the last pilaw. The intermediate dishes, which,
generally speaking, are numerous, consist of mutton cut into small
pieces, and roasted[461], or stewed with herbs and cicers[462]; stewed
pigeons, fowls, or other birds, which are commonly stuffed with rice and
spices. A whole lamb, stuffed with rice, almonds, raisins, pistaches,
_&c._ and stewed, is a favourite dish with them[463]. Rice, and minced
meat, wrapped up in vine-leaves[464], beet, endive, borrage, _&c._
or stuffed into cucumbers[465], mad apples[466] (badinjans), gourds,
quinces, _&c._ and stewed, they are very fond of, and call _mahshee_,
in _Turkish_ _dolmah_, with the name of the enveloping vegetable added,
as _badinjan mahshee_, &c. Pastry, both with meat, and of the sweet or
fruit kind, they would make very well, if the badness of their butter did
not spoil them. A large pilaw, with a dish of sweet starch[467], which
they sometimes eat with it, comes last, excepting the _khushaf_; which
is a very thin syrup, with currans, raisins, dried apricots, pistaches,
slices of pears, apples, or the like, swimming in it; and of this each
person takes a large spoonful, with spoons brought in with it on purpose,
and finishes the repast. Water is their liquor at table, and after dinner
they drink coffee. Almost all their dishes are either greasy with fat, or
butter pretty high-seasoned with salt and spices; many of them made sour
with verjuice, pomegranate, or lemon-juice; and onions and garlick often
complete the seasoning.
They sup early, that is, about five o’clock in the winter, and six in
the summer, in much the same manner that they dine; and in winter, as
they often visit one another, and sit up late, they have a collation of
_kennafy_[468], or other sweet dishes.
In the summer their breakfast commonly consists of fruits; and, besides
dinner and supper, they often, within the compass of the day, eat
water-melons, cucumbers, and other fruits, according to the season.
It is to be observed, that they are not so regular in their times of
eating as the _Europeans_: and though it should happen that they are but
just rose from table, they cannot withstand the invitation of another
company, but sit down and eat again with them.
The common people have no such variety as has been before described.
Bread, dibbs, leban, butter, rice, and a very little mutton, make the
chief of their food in the winter; as rice, bread, cheese, and fruits, do
in the summer. Their principal meal is in the evening, when they return
to their families from the exercise of their respective occupations.
Through the whole of the month of _Ramadan_[469], they fast from the dawn
of day till sunset, and do not either eat or smoke: but, as soon as the
sun is down, they eat a hearty meal; and, such as can afford to sleep in
the day, keep eating and drinking the greatest part of the night, living
more luxuriously than at other times, and generally spending as much
money in that one, as in any other two months in the year: but the poor
labourers, or those whose business calls them abroad in the day, suffer
a great deal during this fast, more especially when it happens in the
summer.
Though wine and spirits are only drank by the irreligious and licentious
among the _Turks_, yet the number of these is more than what from
appearance one would apprehend: for as these liquors are prohibited
by their religion, they chiefly drink in secret at their gardens, or
privately in the night; and, if they once begin, they generally drink to
great excess whenever they can come at liquor.
By their religion they are obliged to wash before their prayers, which
are five times in the twenty-four hours[470], and also every time they
ease nature. As they eat chiefly with their fingers, they are likewise
under a necessity to wash after every meal, and the more cleanly do it
before meals also. Besides, every time they cohabit with their women,
they must go to the bagnio before they can say their prayers; so that
they are almost all day long dabbling in water.
Though by law, or rather from an implied toleration[471], they
are allowed four wives, and as many concubines, or more properly
female-slaves, as they can or care to maintain; yet as they are obliged
to pay money for their wives, few of any rank have more than two; the
poorer sort have seldom more than one, and hardly ever a concubine. Those
of middling circumstances rarely exceed three or four; though some I have
known, of greater opulence, have kept forty, exclusive of those employed
in the menial offices of the family. It may appear strange how such a
number should agree tolerably well together; and in fact the master of
the family hath very frequently enough to do to keep the peace among
them. But if we consider, that they are accustomed from their infancy to
a servile obedience, that the husband can at pleasure divorce his wife
without assigning any cause, and sell such of his slaves as he has had no
children by, it will not appear so extraordinary that they live together
in a tolerable degree of harmony. On the other hand, the wife has also a
check upon him; for if he divorces his wife, it is attended with expence,
as he must not only lose all the money she at first cost him, but there
is generally a sum equal to that stipulated by the contract, to be paid
in case he should at any time divorce her.
