Sir Charles consulted Lord Althorp, and the Stamp Office authorities
determined to adopt it. Mr. Bessemer was then asked if, instead of
receiving a sum of money from the Treasury, he would be satisfied with
the position of Superintendent of Stamps, at some L600 or L800 per
annum. This was all that he then desired, rejoicing over the prospect,
for he was at that time engaged to be married, and his future position
in life seemed assured. An incident now occurred that reads almost
like romance. A few days after affairs had assumed this satisfactory
position, he called on the young lady to whom he was then engaged
(now Mrs. Bessemer), and showed her the pretty piece of network which
constituted the new parchment stamp, explaining how it could never
be removed from the parchment and used again, and mentioning the fact
that old deeds with stamps on them dated as far back as the reign
of Queen Anne could be fraudulently used. She at once said, "Yes, I
understand this; but surely, if all stamps had a date put upon them,
they could not at a future time be used again without detection?" This
was indeed a new light, and greatly startled the inventor, who at once
said that steel dies used for this purpose could have but one date
engraved upon them. But after a little consideration he saw that
movable dates were by no means impossible, and that this could easily
be effected by drilling three holes of about a quarter of an inch in
diameter in the steel die, and fitting into each of these openings a
steel plug or type with sunk figures engraved on their ends, giving on
one the date of the month, on the next the month of the year, and on
the third circular steel type the last two figures of the year. This
plan would be most simple and efficient, would take less time and
money to inaugurate than the more elaborate plan that had been
devised; but while pleased and proud at the clever and simple
suggestion of the young lady, her future husband saw also that all his
more elaborate system of piercing dies, the result of months of study,
and the toil of many a weary and lonely night, was shattered to pieces
by it. He feared to disturb the decision that Sir Charles Presley
had come to, as to the adoption of the perforated stamp, but, with
a strong conviction of the advantages of the new plan, felt in honor
bound not to suppress it, whatever might be the result. Thus it was
that he soon found himself again closeted with Sir Charles at Somerset
House, discussing the new scheme, which he much preferred, because,
as he said, all the old dies, old presses, and old workmen could
be employed, and there would be but little change in the office--so
little, in fact, that no new superintendent of stamps was required,
which the then unknown art of making and using piercing dies would
have rendered absolutely necessary. After due consideration the first
plan was definitely abandoned by the office in favor of the dated
stamps, with which every one is now familiar. In six or eight weeks
from this time an Act of Parliament was passed calling in the private
stock of stamps dispersed throughout the country, and authorizing the
issue of the new dated ones.
Thus was inaugurated a system that has been in operation some
forty-five years, successfully preventing that source of fraud from
which the revenue had so severely suffered. If anything like Sir
Charles Presley's estimate of L100,000 per annum was correct, this
saving must now amount to some millions sterling; but whatever the
varying amount might have been, it is certain that so important and
long established a system as that in use at the Stamp Office would
never have been voluntarily broken up by its own officials, except
under the strongest conviction that the losses were very great, and
that the new order of things would prove an effectual barrier to
future fraud. During all the bustle of this great change no steps had
been taken to install the inventor in the office. Lord Althorp had
resigned, and no one seemed to have authority to do anything. All
sorts of half promises and excuses followed each other, with long
delays between, and Mr. Bessemer gradually saw the whole thing sliding
out of his grasp. Instead of holding fast to the first plan, which
they could not have executed without his aid and special knowledge,
he had, in all the trustfulness of youthful inexperience, shown them
another plan, so simple that they could put it in operation without
any assistance. He had no patent to fall back upon, and could not go
to law, even if he wished to do so, for he was reminded, when
pressing for mere money out of pocket, that he had done all the work
voluntarily. Wearied and disgusted, he at last ceased to waste time
in calling at the Stamp Office, and he felt that nothing but increased
exertions could make up for the loss of some nine months of toil and
expenditure. Thus, sad and dispirited, and with a burning sense of
injustice overpowering all other feelings, he went from the Stamp
Office, too proud to ask as a favor that which was indubitably his
just right, and he adds, "Up to this hour I have never received one
shilling or any kind of acknowledgment whatever from the British
Government." It is notorious, adds the editor, that some of the most
renowned and invaluable inventions of recent years, especially those
connected with the navy, have narrowly escaped rejection by permanent
but ignorant officials; and that the authors of the inventions have
had to submit to delay, loss, annoyance, and contumely before their
processes could be tried, even after their success had been officially
demonstrated. Perhaps it is not now so much a question of money,
for it is to be hoped that Mr. Bessemer is reaping the due reward
of ingenuity and skill in other fields of invention. But even his
discoveries in steel making, if they have very properly enriched
himself, have, in an infinitely larger degree, added to the wealth of
the country, and have given employment to many thousands. Such a man
is a public benefactor, and eminently deserves recognition by
the state, especially by way of atonement for former neglect and
injustice. Military men receive titular honors and a pecuniary reward
for slaying a crowd of savages and burning their huts, while the
men who have helped to make England what she is, commercially and
industrially, are in most cases left to their fate, which may chance
to be pecuniary ruin.
