and, finally, by Nero; from whom it was called “the golden house of
Nero.” It is thus described by Salmon, from Suetonius, Tacitus, and
other writers:—“From the remains in the back part of the Palatine-hill,
the ancient palace of Nero, from its great extent and vast size, was no
less difficult to be inhabited than it is for us to believe its
magnificence. It was built by the famous architects Severus and Cererus.
In the vestibule or principal entrance was the colossal statue of Nero,
of bronze. It was one hundred and twenty feet high, of excellent
workmanship, by Zenodorus, who was sent for from Gaul for the purpose.
It was restored by Vespasian, and dedicated to the sun. The emperor
added the rays, which were twenty-two feet and a half in length. In the
porticos were three galleries supported by large columns, which extended
a mile in length. This palace enclosed all the Palatine-hill, together
with the plain between the Palatine and the Cælius, and part of the
Esquiline mount near to the garden of Mæcenas. It was raised on large
columns of marble carried on a level from the Palatine to the Esquiline.
The superb entrance was facing the Via Sacra. Nero, in order to execute
this design, destroyed the houses of many of the citizens, which
occasioned the saying, that Rome consisted of one house. Tacitus writes,
that when Rome was in flames seven days and nights, it was not to be
extinguished till all the buildings about the Palatine were burnt. Where
the amphitheatre now stands, Nero formed a lake to resemble the sea,
with edifices around it similar to a city, together with extensive
gardens and walks, and places for wild beasts, vineyards, &c. In the
palace were a great number of halls, and an innumerable quantity of
rooms, galleries, and statues, resplendent in every part with gold,
gems, and precious stones; from which circumstance it acquired the name
of the golden house. Many of the rooms destined for public feasts were
very spacious, with most beautiful ceilings, which turned round in such
a manner that from various parts there fell flowers and exquisite
odours. The principal hall where Nero supped was circular, and of such
art, that the ceiling was ornamented with stars to resemble the heavens,
in conformity to which it continually revolved night and day. Birds of
silver were carved in the other ceilings with surprising art. Amulius, a
celebrated artist, was employed during the whole of his life to paint
this palace. The tables were of ivory, the floors of the rooms were
intersected with works in gold compartments of gems and mother-of-pearl:
the marble, the bronze, the statues, and the richest of the tapestry,
were beyond all description. When Nero went to inhabit it, he said, full
of pride, ‘I now begin to be lodged like a man.’ Here, particularly, was
a temple of Fortune, consecrated by Servius Tullius, and constructed by
Nero, of a fine transparent alabaster, called fingites. This stone was
brought from Cappadocia, and was so clear, that every object might be
seen when the doors were shut, as if it were noon-day. In the gardens
were delightful baths, numerous fish-ponds and pastures, with all sorts
of animals. Here were also baths of fresh and sea water. To erect these
wonderful edifices Italy was ruined with impositions and burdens, and
its temples spoiled of their precious ornaments, statues of gold and
silver, as likewise great part of the empire. Tacitus writes in his
Annals, that it was twice burned and rebuilt; that is, in the fire under
Nero, and in the sixth year of Trajan. According to Dion, it was burnt
the third time under the emperor Commodus; and, as he rebuilt it, it was
called from him Colonia Commodiana. Various emperors, abhorring the
excess of so much riches and luxury, removed the most valuable part, and
employed it for the greater ornament of the temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus. Antoninus Pius, detesting the extent of the palace,
contented himself with the part called Tiberiana, and shut up the rest.
All this magnificence, time, and especially the malignity of man, have
destroyed, and cypresses, symbols of death and desolation, triumph on
the ruins.”
Its present condition has been thus described by the poet:—
Cypress and ivy, weed and wallflower, grown
Matted and massed together; hillocks heaped
On what were chambers, arch crushed, column strown
In fragments, choked-up vaults, and frescoes steeped
In subterranean damps, where the owl peeped,
Deeming it midnight: temples, baths, or halls?
Pronounce who can; for all that learning reaped
From her research hath been, that these are walls.
Behold the Imperial Mount! ’tis thus the mighty falls.