In this country marriages are commonly brought about by the ladies: and
the mothers, in order to find out a proper wife for their sons, take all
opportunities of introducing themselves into company where they expect to
have a sight of a young woman who may be disengaged; and, when they have
met with one they think will be agreeable, they propose to the mother a
match between her and the young man. This puts the family upon enquiring
into his character and circumstances; and, if matters are likely to be
adjusted, she is formally demanded of her parents by the father, the
price is fixed that he is to pay for her, and a licence is procured from
the _kadè_, for such a person to marry such a woman: each of the young
folks then appoint a proxy, who meet with the _imaum_, and several of the
male relations; and, after witnesses have been examined to prove those
are the proxies regularly appointed, he asks the one, If he is willing to
buy the bride for such a sum of money? and the other, If he is satisfied
with the sum? To which having received answers in the affirmative, he
joins their hands; and the money being paid, the bargain is concluded
with a prayer out of the Koran.
The bridegroom is at liberty after this to take his bride home whenever
he thinks proper; and the day being fixed, he sends a message to her
family, acquainting them with it. The money which he paid for her, is
laid out in furniture for one chamber, and cloaths and jewels, or gold
ornaments for the bride, whose father makes some addition, according to
his circumstances, which are sent with great pomp to the bridegroom’s
house three days before the wedding. He invites, at the same time, all
his friends and acquaintance, and, if a man in power, a great many
others, for all who are invited send presents, whether they think proper
to go or not. Rejoicings are made, and a sort of open house, is kept for
several days preceding the wedding. The women, on the day appointed, go
from the bridegroom’s to the bride’s house, and bring her home to his,
accompanied by her mother, and other female relations, where each sex
make merry in separate apartments till night. The men then dress the
bridegroom, and give notice to the women; upon which he is introduced
into the court-yard of the womens apartment, and there met by his own
female relations, who dance and sing before him to the stair’s foot of
the bride’s apartment, who is brought half way down stairs to receive
him, being veil’d with a piece of red gause, and often, if young,
especially her forehead and cheeks covered with leaf-gold, cut into
various forms. When he has conducted her up stairs, they are left to
themselves[472].
They have a few black slaves, which are commonly brought from _Æthiopia_,
by way of _Cairo_; but the greater part of their slaves are white, being
mostly furnished from _Georgia_, or such as are taken in war; and the
beauty of a male-slave enhances the value as much as it does that of
a female, occasioned by the frequency among them of a crime not to be
named. When I mention their slaves, it will not be amiss to observe, that
they are generally very well treated, and, provided they behave as they
ought, very often marry their masters daughters, and inherit their whole
fortunes.
The _Turks_ of _Aleppo_ being very jealous, keep their women as much at
home as they can; so that it is but seldom they are allowed to visit each
other. Necessity however obliges the husband to suffer them to go often
to the bagnio, and _Mondays_ and _Thursdays_ are a sort of licenced days
for them to visit the tombs of their deceased relations; which furnishing
them with an opportunity of walking abroad in the gardens or fields, they
have so contrived, that almost every _Thursday_ in the spring bears the
name of some particular _sheih_[473], whose tomb they must visit on that
day. By this means the greatest part of the _Turkish_ women of the city
get abroad to breathe the fresh air at such seasons, unless confined
(as is not uncommon) to their houses by order of the _bashaw_, and so
deprived even of that little freedom which custom had procured them
from their husbands. When the women go abroad, they wear white veils,
so managed that nothing appears but their eyes, and a small part of the
nose. They are usually in large companies, and have always either an old
woman or a young lad for a guard.
The _haram_, or women’s apartment, among the people of fashion, is
guarded by a black eunuch, or young boy. And though necessity obliges
many of the inferior people to trust their wives out of doors, yet some
are locked up till the husbands return; so that the utmost care in that
way is taken among them to prevent a breach of the marriage-vow. But
where there are no ties of love or virtue, one may easily conceive that
others prove ineffectual; and how far affection has place among them,
may be guessed from what has been already mentioned in regard to choice:
or at least when to this is added, that it is a kind of reproach among
them to be thought fond of their women, or to shew them much tenderness
or respect; the best of them being only treated as upper servants, and
often abused and drove about by the very eunuchs or boys bought or hired
to look after them.
When a _Turk_ dies, the women immediately fall a shrieking, (a practice
followed by all the natives) and continue so to do till the body is
buried; which however is dispatched as soon as possible, for they never
keep it longer than is absolutely necessary for acquainting the relations
who live in town. The first thing done is to wash the corpse upon a large
table, which every _hara_[474] has for this purpose: they next stop all
the natural passages with cotton, to prevent any moisture from oozing
out, as this would render the body unclean; then wrapping it up in a
clean cotton-cloth, they lay it in a kind of coffin, much in the form
of ours, only that the lid rises with a ledge in the middle, and at the
head there is a wooden battoon, about a foot long, that stands up, on
which the proper head-dress of the deceased is placed, if a man; but if
a woman, it is not her head-dress, but an old-fashioned one, flat on top
like a trencher, and over it is thrown a handkerchief. The middle part of
the pall is composed of a small piece of the old covering of the holy
house at _Mecca_, the rest of it being of no particular colour or stuff.