* * * * *
OIL NOTES.
PENNSYLVANIA.
The total production of crude petroleum for the first three quarters
of 1878 was 11,126,037 barrels, against 8,436,867 barrels for the same
time in 1877; increase in 1878, 1,689,170 barrels.
The total number of drilling wells completed for the first three
quarters of 1878 were 2,333, against 2,699 for the same time in 1877;
decrease in 1878, 366.
The daily average production of the new wells completed for the first
three quarters of 1878 was 13 2-10 barrels, against 14 2-10 for the
same time in 1877; decrease in 1878, 1 barrel.
The total number of dry holes developed in the first three quarters
of 1878 were 280, against 476 for the same time in 1877; decrease in
1878, 196.
The total amount of crude petroleum held in the producing regions of
Pennsvlvania, at the close of the third quarter of 1878, was 4,599,362
barrels, against 2,503,657 at the same time in 1877; increase in 1878,
2,095,705 barrels.
The amount of crude petroleum represented by outstanding certificates
on the last day of September was 1,705,853 barrels, against 1,317,484
barrels on the last day of October, a reduction during October of
158,127 barrels.
Mr. J. M. Guffey has purchased of Marcus Hulings an undivided half
interest in the celebrated Kinzua Creek property (Bradford district).
The purchased portion contains 6,400 acres, on which there is a well
that was struck in June last, and since that time has been doing from
16 to 18 barrels, and has never been torpedoed. Mr. Guffey looks upon
this as one of the best prospective oil territories in the country.
D. W. C. Carroll & Co., of Pittsburg, have kept from 45 to 75 men
employed, since June, in the oil regions, building iron tanks, nearly
all of which are located in the Bradford district.
WEST VIRGINIA.
The Wheeling _Intelligencer_ says: As noticed in our Moundsville
letter this morning, extensive preparations have been made to bore for
oil on the opposite side of the river at the Union Coal Works shaft.
The machinery was brought down from Pittsburg on Tuesday, and is now
being put in position by contractors, who have engaged to go down
1,200 feet. It will be recollected that for a long time past oil has
been found in the coal shaft, and the company who are putting down the
well feel confident that plenty of it exists deeper down. Some parties
look forward to the development of the fact that Moundsville is
situated in an important oil break, and that oil in abundance will
be found on both sides of the river. The progress of the well will be
looked forward to with much interest by the people of that vicinity.
MASSACHUSETTS.
The Maverick Oil Works at East Boston have recently made some very
extensive additions and improvements, lengthening their wharf and
making a variety of alterations in their buildings. They will shortly
complete a new cooper shop, wherein, it is probable, they will
construct all the tin cans required by the demands of their business.
OHIO.
The oil excitement has broken out afresh in West Mecca, Warren county,
Ohio. Oil men, heavily backed with capital, have recently come in from
Pennsylvania, and are making things lively in that locality. Eight new
wells have been put in operation during the past week. This district
is the same where the principal excitement prevailed 18 years ago.
JAPAN.
The Tokio _Times_ states that the principal feature of American trade
with Japan is the petroleum exports from New York. The enterprise was
inaugurated only eight years ago; but the business has so increased
that while only 200 cases of kerosene, valued at $600, were exported
in 1870, in 1877 366,639 cases were sent to Yokohama, and 128,158
cases to Hiogo, whither none had before been carried direct. The value
of these consignments was over $1,000,000.
Several refineries are in operation in Japan, making kerosene from
native petroleum.
RUSSIA.