Arches were public buildings,[182] designed for the reward and
encouragement of noble enterprises, erected generally to the honour of
such eminent persons as had either won a victory of extraordinary
consequence abroad, or had rescued the commonwealth at home from
considerable danger. At first, they were plain and rude structures, by
no means remarkable for beauty or state. But in later times no expenses
were thought too great for the rendering them in the highest degree
splendid and magnificent; nothing being more usual than to have the
greatest actions of the heroes they stood to honour curiously expressed,
or the whole procession of the triumph cut out on the sides. The arches
built by Romulus were only of brick; that of Camillus, of plain square
stone; but those of Cæsar, Drusus, Titus, Trajan, Gordian, &c., were
entirely of marble.
The most distinguished of these arches are those of Titus and Septimius
Severus. That of Gallienus is a mere gateway, and that of Drusus seems
part of an aqueduct; yet, coarse as they are, each has its Corinthian
columns, and pediments on a portion of the fronts. That of Constantine
was erected after the defeat of Maxentius, and was so contrived that the
music for the triumph might be placed in it. When the procession reached
the arch, the band began to play, and continued till the whole had
passed through.
The arch of Titus is situate on the eastern declivity of the Palatine
Mount. It is so rich, that some regard it not as elegant. The
entablature, the imposts, the key-stones, are all crowded with
sculpture; yet all, according to the taste of Mr. Forsyth, are meagre in
profile. It was erected by the senate, in gratitude to Titus for having
conquered Judea and taken Jerusalem. It is, therefore, one of the most
interesting monuments of ancient Rome; and so sensibly do the Jews still
feel the injury, done to their nation, that none of them can be tempted
to pass under it.
The triumph is represented on each side of the arch in oblong spaces,
seven feet in height, and nearly fourteen in length. The emperor
appears in a triumphal car drawn by four horses,—Victory crowning him
with a laurel. Rome is personified as a female. She conducts the horses;
lictors, citizens, and soldiers, attending. On the opposite side is
represented a procession, in which are carried, by persons crowned with
laurel and bearing the Roman standards, various spoils taken at
Jerusalem; such as the silver trumpets, the golden table, and the golden
candlestick with seven branches.
The arch of Severus was erected in honour of the emperor Septimius, and
his two sons Caracalla and Geta, on account of victories obtained over
the Parthians. We know from history, says Dr. Burton, that he made two
expeditions into the East; the first in 195, when he conquered
Vologeses; the second in 199, when he took Ctesiphon, and the treasures
of king Artabanus. Spartian tells us, that he triumphed after the first
expedition; but refused the honour the second time, because he had the
gout. His son triumphed in his stead; and it was upon this occasion that
the arch was erected.
This triumphal arch consists of three; that is, a large one in the
middle, and a smaller one on each side. These arches[183] are not in a
very pure style of architecture; but they are rich and handsome objects.
Four projecting columns adorn each face, and the entablature bricks
around each of them. Above the columns are supposed to have been
statues; while, on the top, as we learn from coins, was a car drawn by
six horses abreast, containing two persons in it, and having on each
side an attendant on horseback, followed by one on foot. The material of
the arch is marble; and each front is covered, between the columns, with
bas-reliefs. These bas-reliefs illustrate the campaigns and victories,
in commemoration of which the arch was erected. But the whole series,
says Dr. Burton, is in an indifferent style of sculpture, and presents
but a poor idea of the state of the arts at that time. Mr. Wood,
however, regards them, though bad in design as well as execution, as
contributing to the magnificence of the edifice. Mr. Forsyth, however,
is not given to indulge in respect to the architecture; for he says,
that the composite starts so often and so “furiously” out, the poverty
of its entablature meets you in so many points, as to leave no repose to
the eye. Within the arch is a marble staircase, leading by fifty steps
to the summit. The arch itself was half buried so late as the year 1803.
Several excavations had been made; but the loose soil had slipped down,
and quickly filled them up again. Pope Pius VII. was more successful in
the attempt than his predecessors had been; and by the year 1804 the
whole arch had been uncovered, and laid open down to the bottom.
The site of the temple of Romulus is now occupied by the church of San
Teodoro, a small rotunda. The walls are of great antiquity, and
marvellously perfect. In regard to the temple of Romulus and Remus, few
buildings have occasioned more disputes. It is now the church of S.S.