Over the pall are laid some of the deceased’s best cloaths.
When the corpse is carried out, a number of _sheihs_, with their tattered
banners, walk first, next come the male-friends, and after them the
corpse, carried with the head foremost, upon mens shoulders. The bearers
are relieved very often, for every passenger thinks it meritorious
to lend some little help on such solemn occasions. The nearest
male-relations immediately follow, and the women close the procession
with dreadful shrieks, while the men all the way are singing prayers out
of the Koran. Thus they proceed to a mosque; where the bier is set down
in the court-yard, and a service said by the _imaum_: after which it is
carried on in the same order as before to the burying-place; of which
there is but one that is public within the city, the others being all
abroad in the fields.
The graves lie east and west, and are lined with stone. The corpse is
taken out of the bier, and put in a posture between sitting and lying on
the right-side, with the head to the westward, so that the face may be to
the south, that is, towards _Mecca_; a small portion of earth being put
behind the body to keep it steady, the grave is covered with long stones,
which go across, and prevent the earth they put over from falling in
upon the corpse. The _imaum_ throws on the first handful of earth,
saying at the same time a prayer for the soul of the deceased[475], and
exhorting such as hear him to be mindful of their end. After him every
one present throws also a handful of earth, saying, God be merciful unto
the deceased person. This done, the grave is filled up. At each end
of their graves is set up a stone, upon which are commonly wrote some
prayers, and the name of the person there interred. Some have the upper
part of the head-stone cut into the form of turbant for a man, or an
old-fashioned sort of head-dress if a woman; and as they never open the
old graves in less than seven years, or seldom so soon, their cemetaries
occupy a very considerable space round the city.
The nearest relations go to pray at the grave on the third, seventh,
and fortieth days, as also that day twelve-month, after the person’s
decease; and on every one of those days a quantity of victuals is
dressed, and given to the poor. The women go to the tomb every _Monday_
or _Thursday_, and carry some flowers or green leaves to dress it with.
They make a great shew of grief, often expostulating heavily with the
dead person, “Why he should leave them, when they had done every thing
in their power to make life agreeable to him?” This, however, by the men
is looked upon as a kind of impiety; and, if over-heard, they are chid
severely for it: and I must say the men generally set them a good example
in this respect, by a patient acquiescence in the loss of their nearest
relations, and indeed shew a firm and steady fortitude under every other
kind of misfortune.
The men wear no mourning; but the women put on their gravest-coloured
cloaths, and the head-dress is of a dark brick-dust colour. They also
lay aside their jewels, and other pieces of female finery, for the
space of twelve months, if they mourn for their husband, and six months
if for their father. These periods, however, they do not observe very
strictly. But before the widow marries again, she must mourn forty days
for her deceased husband, without going out of the house, or speaking to
any person more than what is absolutely necessary; and this prohibition
extends even to her nearest relations. This term of forty days does
not commence from the demise or burial; but, on the contrary, is rarely
observed till several months after.
It would not only be foreign to my present purpose, but also superfluous,
to mention any thing particular, either in respect to their religion or
government, especially as the reader may have recourse to such pieces
as expressly treat of these subjects. I shall only say in regard to the
first, that they are very exact observers of their times of prayer, and
other exterior forms; but practise very little the other duties enjoined
by it, if you except giving alms to the poor, (of whom there are great
numbers in _Aleppo_) and hospitality to strangers; which last they
practise in a very eminent degree. I remember once, in conversation with
the _muftee_, who is a jocose old man, he told me that he had a favour
to beg of me, which was, that, when I returned to _England_, I would not
misrepresent the _Mohammedan_ faith, by giving an account of it from what
I had seen in the practice of the _Moslems_. But, says he, if you will
take just the reverse of what you see daily practised by us, you will be
pretty near the truth. I shall not however take the liberty to say that
they are quite so bad as he represented them.
Their military governors, as _vizir-bashaws_, &c. are not now composed
of slaves, or sons of Christians, as they were formerly; but are either
favourites of the _Grand Signor_, or such as will purchase their places
at the highest rate, for the best bidder generally carries it; and
as they pay large sums to the _Port_, and the legal income of their
government is not sufficient for a quarter of their expences, they are
suffered to fleece the people: and though they make some false pretence
for it, and often have the cause formally tried before the _kady_; yet
the veil is so thin, that it evidently appears, that _sic volo sic
jubeo_ is the only plea for seizing a man’s whole fortune, and sometimes
depriving him of life also. However, they are far from being so cruel as
they were formerly.