The recent reports concerning the discovery of oil near the shores of
the Caspian Sea seem to be fully confirmed. From one of the wells a
stream, free from gas and froth, is forced to a height of 75 feet,
yielding at the rate of 10,000 barrels a day. It is reported that
companies are forming at Odessa, Kovo-Tcherkask, Astrakhan, and other
cities, for the purpose of obtaining oil. Two large manufacturing
concerns, who have their headquarters in New York city, recently
received orders for considerable quantities of oil-line pipes,
steam pumps, engines, boilers, and other apparatus, to be shipped
immediately for St. Petersburg, Russia.
ITALY.
The oil wells of Italy comprise about 5, with a capacity of about 30
barrels per day, of a thick substance of 14 gravity. They are pumped
by hand, which, though primitive, is cheaper than steam, for both men
and women are employed, the former receiving as compensation for a
day's work 1 lira, equal to 20 cents; and the women 60 centessimi,
equal to 12 cents of our money. The wells are located in a deep
valley, and the oil carried up on the backs of donkeys to a refinery,
where it is treated, and yields from 2 to 5 per cent. of burning oil.
PERU.
It is proposed to build a pipe line from the refinery on the estates
of Henry Meiggs to the shipping port, a distance of about 7 miles. It
is stated that oil can be produced at this point for less than 1 cent
a gallon, and as the fields have produced from time immemorial, there
is no prospect of their early exhaustion.
ONTARIO.
The oil refinery at St. Thomas, Ont., is running day and night; 494
barrels of crude petroleum were brought from Petrolia for it in one
week recently.--_Stowell's Petroleum Reporter_.
* * * * *
RAILWAY NOTES.
The new track laid in this country during the year ending September
10, 1878, was 1,160 miles. During the six preceding years the number
of miles of track laid was: In 1872, 4,498; 1873, 2,455; 1874, 1,066;
1875, 702; 1876, 1,467; 1877, 1,176.
The statement made in the recent Narrow Gauge Convention, that
standard gauge freight cars weigh ten tons and carry ten tons, is
indignantly disputed by users of the latter. One gentleman, having
much to do with freight cars, says that the modern freight cars weigh
from 17,000 to 18,000 lbs., commonly carry (and that on long hauls)
28,000 lbs., are guaranteed to carry 30,000 lbs., while he has seen
them show on the scales 30,000 and 32,000 lbs. of load, and in one
case 35,000 lbs. The general tendency for some years has been to
increase loads without increasing, but in many cases decreasing,
weights of cars; and it seems quite likely that 30,000 lbs. will soon
be the standard load. The tank cars used for carrying petroleum have
an average capacity--and they are almost always run full--of 30,000
lbs. The Standard Oil Company, which has some 3,000 of such cars,
carried on four-wheeled trucks with the Master Car Builders' standard
axle, has run them with such loads for years, and only recently had
its first case of a broken axle, manifestly due to a defect in the
iron.
INTERESTING observations have been made recently on the Cologne-Minden
Road, Prussia, on the rusting of iron rails. A pile of rails of odd
lengths were laid on sleepers over a bed of gravel early in 1870, and
remained undisturbed until the fall of 1877, there being no use for
them. It was then found that they were covered with a layer of rust
0.12 inch thick, which had to be removed by striking the rail with a
hammer. The cleaned rail weighed only 398.2 lbs., while its original
weight was 419.1 lbs., showing that 5 per cent. of the rail had been
destroyed by rust, which covered the rail quite uniformly. This
confirms the observation often made, that rails stacked away are much
more liable to rust than those laid down in a track.
According to _Le Fer_, at a meeting of directors of the German
railroads held at Constance, the following information was furnished
in regard to the relative value of the different methods of injecting
ties:
1. Railroad from Hanover and Cologne to Minden. Pine ties injected
with chloride of zinc; after 21 years the proportion of ties renewed
was 21 per cent. Beech ties injected with creasote; after 22 years,
46 per cent. Oak ties injected with chloride of zinc; after 17 years,
20.7 per cent. Oak ties not injected; after 17 years, 49 per cent. The
conditions were very favorable for experiment; the road bed was good,
and permitted of easy desiccation. The unrenewed ties showed, on
cutting, that they were in a condition of perfect health.
2. Railroad "Kaiser-Ferdinands-Nord." Oak ties not injected; after
12 years the proportion renewed was 74.48 per cent. Oak ties injected
with chloride of zinc; after 7 years, 3.29 per cent. Oak ties injected
with creasote; after 6 years, 0.09 per cent. Pine ties injected with
chloride of zinc; after 17 years, 4.46 per cent.