Cosimo e Damiano; the vestibule, several porphyry columns, and a bronze
door of which are exceedingly ancient.
The temple of Vesta, erected by Numa, now forms part of the church of S.
Maria del Sola. It is of Greek architecture, and surrounded by a portico
of nineteen Corinthian columns, on a flight of steps, the whole of
Parian marble. The roof was originally covered with bronze, brought from
Syracuse; but that has, long since, been replaced by materials much less
costly.
The temple of Minerva Medici stands in a garden on the Esquiline-hill;
it is round without, but forms a decagon within, and appears to have had
ten windows, and nine niches for statues. Here were found statues of
Æsculapius, Venus, Hercules, the Faun, and that of Minerva with the
serpent.
The church Sa. Maria in Cosmedin is supposed to have been the temple of
Puditia Patricia, or Chastity, which no plebeian was allowed to enter.
Pope Adrian I. rebuilt this edifice in 728, retaining the cella, and
many portions of the ancient temple.
A mean-looking church, called Sa. Maria d’ Ara Cœli, wholly devoid of
external ornament, is supposed to stand on the site of the temple of
Jupiter Feretrius. A flight of one hundred and twenty-four steps of
marble, brought from the temple of Jupiter Quirinus, forms the ascent to
it from the Campus Martius; the interior has twenty-two ancient columns
of granite, and the whole appears to be an assemblage of fragments of
other buildings. It was whilst musing in this church, “whilst the friars
were singing vespers in the temple of Jupiter,” that Gibbon says he
first conceived the idea of writing his immortal history.
The beautiful temple of Jupiter Tonans was erected by Augustus, in
gratitude for his escape from lightning. Only three of the thirty
columns of the portico now remain, together with a portion of the
frieze. They are of Luna marble, four feet four inches in diameter, with
Corinthian capitals, and appear originally to have been tinged with
Tyrian purple.
During the time of Claudius, the very curious temple of Faunus was built
upon the Celian mount. It was of circular form, and had internally two
rows of Ionic columns, with arches springing immediately from the
capitals. The upper windows had each a column in the middle, with
arches also springing from the capitals; and these two arches were
enclosed by a semicircular arch, which had its springing upon the jambs
of the windows; and, rising higher, left a considerable space between it
and the two before-mentioned small arches, in which space was a circular
opening. This is particularly noticed as an early and distinct type of
what was afterwards named Saxon, Norman, and Gothic.
The temple of Concord was the place in which Lentulus and other
confederates of Catiline were brought before the senate in order to be
tried, and whence they were taken to the Mamertine prisons. “For my own
part,” says Middleton, “as oft as I have been wandering about in the
very rostra of old Rome, or in that of the temple of Concord, where
Tully assembled the senate in Catiline’s conspiracy, I could not help
fancying myself much more sensible of the force of his eloquence; whilst
the impression of the place served to warm my imagination to a degree
almost equal to that of his old audience.” Of late years, however, these
ruins have been ascribed to the temple of Fortune, burnt in the time of
Maxentius, the competitor of Constantine.
The temple of Fortune was, for a long time, taken for the temple of
Concord. Its portico is nearly complete; consisting of six granite
columns in front, and two behind, supporting an entablature and
pediment. The columns all vary in diameter, and have bases and capitals
of white marble. From this circumstance it is conjectured that it was
erected with the spoils of other buildings; their original temple, burnt
in the time of Maxentius, having been rebuilt by Constantine.
The temple of Nerva was erected by Trajan. It was one of the finest
edifices of ancient Rome; but all that now remains of it is a cella,
and three fine columns of Parian marble, fifty feet in height,
supporting an architrave.
The temple of Peace[184], erected by Vespasian, was enriched with spoils
from Jerusalem. This temple is related to have been one of the most
magnificent in Rome: it was encircled with a coating of gilt bronze, and
adorned with stupendous columns of white marble; it was also enriched
with some of the finest sculptures and paintings of which the ancient
world could boast[185]. Among the former was a colossal statue of the
Nile, surrounded by sixteen children, cut out of one block of basalt;
among the latter was the famous picture of Jalysus, painted by
Protogenes of Rhodes. Here, too, were deposited the candlesticks, and
some other of the spoils, which Titus brought from Jerusalem. There was
also a curious library attached to the edifice.