As to their civil magistrates, or _kadys_, money goes a great way with
them in their determination of lawsuits, and witnesses may be always had
for a trifle to prove any thing that is desired. However, there is one
good thing, that ought not to be forgot, which is, their quick decision
of the causes that come before them. It ought likewise to be mentioned in
their praise, that they will commonly accept of less money to determine a
suit in favour of the person who has right on his side, than of him who
is in the wrong. The expence of a suit, which is 10 _per cent._ upon the
sum demanded, is paid to the judge by the person who carries his cause;
which is one great encouragement to bad men to make false demands on such
as they are at enmity with, as it costs them nothing, and the innocent
man must pay, and that too in proportion to the weight of the injury
intended him. Some _kadys_, however, when the thing is very apparent,
accept of a smaller sum than they are intitled to; but the false accuser
is never punished.
The common punishment for slight offences is beating the soles of the
feet with small sticks; and sometimes, when they would punish more
severely, they beat also the back and buttocks; which last is the way in
which they chastise the _Janizaries_ and women.
For capital crimes, if the offender is a _Janizary_, he is strangled;
not in the way generally imagined, but by putting a cord twice round
their neck, and with a piece of stick twisting it in the nature of a
tournequet. Other criminals are hanged, beheaded, or impaled, according
to the caprice of the _bashaw_. After all their executions, the body
remains exposed for at least three suns.
It is a mistaken notion, that such as have been at _Mecca_ may commit
crimes with impunity, since, according to their law, they cannot be put
to death. Their being _hadgys_ doth not intitle them to any privilege
of that nature; and, even on the road to and from _Mecca_, such of the
pilgrims as commit crimes are punished as in other places; there being
not only a _bashaw_, but a _kady_, in the caravan on purpose to try them;
and numbers are executed every year on their journey, as well returning
as on the road thither.
The _Emeers_, or relations of _Mohammed_, distinguished by a green sash
round their heads, instead of the white wore by the other _Moslems_,
have indeed a privilege of being tried and punished by the _Nakeeb_,
an _Effendy_ appointed on purpose to preside over them. However, the
_bashaws_, when they please, break through this custom. They have a
much greater benefit, by their being exempted from paying any part of
the expences of the city; which, since the great decrease of trade from
the disturbances in _Persia_, and the ruin of many of the villages by
their own bad government, falls very heavy upon the people; for they
are daily less able to pay, and the demands of the governors rather
encrease. The Christians, by the contentions between such as have become
_Roman Catholics_, and others that remain of the old churches, furnish
the governors with numerous pretences of extorting large sums of money
from them; so that it is not extraordinary that their ruin should be the
farthest advanced.
The Christians, except in their Lent or fast-days, eat much in the same
manner as the _Turks_; only we must observe, that they do not introduce
either the shorba or pilaw so frequently at their tables. They eat more
_burgle_[476], and less rice, and frequently use oil where the _Turks_
use butter. The _Turkish_ _hushaf_ is supplied by wine or spirits; of
which many of them drink pretty liberally.
On their fast-days, the number of which is very considerable[477], their
chief subsistence is a few pot-herbs, roots, and pulse, dressed with
oil, which is seldom good. Fish is not always to be had, nor allowed by
the greatest part of them in their great Lent before _Easter_. Pickled
green olives, or black (ripe) ones salted, make a considerable part of
their food at such times.
In keeping their fasts, they are generally very exact, or rather
rigorous. However, if a physician declares their life to be in danger,
the _Greeks_, _Syrians_, and _Maronites_, will often break their fast;
but the _Armenians_ are for the most part so very strict, that not even
the preservation of life is sufficient to prevail with them to interrupt
it so much as for a day. Most of them (_Armenians_) in the great Lent do
not so much as eat oil.
The Christian women are as closely veiled, though in a different manner,
as _Turkish_ women are, when they go abroad, which the better sort seldom
do but to church, the bagnio, their physicians, or now and then to visit
a relation. Some few of them permit their wives, perhaps twice or thrice
a-year, to go to the gardens; and others, though the gardens are not a
mile from their house, never saw one in their lives.
Most of them are contracted while children by their parents. There being
nothing very material in the ceremonies of the different sects, I shall
give the description of a _Maronite_ wedding, which will serve as a
specimen of all the rest.
