FUNGI AS FOODS.
=Mushrooms.=--Certain fungi growing wild or in cultivated soils and
having an expanded top on a hooded stem are known as mushrooms. The
common form of mushroom (_Agaricus campestris_ L.) grows wild over
a large portion of the United States. It is especially abundant in
the autumn, growing sometimes during the night after a warm rain,
over large areas. When properly cooked it forms a delicious food and
condimental substance, highly prized by connoisseurs and others.
Belonging to the family of mushrooms, however, are many poisonous
varieties which, when eaten inadvertently, often cause serious illness
and sometimes death. For this reason mushrooms sold in the open market
should be carefully inspected by experts authorized to see that the
poisonous varieties are excluded. It not only requires a good botanist,
but also one skilled in the practical differentiation of the different
varieties by physical appearance rather than by botanical analysis, to
properly separate the poisonous from the edible varieties.
_Historical._--Mushrooms have been, since historical times, extensively
used as human food. In a book written five centuries before the
Christian era, Athenée, in his “Banquet of Learned Men,” speaks of the
poisoning of a mother and her three children by mushrooms. Hippocrates
speaks of a girl who had been poisoned by mushrooms and who was cured
by the administration of hot honey and by a hot bath. Theophrastes
and Nicandre also speak of mushrooms and the poisoning that occurs
therefrom. Both Cicero and Horace make reference to mushrooms. Horace
advises that Epicureans should confine themselves to the mushrooms that
grow upon meadows and refuse to eat all others on account of the danger
from poisoning. Ovid also makes frequent allusions to mushrooms and
speaks of the influence of warm rains upon their growth. Tacitus refers
to the use of mushrooms for food, and Suétonius, in his “History of
the Twelve Cæsars,” relates that the Emperor Claudius was poisoned by
a dish of mushrooms. It is, therefore, evident that from the earliest
times mushrooms were extensively used and the poisonous properties of
some of the varieties understood.
_Production of Mushrooms._--As has already been mentioned, mushrooms
grow wild over a large area of the United States. They are also
cultivated very extensively, though not so extensively here as in
European countries. The best place for growing cultivated mushrooms is
one where the light is excluded or diffused and where the temperature
remains reasonably constant. Cellars, caves, and the artificial
caverns made by quarrying are peculiarly well suited for the growth of
different varieties of fungi, such as mushrooms.
The art of growing mushrooms is not easily acquired. The directions
given by the best authorities may be rigidly followed and failure
ensue. The skill of the grower appears to be born, not made, and those
who have acquired the art succeed where theoretical knowledge fails.
For cultural purposes, the _Agaricus campestris_ is most universally
employed.
_Soil._--The soil best suited for the growth of mushrooms is one
rich in decayed or decaying vegetable matter. Mushrooms are often
found growing in localities where a log or stump has decayed or where
the inorganic matter from the manure of cattle or horses has been
distributed on the soil. Artificial beds for the growth of mushrooms
are made up largely of organic manurial substances.
_Spores._--Mushrooms are grown from spores. The mushroom produces a
brown powdery material which consists of almost innumerable simple
cells of ovate shape to which the term “spore” has been applied.
A spore is not in the strict sense of the word a seed, but simply
a cell which by proliferation produces the new fungus. Generally
growers do not use these spores directly in seeding mushroom beds.
Each complete spore, however, is, under favorable conditions, capable
of proliferation or germination, producing a thread-like growth of a
spider-web character which penetrates through the soil, prepared and
manured, upon which a spore is germinated. This spider-web-like growth,
in the common language of mushroom growers, is called the spawn, more
properly called the mycelium of the mushroom. When the conditions are
favorable, there are formed on the threads of this mycelium small
nodules, which are the earlier stages of the complete fungus itself.
From the beginning of this growth until the final production of the
mushroom two or three days or even a week may elapse. The earlier
periods of this growth take place under ordinary circumstances, but the
advent of a warm rain or other extremely favorable conditions causes
the budding mushroom to grow at an enormously rapid rate. The mushroom
may not be said to have a root, stem, and leaf, as is the case with an
ordinary green plant, but is practically a single organism, assuming
different shapes which are represented by the different varieties and
species of growth.
_Differing Varieties of Edible Mushrooms._--There is a very large
variety of edible mushrooms differing in form, size, and shape from
the _Agaricus campestris_. In the Washington markets there are four
principal kinds of mushrooms which are found growing wild in the
vicinity of the city. These comprise the common mushroom--_Agaricus
campestris_, the horse mushroom--_Agaricus arvensis_, shaggy
mushroom--_Coprinus comatus_, and the puff-ball--_Lycoperdon
cyathiforme_.