The annual official reports of the railroads of India place the length
of railways there at 7,5511/2 miles, of which 4921/2 miles were
completed during the year 1877, and 223 miles since the close of the
year. There are 8061/2 miles of double track; 5,9123/4 miles are
constructed on the 5 foot 6 inch gauge, and 1,6383/4 on narrower
gauges. The capital outlay on the State lines amounted to L3,122,051,
and on the guaranteed lines to L1,374,882, bringing the total capital
expenditure, up to the end of October, as regards the State, and to the
end of March last, as regards the guaranteed lines, to L113,144,541.
The expenditure up to the end of the year may be taken in round numbers
at L13,344,500. The revenue from all the open lines was L6,232,888, of
which L6,091,532 were earned by the guaranteed lines, with a capital of
L95,482,941, and L141,356 were earned by the State lines, on a capital
expenditure of L17,661,600. The net receipts from the guaranteed lines
exceeded the amount advanced for guaranteed interest by L1,454,591; the
year previous there was a deficit of L216,517.
A French engineer named Duponchel has made a report on the project of
a railroad across the Desert of Sahara. The projected railway would
run from Algiers to Timbuctoo, a distance of 2,500 kilometers. M.
Duponchel stated that the principal portion of the line would rest
during nearly its whole extent on layers of sand, and toward the end
on primitive volcanic rocks, granite, gneiss, etc. No mountainous
obstructions would have to be encountered. The average heat does not
appear to exceed 23 deg. or 24 deg. C. (73 2-5 deg. or 75 1-5 deg. Fah.), but account
must be taken of the great variations which occur in the 24 hours. For
instance, occasionally, a very cold night succeeds a temperature
of 40 deg. C. (104 deg. Fah.) in the day time. The great difficulty to be
overcome would be the want of water, which is not to be procured in
that region. M. Duponchel calculates that for three trains daily the
amount of water required would be 4,000 cubic meters, and that the
engineering science of the day is quite sufficient to supply even a
much greater quantity at the requisite points.
The government of Costa Rica has advertised for tenders for building
bridges on the second Atlantic Division of its railroad. There will
be needed 194 bridges. The bridges will vary in length from 3 feet
to 1,044 feet, and will be built for a track of 3 foot 31/2 inch gauge.
They will be of sufficient strength to stand a strain of 2,240 lbs.
to the lineal foot, in addition to the weight of the usual freight
carried.
* * * * *
THE WERDERMANN ELECTRIC LIGHT.
[Illustration: FIG. 1 THE WERDERMANN LAMP.]
It has been looked upon as essential that a certain distance should
separate the ends of the carbon electrodes used in electric lamps.
Every one has accepted this as an axiom. Mr. Werdermann's skepticism
has, however, caused him to doubt the axiom, and the result is that he
has discarded the electric arc space, and by placing his electrodes
in actual contact, has produced a lamp which provides the means of
dividing the electric current, and promises to give almost any number
of lights from a single machine. Mr. Werdermann's inventions, says the
_Engineering_, are secured by patents considerably in advance of those
of Mr. Edison, and may in their chief points be explained as follows:
In place of two electrodes of similar form and dimensions, one
electrode consists of a large bun-shaped disk of carbon placed with
the rounded face downward. The other carbon is a fine rod of carbon of
about 1/8 or 5-32 inch in diameter. The upper end of this is pointed
and maintained in contact with the center of the lower surface of the
disk. This rod is supported by means of a spring collar, which also
forms the circuit connection. This is within about 3/4 in. of the
top of the carbon, so that the 3/4 in. becomes incandescent, and the
contact between the two carbons being only a point, a small electric
arc is produced between the two carbons, while the electricity is at
the same time passed on through the carbon disk, and the connections
there attached to the next lamp.
[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF CURRENT.]
Referring to our diagrams, in Fig. 1 the upper carbon is shown at
C, and the rod carbon at c. The former is supported by means of an
adjustable jointed bracket, B, attached to the wood stand. The rod
carbon is guided by the spring collar on the top of the stand, and
to which the connection is made, and is supported by the fine cord
running over the pulley, P. This cord is attached to the clasp, D, at
the bottom of the rod, and to the balance weight, W, by which the rod
is maintained in constant, practical, though not absolute contact
with the disk. Round the upper part of the disk is a metal band, A, to
which the circuit wire is attached, and the current thus passed on to
the next lamps.