After the bride has been demanded, the relations of the bridegroom are
invited to an entertainment at the house of the bride’s father, in order
to consult with her relations (for the young folks themselves have no
vote in such affairs, nor are ever seen) concerning the proper day for
celebrating the wedding; and it is almost always agreed on for that
day fortnight. On the appointed day, in the afternoon, they again go
to the bride’s house; and, having supped there, return to that of the
bridegroom, who hitherto has not appeared, though some little enquiry has
been made after him; for he is by custom obliged to hide himself, or at
least is not to be found without a seemingly strict search. When he is
brought out, dressed in his worst cloaths, great noise and rejoicings are
then made on the finding him; and he and the bride’s man, after being led
several times round the court yard in a noisy procession, are carried
into a room, where their wedding-cloaths are laid out in form. A priest
says a long prayer over them; and, being dressed, they are led back into
the court-yard with the same ceremony as before.
At midnight, or a few hours later, the relations, accompanied by all
that have been invited to the wedding, men and women, return once more
to the house where the bride is, in procession, each carrying a candle,
and music playing before them. When they come to the door, it is shut
upon them; and when they knock, and demand the bride, they are refused
admittance. Upon this ensues a mock-fight, but the bridegroom’s party
always prevails. The women then go to the bride’s chamber, lead her
out veiled quite over, and in the like procession carry her to the
bridegroom’s; but not more than one or two of her sisters, or nearest
female-relations, must accompany her. She is there set down at the upper
end of the room among the women, continues veiled with a red gause; and
must sit like a statue, neither moving nor speaking on any account,
except rising to every person that comes into the room, which is notified
to her by one of the women who sits by her constantly, for she must
not open her eyes. The rest of the night is spent by each sex in their
separate apartments in noisy mirth, eating fruits and sweet-meats, there
being no want of wine and arrack. Some few retire to rest.
The next day, about nine in the morning, the bishop or priest comes to
perform the ceremony. Before he enters the womens apartment, all the
women are veiled. The bride stands covered entirely, and supported by two
women, the bride’s maid standing by to keep the veil well adjusted. The
bridegroom is dressed in a gaudy robe, and, going in with the bishop, is
placed on the bride’s left-hand, with his bride’s man by him. After a
short service, the bishop puts a crown, first on the bridegroom’s head;
after which the bride, bride’s man and maid, are crowned in the same
manner. He next joins the hands of the bride and bridegroom; and, after
some longer service, puts a ring on the bridegroom’s finger, and delivers
another to the bride’s maid to be put upon that of the bride. Near the
conclusion of the service, he ties round the bridegroom’s neck a piece
of tape or ribbon; to take off which a priest comes in the afternoon.
The ceremony being finished, the bridegroom, and all the men, retire
again to their proper apartment, where they drink coffee, and sit very
gravely while the bishop remains, which is not long; for dinner being
served up immediately for him, and a few select people of the company, he
soon dines, and takes his leave; and he is scarcely gone a few yards from
the house, before their noisy mirth begins. Great quantities of victuals
are dressed, and several tables covered, both for dinner and supper; and
there is usually a profusion of tobacco, coffee, wine, and arrack.
About eleven or twelve at night, the bridegroom is led in procession
to the bride’s chamber, where he presents her with a glass of wine, in
which she drinks to him, and he returns the compliment: after this he is
carried back again with the same ceremony.
The music, during the whole of the time, continues to play, buffoons and
other of their diversions are going forward, and the house is usually
full of company till next day in the afternoon, when they take their
leave, all but a few intimate friends, who sup with the bridegroom, and
about midnight leave him heartily fatigued to retire to the bride’s
chamber.
All those that have been invited to the wedding send presents; and, for
several days after the marriage is consummated, quantities of flowers
are sent to the bride by all the women of their acquaintance.
On that day seven-night the wedding was celebrated, the bride’s relations
are allowed to come and visit her, and an entertainment is provided for
them.
It is not reputed decent, in this country, for a bride to speak to any
person for at least a month (the _Armenians_ extend this to a year),
excepting a few words to her husband; and there is generally a very
strict charge given them by the old women about this, and particularly
not to talk to him too soon.
Few women are allowed to sit at table with their husbands, but wait
upon them as servants; and in general they are not much better treated
than I have described those of the _Turks_ to be. Though they have
no guards upon their apartments, yet the people of fashion are never
suffered to appear unveiled before men, except they are their servants,
near relations, priests, or physicians. The _Maronites_ are the least
strict in this respect; and some of them will appear before particular
strangers, and are even admitted to sit at table with their husbands.
Their confinement, however, does not proceed from jealousy in respect to
their conduct, so much as from the fear of bad consequences, should a
_Turk_ see and take a liking to any of them.
The Christians are carried to the grave on an open bier; and besides many
appointed days, when the relations go to the sepulchre, and have mass
said, and send victuals to the church and poor, many of the women go
every day for the first year, and every great holiday afterwards.