_Conditions of Growth._--The proper shed or cellars having been
selected, the first thing to do is to see that the temperature is
favorable to the growth of the fungi. Temperatures above 60 degrees
F., or below 50 degrees F., are not favorable to the growth. The
best temperatures are from 55 to 58 degrees. The locality where the
mushrooms are grown should be kept very damp and the air highly
saturated with aqueous vapor. The reason that mushrooms grow best in
covered places, such as has been mentioned, is due to the particularly
favorable influence which the even temperature mentioned and a
practically saturated atmosphere have upon the growth. In localities
where the changes of temperature are not very severe, mushrooms grow
very well in the open. In the county of Kent, England, I have seen
mushrooms growing in the open garden, where, by covering with straw,
they flourish during the greater part of the year. In the winter time
the temperature may be kept quite even by the covering to make abundant
crops, while in the months of August, September, and October they grow
in the open in great abundance.
_Preparation of Seed Bed._--The seed bed for the growth of mushrooms,
as has already been indicated, is made principally of well decayed
stable or stall manure. The manure must be well fermented, thoroughly
disintegrated, and exposed for a sufficient length of time to be in the
proper condition. Mushrooms cannot be obtained until the heat attending
the fermentation of manure has entirely disappeared.
Directions for growing mushrooms cannot be given here, but those who
are intending to enter the business should consult the best authorities
and begin in a small way until they acquire the necessary skill before
commercial success can be obtained.
_Growth of Mushrooms in France._--Perhaps in no country has the
cultivation of mushrooms been carried to such a large extent as in
France. The principal industries in France are confined to those
regions where artificial caves have been made by the quarrying of
building stone. The most extensive caverns of this kind exist in
the neighborhood of Paris, near Bordeaux, and particularly in the
neighborhood of Sceaux. These artificial caverns are often miles in
extent and furnish exceptionally favorable opportunities for the growth
of mushrooms. The soils or manures on which they are grown must be
carried into these caverns, and experience has shown that mushrooms do
not continue to grow well in the same locality, and, therefore, the
place of growth must be moved from time to time to different parts of
the caves. The galleries of these abandoned quarries are sometimes of
enormous extent and are from 30 to 150 feet below the surface. They are
generally from seven to ten feet high, but occasionally so low that a
man cannot stand upright in them. In general they are wide enough for
two rows of beds with a foot way 18 inches wide in the center. Where a
mushroom bed has been well prepared and properly seeded, it produces
about six pounds of mushrooms per square yard. These mushrooms bring,
in the market, an average of about 15 cents per pound. It is stated by
some authorities that the reason the bed ceases to bear after a time
and has to be abandoned or moved is not because of the exhaustion of
the food but is due to the ravages of an insect or fly which produces
a worm which is fatal to the growth of the fungus. At any rate, it is
customary to abandon the beds after they have been bearing for six or
eight months and to return to them after a year, when they are found to
again be productive.
It is not expected that the general consumer will become an expert in
the selection of mushrooms. Where mushrooms are exposed in a public
market, it is the duty of the municipal officers in charge of food
products to see to it that poisonous varieties are not exposed for
sale. It will be of value, however, to the reader to have some idea
of the general shape of some of the more common edible and poisonous
varieties. It is generally supposed that mushrooms, toadstools, and
puff-balls are entirely distinct species and that only the mushroom,
so-called, is edible. On the contrary, there are many edible toadstools
and many edible puff-balls, and all three classes of fungi belong to
the same general family.
_Food Value of Mushrooms._--The nutritive value of mushrooms is
not exceptionally high, although there is a popular opinion to the
contrary. Frequently it has been stated that the mushroom in the
vegetable world holds a similar position to beefsteak among meats,
being particularly rich in digestible protein. The analytical data
which have been collected from numerous sources on the composition
of mushrooms do not bear out this popular impression, but, on the
contrary, show that the mushroom is a food product consisting very
largely of water and of only very small quantities of protein, fat, and
carbohydrates.
The composition of some of the common mushrooms is shown in the
following table (Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 79, Mushrooms as Food):
---------+------+------+------+------+-----+----+-------+------+----
| | | | NON- | | | | |
| | | ALBU-| ALBU-| | | | |
| | TOTAL|MINOID|MINOID| | | CARBO-| |
| |NITRO-|NITRO-|NITRO-| PRO-| | HY- | |
|WATER.| GEN. | GEN. | GEN. |TEIN.|FAT.|DRATES.|FIBER.|ASH.
---------+------+------+------+------+-----+----+-------+------+----
Common | | | | | | | | |
mushroom,|91.30 | 0.60 | 0.36 | 0.24 | 3.75|0.20| 3.50 | 0.80 |0.50
Shaggy | | | | | | | | |
Coprinus,|92.19 | .45 | .15 | .30 | 2.81| .26| 1.40 | .57 | .98
Inky | | | | | | | | |
Coprinus,|92.31 | .36 | .. | .. | 2.25| .24| .... | .72 |1.29
Common | | | | | | | | |
Morel, |89.54 | .49 | .37 | .12 | 3.06| .50| 1.60 | .91 |1.08
---------+------+------+------+------+-----+----+-------+------+----
These data may be compared with the composition of the beefsteak:
Water, 62.5 percent
Protein, 19.5 „
Fat, 17.0 „
Ash, 1.0 „
From the above data it is seen that the mushroom does not contain
anything like the amount of protein found in beefsteak. It has
one-third more water, one-sixth as much protein, and only one-fortieth
as much fat. Beefsteak contains no carbohydrates except less than one
percent of glycogen, while the amount of carbohydrates in the mushroom
varies from 1.5 to 3.5 percent. It is evident that the mushroom is
principally valuable as a condimental substance and not as a food
product.