Three immense arches, which rank amongst the most remarkable remains in
Rome, are all that are left of this once stupendous structure, which,
until lately, was supposed to be the temple of Peace, erected by
Vespasian at the close of the Judean war. But the great degeneracy of
the workmanship, and its being wholly unlike all erections of that
nature, has led to the opinion that the remains are neither of the time
of Vespasian, nor those of the temple, which, with all the immense
treasures it contained, was destroyed by fire, about one hundred years
after its erection; but of a Basilica[186], erected by Maxentius on the
ruins of the temple, and converted by Constantine into a Christian
church. The stupendous proportions of this structure are shown by the
three vaulted roofs, each seventy-five feet across, which rise above the
surrounding buildings in huge but not ungainly masses. The vault of the
middle arch, which is placed further back, forms part of a sphere; the
side ones are cylindrical; all are ornamented with sunk panels of
stucco-work. The church appears to have consisted of a nave and two
aisles, divided by enormous pillars of marble, one of which now stands
in front of the church of La Maria Maggiore. It is of a single block, of
forty-eight feet in height, and sixteen and a half in circumference.
Of the fine temple, di Venere e Roma,[187] the cella of each deity
remains, with the niches, in which were their statues, and a portion of
one of the side walls, which prove it to have been of vast size, great
magnificence, and a chef-d’œuvre of architecture. The emperor Adrian
himself drew the plans, which he submitted to Apollodorus, whose opinion
respecting them is said to have been the cause of his untimely death.
The temples, although they had each a separate entrance and cella,
formed but one edifice; the substructure of which, having been recently
excavated, is found to have been three hundred and thirty by one hundred
and sixty feet. A noble flight of steps, discovered at the same time,
between the arch of Titus and the church of St. Francesco, formed the
approach of the Forum, which front, as well as that towards the
Coliseum, was adorned with columns of Parian marble, six feet in
diameter; and the whole was surrounded by a portico, with a double row
of columns of grey granite. The walls and pavement of the interior were
incrusted with fine marble, and the roof richly gilt.
The Temple of Antoninus was erected by Marcus Aurelius in 178, in memory
of Antoninus and his consort Faustina. The original portico, consisting
of ten Corinthian columns of Cippolino marble, and a portion of the
temple itself, now form the church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda.
The column of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was erected by the senate in
honour of that illustrious emperor. Bassi-rilievi run spirally from the
bottom to the top, representing the Marcomannian war. It is composed of
twenty-six blocks of Parian marble, and is one hundred and twenty-three
feet in height. The statue of the emperor once stood on its summit, but
it has been replaced by that of St. Paul.
This leads us to speak of the great statue of the same emperor. The
horse was so greatly admired by Michael Angelo, that when he first saw
it, he looked at it in silence for some time, and then said, “Go on!”
“This great statue of Marcus Aurelius,” says Mr. Forsyth, “or rather of
his horse, which was once the idol of Rome, is now a subject of
contention. Some critics find the proportions of the animal false, and
his attitude impossible. One compares his head to an owl, another his
belly to a cow’s, but the well-known apostrophe of a third (Michael
Angelo) will ever prevail in your first impressions. The spirit and fire
of the general figure will seduce the most practised eye. Ancient
sculptors, intent only on man, are supposed to have neglected the study
of animals; and we certainly find very rude accessories affixed to some
exquisite antiques. Perhaps they affected such contrasts as strike us in
the work of the Faun and his panther, the Meleager and his dogs, the
Apollo and his swans, where the accessory serves as a foil. The horse,
however, comes so frequently into heroic subjects, that the greatest
artists of antiquity must have made him their particular study, and we
are told that they did so; but it were unfair to judge of their
excellence from this bruised and unfortunate animal.”
This celebrated statue is the only one of bronze of all that adorned the
city in ancient times. It has been called, at different periods, by the
names of Lucius Verus, Septimius Severus, and Constantine. It was placed
in its present position by Paul III. in 1538, being then removed from
before the church of St. John Lateran. A bunch of flowers is said to be
presented every year to the chapter of St. John, as an acknowledgment,
that the statue belongs to them; but this Sir John Hobhouse denies. The
statue was originally gilt; the coating laid on, according to the
practice of the ancients, in very thick leaves; and some traces of it
may still be observed.