The _Jews_ have their synagogue within the city, in _Bahsyta_, near
_Garden-Gate_, and they live all in that quarter. Many of their houses
are upon the city-wall; and the ditch being there turned into gardens,
makes their situation agreeable, but not so healthy. The houses of other
_Jews_ have their court-yards mostly several feet below the level of the
street; which, with the natural nastiness of the people, contributes
towards rendering their dwellings very offensive.
As most of their time during their festivals is employed in the exercise
of their religion, on the greatest part of them, they cannot dress
victuals; and as it is not lawful for them to eat or drink but of such
things as have been managed in a different way from what they find
among the Christians or _Turks_, they have no great opportunities of
committing excesses; so that they may with justice be pronounced the
most abstemious people in _Aleppo_.
It having been agreed, for the benefit of the poor of this religion, that
meat shall be sold amongst them at an under-price, and the deficiency
made good out of the public stock, the managers take care that their
markets shall be very ill supplied, so that sometimes they are for
several days without a bit of mutton. This is the reason why they eat
more poultry, and the poorer sort chiefly herbs, roots, and pulse,
dressed with oil expressed from the sesamum, than most other people.
Six days[478] in the year they fast from about two hours before sunset,
till the next evening after the sun is down. All of them attempt once in
their lives to fast from _Saturday_ night at sunset, till the _Friday_
following at the same hour. Some hold out two, some three, others four
days, and a few complete it; but there are several who perish in the
attempt.
Except the particular ceremonies which their religion obliges them to
observe, it would be only repeating a great deal of what has been already
said to give an account of their weddings. Amongst the latter, the most
remarkable is, that the bride’s eye-lids are fastened together with gum;
and, if I remember right, the bridegroom is the person that opens them at
an appointed time.
Their dead are carried to the grave on a covered bier. They have certain
days, wherein they go to the sepulchres; and the women, like those of
other sects, often go there to howl and cry over their dead relations.
The _Europeans_, or _Franks_[479] (as they are generally called),
residing in _Aleppo_, are chiefly _English_ and _French_; of the former
at present[480], besides the consul, chaplain, cancellier, or chancellor,
physician, and cheaux[481], there are ten merchants. The _French_ have
a consul, and other officers, as mentioned, and their druggomen[482]
are likewise of their own nation. The number of those in quality of
merchants and clerks is nigh double that of the _English_. Besides which
they have many of a lower class, who are married to natives of the
country, or others of a mixed race: the number of whom in the _Levant_
was become so considerable, and likely to be so troublesome, that the
_French_ King, not many years ago, issued an edict, ordering all such as
were married to return home, and prohibiting any others from marrying
without his licence, which has greatly diminished their number. Under
the _French_ protection are likewise the _Roman Catholic_ convents, of
which there are in the city no less than three[483], and a college of
_Jesuits_. The _Dutch_ have a consul residing here, but no other person
of that country. There are also a few _Venetian_ merchants, and some
_Italian Jews_.
The major part of the _Europeans_ live in _khanes_ in the principal
quarter of the city. The ground-floor serves for their warehouses, the
upper story is fitted up for their dwellings, by building between the
pillars of the colonade, which forms a long corridore; opening on which
are a number of rooms, so that they much resemble cloisters; and as they
are unmarried, and their communication with the people of the country is
almost solely on account of trade, their way of life also not a little
resembles the monastic. It was formerly customary for all, or most of
them, to wear the _Turkish_ habit, retaining only the hat and wig by way
of distinction; but of late years the far greater part have continued in
their proper dress.
The _Italian Jews_, who are mostly married, and such of the _French_
above mentioned as have families, must be excepted, as they have houses
after the manner of the natives, and conform more to their customs than
the other _Europeans_.
As to provisions, it has been already mentioned what the place affords,
and those are dressed after the _European_ manner. The evening being
the chief time of entertaining their friends, they eat more animal food
for supper than is customary in _Britain_. In respect to drink they are
exceeding moderate: their common draught at table is a dry white wine,
and _Provence_ red wine. In summer, the _English_ generally before
dinner and supper drink a draught of weak punch; which is found so very
refreshing, that now the greater part of the other _Europeans_, several
of the Christians (and I might add some _Turks_), follow their example.
All the _English_, and some of the others, keep horses, and ride out
for an hour or two of an afternoon three or four times a-week. On
_Saturdays_, and often on _Wednesday_ likewise, they dine abroad under a
tent in the spring and autumn, and during the good weather in the winter;
the month of _April_, and part of _May_, they generally live at the
gardens near _Baballah_; and in the heat of summer, in the room of the
tent, they dine at the gardens. Such as love hunting or hawking, usually
go abroad twice a-week, after the second rains, till the weather grows
too warm in the spring; and there is game for such as love shooting at
the same seasons, as also plenty of quails spring and autumn.