At a recent trial of this lamp, the current was derived from a small
Gramme electro-plating machine, requiring only 2 horse power to put
it in full work. It may therefore be assumed that this was about the
limit of the power at work to produce the light. At the commencement
of the proceedings two lights were maintained, each stated to be equal
to 320 sperm candles. At this rate the two lights would be equal to
640 candles, or 40 full power gas lights, each consuming 5 cubic feet
of 16 candle gas per hour. Such gas lights, it may be observed, are
not often seen, except in the argand form. The two lights burned with
extreme steadiness, there being no undulation, or flickering whatever,
although there was no glass globe to tone down any variations of
luster. The lights were perfectly bare and unprotected, and the place
where the trial was made was a workshop of moderate size.
Later in the evening one light was exhibited outside the building, in
an open thoroughfare, and the same perfect steadiness was observable.
After the two lights had been burning for a time they were
extinguished, and the current was sent through a row of ten lamps.
The light per lamp was of course reduced, but there was the remarkable
fact that ten lights were maintained by a comparatively weak machine,
driven by an engine exerting the power of only two horses.
The light of each of these ten lamps was stated to be that of 40
candles, making, therefore, a total of 400. A reduction of light,
consequent on the further division of the current, is thus apparent;
but for this loss there may be ample compensation in the superior
economy of a distributed light as compared with one that is
concentrated. In the case of the ten lamps, the light is equal to that
of 25 full power gas lights, consuming altogether 125 cubic feet of
gas per hour. The extremely small arc due to the peculiar arrangement
of the carbons in the Werdermann light has the advantage of offering
the least possible resistance to the passage of the current.
This resistance increases much more rapidly than is represented by
increase of distance between the carbon points. Hence the electric
power with Werdermann's lamp is economized to the utmost in this
respect, and it becomes possible--as in the recent experiment--to make
use of an electric current large in quantity but of low intensity.
The tension being small, there is the less difficulty with regard to
insulation. If one lamp or more should be accidentally extinguished,
the rest will continue to burn. The whole of the lamps can also be
extinguished and relit by merely stopping the current and then sending
it on again. No nice and troublesome adjustment with reference to the
length of the electric arc is requisite, and simple contact between
the point of the rod and the surface of the disk is sufficient for the
manifestation of the light.
In respect to duration, a carbon rod 5-32 in. in diameter, and a yard
long, obtained from Paris, costs a franc. This, placed in a large
lamp, having an estimated lighting power of 320 candles, will last
from 12 to 15 hours. The smaller lamps take a carbon of 1/8 in.
diameter.
Mr. Werdermann endeavors to make the resistance of the external
portion of the circuit equal to the internal resistance, in order to
obtain the greatest effect. It is well known that the best results
are obtained when the internal and external resistances are equal. The
method adopted is that known to electricians as the divided arc, and
will easily be understood from Fig. 2. Let B represent the source of
the electric current, and A a copper wire connected to the positive
and negative poles of the source as in the diagram. The wire, A, has
a certain resistance. Suppose, now, we arrange for the current to pass
as in the diagram, Fig. 3. By the insertion of the new wire, C, we
have lessened the total external resistance and increased the current,
as will be seen by reference to Ohm's law. C = E/(R+r) where C
= current; E = electromotive force; R = resistance external; r =
resistance internal. The fraction E/(R+r) increases as its denominator
is lessened.
The current passes along the two branches in equal quantities if the
resistances of the wires are equal, but inversely as the resistances
if they are unequal. Thus, if the branch, A, has a resistance, 9, and
C has a resistance, 1, 9-10 of the current will pass through C, and
1-10 through A. Similarly, for any number of branches the current will
divide itself according to the resistances. If, then, we have a number
of branches, as indicated in Fig. 4, the current will divide itself
equally among the branches when the resistances of the branches are
equal. This is the arrangement adopted by Mr. Werdermann, as will be
seen from the annexed diagram, Fig. 5, in which N and P represent
the negative and positive poles of the machine, and L L the electric
lamps.
When any one lamp is put out the inventor arranges that an equivalent
resistance shall be put into the circuit, so that as a whole the
circuit is unaltered, and the other lamps unaffected.
* * * * *
CASSON'S SAW BENCH.