We now turn to the Coliseum. The shows of wild beasts were in general
designed for the honour of Diana, the patroness of hunting. For this
purpose, no cost was spared to fetch the different creatures from the
farthest parts of the world.
Part in laden vessels came,
Borne on the rougher waves, or gentler stream;
The fainting man let fall his trembling oar,
And the pale master feared the freight he bore.
And shortly after,
All that with potent teeth command the plain,
All that run horrid with erected mane,
Or proud of stately horns, or bristling hair,
At once the forest’s ornament and fear;
Torn from their deserts by the Roman power,
Nor strength can save, nor craggy dens secure.
Some creatures were presented merely as strange sights and rarities; as
crocodiles, and several outlandish birds and beasts: others for the
combat, as lions, tigers, leopards, &c. We may reckon up three sorts of
diversions with the beasts, which all went under the common name of
Venatio:—The first, when the people were permitted to run after the
beasts, and catch what they could for their own use; the second, when
the beasts fought with one another; and the last, when they were brought
out to engage with men.[188]
The fights between beasts were exhibited with great variety; sometimes a
tiger was matched with a lion; sometimes a lion with a bull; a bull with
an elephant; a rhinoceros with a bear, &c. But the most wonderful sight
was, when by bringing water into the amphitheatre, huge sea-monsters
were introduced to combat with wild beasts:—
No sylvan monsters we alone have view’d,
But huge sea calves, dyed red with hostile blood
Of bears, lie floundering in the wondrous flood.
CALPHURN. Eclog. vii.
The men, that engaged with wild beasts, had the common name of
Bestiarii. Some of these were condemned persons; others hired themselves
at a set pay, like the Gladiators; and like them, too, had their schools
where they were instructed and initiated in such combats. We find
several of the nobility and gentry many times voluntarily undertaking a
part in these encounters; and Juvenal acquaints us, that the very women
were ambitious of showing their courage on the like occasions, though
with the forfeiture of their modesty.
One of the best accounts of this wonderful edifice, is that given in
Burford’s account of the Panorama painted by himself, and now (1839,)
exhibiting in Leicester Square, London. “The far-famed amphitheatre of
Vespasian, or, as it is more generally called, the Coliseum, is one of
the most extraordinary and massive works, that Rome, or any other
country, ever produced; and forms one of the most surprising, and
intensely interesting, objects of attraction amongst the many gigantic
remains of that ancient city. In whatever way it is viewed, whether as
regards its immense size, the solidity of its structure, the simplicity
and harmony of its architecture, the grace and beauty of its
proportions, or its internal arrangement and convenience, it equally
strikes the mind with wonder and admiration; and is universally admitted
to be one of the noblest remains of antiquity in the world. Placed at
some distance from the gorgeous churches, extensive palaces, and busy
streets of modern Rome, it stands alone in solitary dignity and gloomy
contrast; elevating its stupendous masses from above the surrounding
ruins of the imperial city; a striking image of Rome itself in its
present state, erect on the one side, fallen on the other; half grey,
half green, deserted and decaying; a splendid and melancholy monument of
past greatness; and no monument of human power, no memorial of departed
ages, ever spoke more forcibly to the heart, or awakened feelings so
powerful, and unutterable. The Coliseum was commenced by Flavius
Vespasian, in the year 72, as a triumphal memorial of his victories in
Judea; and it also served to perpetuate the recollection of the many
horrid cruelties, committed by the conquering Romans during that war. It
was erected, according to Martial and Pliny, on the spot formerly
occupied by a lake or fish-pond, in the gardens of Nero’s golden house,
then nearly the centre of the city. Twelve thousand Jewish prisoners,
reduced to slavery, were employed on the work; and when it is
considered, that so large and solid an edifice was completed in little
more than four years, it becomes clearly evident, that the utmost
cruelty and oppression must have been resorted to, to compel these
unfortunates to complete the task. Titus, the son of Vespasian, finished
the building; and on its dedication exhibited shows and games for one
hundred days, during which numbers of gladiators were killed, and five
thousand wild beasts were torn to pieces in the arena.”