From the above account it would appear that the _English_ in particular
use a good deal of exercise: but it ought to be considered, that, if
we except a little walk in an evening on the house-top, what has been
mentioned is the whole they take; the greatest part of their time besides
being spent in the compting-house, or in reading; so that they are rather
sedentary than active.
Though, from what has been said of the people of this country in general,
their character may not appear the most amiable; yet the _Europeans_ have
no reason to complain of their behaviour. Their capitulations with the
_Port_ prevents their being any way subject to the oppressions of the
government; and the _bashaws_, and the people of distinction, usually
treating the consuls with civility and respect, others of course follow
their example; so that we live among them in great security in the city,
and can travel abroad unmolested by _Arabs_ or _Curds_, where the natives
dare not venture, though defended by a much greater force. This is owing
partly to a small annual present sent to the Prince of the _Arabs_, and
the civil treatment that the _Curds_ sometimes meet with at _Scanderoon_,
and partly to our travelling with no more money than what is absolutely
necessary for our expences; so that they would get but little by us.
And besides, an insult of this nature would be made a pretence by the
_Turkish_ government for chastising them severely: whereas, if they rob a
native, they generally, in money and horse-furniture, find a good booty;
and, unless he happens to be a person in power, he dares not complain, as
he would run the risk of being fleeced of as much more by the very person
who should procure him redress.
The epidemic diseases which prevail most in _Aleppo_, are continual
fevers, various species of intermittents and remittents, dysenteries,
catarrhal fevers, quinsies, rheumatisms, pleurisies, and peripneumonies;
to which may be added the plague. During the extreme heats an anomalous
fever, sometimes with, at others without a diarrhœa or dysentery, is
exceeding frequent among very young children; and in _August_ and
_September_ the ophthalmia, which is not very rare, even in other months,
is so common that in most years at least one sixth of the inhabitants are
more or less afflicted with it[484].
Though the continual fevers of the spring are often attended with worse
symptoms, in appearance, than those of the autumn, yet in general they
are not so dangerous. The former discover themselves sometimes about the
beginning of _January_, though more frequently about the vernal equinox,
and disappear in _June_: the latter sometimes begin in _June_, but more
commonly in _July_; by the autumnal equinox they come to their height,
and generally go off by the beginning of _December_. The intermittents
and dysenteries commence and finish exactly at the same seasons as the
autumnal continual fever, and the spring intermittents follow the course
of the continual fever of that season.
General inflammatory fevers, catarrhal fevers, rheumatisms, quinsies,
pleurisies, and peripneumonies, make their appearance in the months of
_December_, _January_, _February_, _March_, and sometimes _April_; but
they are seldom either frequent or remarkably violent.
If we set aside the ophthalmia, there are none of the above diseases more
acute than they are commonly in _Britain_; nor can I say more frequent,
except the plague, of which hereafter, and certain malignant, remittent,
and intermittent fevers, that sometimes break out with great vehemence;
but this is only in particular years, or in such towns and villages as
are situated near stagnant waters, whether naturally marshes, or that,
for the benefit of the silk-gardens, they lay them under water by art:
and the bad effects of such situations is evident even in _Aleppo_, where
those who inhabit the houses on the fosse of the town, now turned into
gardens, are always most subject to intermittents.
The _Europeans_ are but very seldom affected by any epidemics. This
perhaps may in part be owing to their not conversing much with, the
natives, and so keeping out of the way of the contagion, of which
most of those diseases partake in a greater or less degree; partly to
their living above stairs, and not in the cool and damp air, which
the fountains in their little courts and gardens occasion; and partly
likewise, because the _Europeans_ do not indulge themselves so freely
as the natives in the use of crude and indigestible fruits. That these
circumstances strongly co-operate towards their preservation, may also
be inferred from hence, that the _European_ priests, who mix much with
the natives, and those _Europeans_ who are married, and have houses in
the country-manner, are as subject to the attacks of every reigning
epidemic as the natives themselves. It must be likewise observed, that
when a disease seizes any one of the different sorts of people who reside
here, its symptoms and progress are exactly the same in all, whether
_European_, _Turk_, _Jew_, or native Christian: but it must be at the
same time remarked, that, in treating the sick, regard must be had to
their very different method of living; for those who are accustomed to
drink nothing stronger than water or coffee, will not bear so warm a
regimen, as those, who are accustomed to fermented and spirituous liquors.
The generality of fevers here, though of the continual kind, and indeed
almost all acute diseases in this place, are subject to exacerbations
once or twice in twenty-four hours, which are usually accompanied by a
flushing in one or both cheeks, and the critical days and evacuations
agree much better with the account given of them by the ancients than
they are observed to do in _Britain_: but I could never discover the
truth of Dr. _Brown_’s remark[485], That “as to fevers at and about
_Aleppo_, though they have the same type there as in _England_, yet there
are two things peculiar to them; one is, that in acute fevers cold sweat
commonly signifies recovery, but hot sweat portends death; the other
is, that in such acute fevers even an intermittent pulse denounces no
danger.” Perhaps this might have been peculiar to some epidemic that
prevailed at the time the Doctor was at _Aleppo_; but, during all the
time I resided there, I am certain that both the one and the other have
been as dangerous symptoms in _Aleppo_ as any where else. And probably
he may have been led into a mistake by the common expression of the
natives, who give the appellation of a cold sweat to such a critical one,
as having carried off the fever, leaves the body cool, and of course the
sweat that remains upon it feels cool: whereas, what they call a hot
sweat, is such as often happens in fevers without any abatement of the
symptoms, so that both the body and sweat remain hot; and such sort of
sweats are bad symptoms, as often in other places as in _Aleppo_.
The _Europeans_, particularly the _English_, are subject, soon after
their arrival, to a very violent fever; which however seldom lasts
above twenty-four hours. This, from what cause I know not, has got the
name of the _goose_. It is necessary to bleed largely in this fever, and
the most prudent way is to purge the patient once or twice at proper
intervals after the disease is removed. When they have remained any time
at _Scanderoon_, they are often seized with tertian agues soon after they
arrive at _Aleppo_, which is also common to the natives that live upon
the coast, though they have been well while they continued there, and
the disease not at all epidemic in the city. If it is in the winter, or
spring, these fevers are commonly regularly formed, and easily cured;
but in the autumn they are of a very bad kind, and, if the bark is not
soon given, are not a little dangerous. The ingenious Mr. _Cleghorn_’s
account of the tertians of _Minorca_ answers exactly to those of
_Cyprus_, _Scanderoon_, the coast of _Syria_, and what some years happen
at _Aleppo_; and a long course of experience has convinced me that his
method of cure is the safest, as well as the most successful.
The Christians, from the great quantity of oil they eat in their Lent,
and that too mostly burnt, as frying is their favourite manner of
dressing that kind of victuals, are at such seasons subject to a feverish
disorder, attended with a cough. The skin over the whole body feels hot,
parched, and dry; but it is most violent in the palms of the hands and
soles of the feet. They wheez much in breathing, and labour by coughing
to expectorate, but without effect. Bleeding, a gentle laxative, with the
plentiful use of pectoral and saponaceous diluters, soon remove their
complaints.
The _mal d’Aleppo_, of which a more particular account shall be given
hereafter, is a disease that may properly be called here endemial.
Of sporaides, the following are the most frequent, _viz._ Almost all
the diseases that the eyes are subject to, which are many of them the
consequences of the ophthalmia. Obstructions of the abdominal viscera,
often the consequences of acute diseases, and to which also they are
much subjected by the nature of their aliment, want of exercise, method
of fitting, and also in the men their large and tight-bound girdles.
Ruptures and hæmorrhoids, which they are much afflicted with, seem to
owe their origin to some of the same causes. The tinea seems occasioned
from nastiness, as they seldom so much as uncover either their children
or grown people’s heads but in the bagnio; and worms, one kind or other
of which scarce one person, either young or old, are free from, seem
also to take their rise from the nature of their aliment. The leprosy
is now exceeding rare in these countries, but scorbutic eruptions and
putrid gums very common. Notwithstanding their jealousy and strict watch
over their women, the venereal disease is very frequent amongst them.
As they have no idea of a gonorrhœa different from what is mentioned in
their own authors, they neither conceive it to be infectious, nor to be
in danger of ending in a worse disease. The consequence of the first is,
the spreading of the infection; and of the last, that it often terminates
in a pox. When this appears, it is called _Frank zahmedy_, or the _Frank_
disease, probably from their having it first from _Europe_; and they
are then much alarmed: and though they imagine this to be infectious,
yet are more apt to attribute it to their having smoked out of the same
pipe, or ate out of the same spoon, _&c._ with a person infected, than to
any other cause. As the natives know very little of the use of mercury,
numbers of them labour under the disease great part of their lives, and
some without any very considerable uneasiness; the warmth of the climate,
and frequent use of the bagnio, may perhaps conduce towards preventing
its making a very quick progress.
Such persons as have any tendency to a phthisis pulmonalis should avoid
the air of _Aleppo_, for it is seldom that any afflicted with that
disease outlives a few months, if they do not leave the place.
Besides these diseases already mentioned, all others known in _Britain_
are to be met with at _Aleppo_, and nearly in the same proportion, except
the gout, which is rare amongst them, and mostly hereditary.