_Distinction between Poisonous and Edible Varieties._--It has already
been stated that only the expert is able to distinguish between the
poisonous varieties of mushrooms and those that are edible. Even the
skilled botanist, as well as the expert, may sometimes make mistakes
in this matter. Hence the only perfectly sure method of protection
against the poisonous varieties is the eating of only those which are
cultivated and which are known to be free of poisonous properties.
On the other hand, the wild variety, by many connoisseurs, is much
more highly valued as being more delicate and palatable. It should
also be remembered that the cultivation of mushrooms is not very
widely extended, and if the supply of the wild variety should be
excluded there would be a great diminution of the quantity which is
accessible to the consumer. This would be an especial hardship in
the United States, where mushrooms grow wild over such wide areas
and so abundantly and where the cultivation of them as compared with
some other countries is somewhat restricted. There are some general
characteristics by means of which a distinction can be made between the
edible and the poisonous varieties.
The following rules are given for the rejection of the probably
poisonous mushroom by George Francis Atkinson (“Studies of American
Fungi--1900”): “In the selection of mushrooms to eat, great caution
should be employed by those who are not reasonably familiar with
the means of determination of the species, or those who have not an
intimate acquaintance with certain forms. Rarely should the beginner
be encouraged to eat them upon his own determination. It is best at
first to consult someone who knows or to send first specimens away for
determination, though in many cases a careful comparison of the plant
with the figures and descriptions given in this book will enable a
novice to recognize it. In taking up a species for the first time it
would be well to experiment cautiously.”
_No Certain Rule to Distinguish the Poisonous from the Edible._--“There
is no test like the ‘silver-spoon test’ which will enable one to tell
the poisonous mushroom from the edible ones. Nor is the presence of the
so-called ‘death-cup’ a sure sign that the fungus is poisonous, for
_Amanita cæsarea_ has this cup. For the beginner, however, there are
certain general rules, which, if carefully followed, will enable him to
avoid the poisonous ones, while at the same time necessarily excluding
many edible ones.
“1st.--Reject all fungi which have begun to decay, or which are
infested with larvæ.
“2d.--Reject all fungi when in the button stage, since the characters
are not yet shown which enable one to distinguish the genera and
species. Buttons in pasture lands which are at the surface of the
ground, and not deep-seated in the soil, would very likely not belong
to any of the very poisonous kinds.
“3d.--Reject all fungi which have a cup or sac-like envelope at the
base of the stem, or which have a scaly or closely fitting layer at
the base of the stem and rather loose warts on the pileus, especially
if the gills are white. _Amanita cæsarea_, however, has a sac-like
envelope at the base of the stem and yellow gills as well as a yellow
cap, and is edible. _Amanita rubescens_ has remnants of a scaly
envelope on the base of the stem and loose warts on the cap, and the
flesh, where wounded, becomes reddish. It is edible.
“4th.--Reject all fungi with a milky juice unless the juice is reddish.
Several species with copious white milk, sweet or mild to the taste,
are edible.
“5th.--Reject very brittle fungi with gills nearly all of equal length
where the flesh of the cap is thin, especially those with bright caps.
“6th.--Reject all Boleti in which the flesh changes color where bruised
or cut, or those in which the tubes have reddish mouths, also those the
taste of which is bitter. _Strobilomyces strobilaceus_ (Scop.) Berk.
changes color when cut, and is edible.
“7th.--Reject fungi which have a cobwebby veil or ring when young, and
those with slimy caps and clay-colored spores.
“In addition, proceed cautiously in all cases, and make it a point to
become very familiar with a few species first, and gradually extend the
range of species rather than attempt the first season to eat a large
number of different kinds. All puff-balls are edible so long as they
are white inside, though some are better than others. All coral-like or
club fungi are edible.”
_Popular Distinction between Toadstools and Mushrooms._--There is a
general opinion that the toadstool is poisonous and the mushroom is
not. There is, however, no scientific distinction between the two kinds
of fungi, popularly known as toadstools and mushrooms. The distinction
is purely an arbitrary one. The small toadstools are often as delicious
and as harmless as the small mushroom. The small mushroom, on the
other hand, may be as deadly and as undesirable as the worst specimen
of toadstool. There is danger especially to two classes of people
in the discrimination between the poisonous and edible varieties of
mushrooms and toadstools. The first class is composed of those who
are practically unaware of the existence of poisonous varieties and
the second class of persons are those who claim to be able to tell an
edible mushroom from a certain number of tests or claims which they
regard as infallible. Both of these classes of persons are apt to be
deceived or injured by dangerous varieties.
The following popular signs of distinguishing between the poisonous and
non-poisonous varieties are pronounced worthless by Gibson (“Our Edible
Toadstools and Mushrooms and How to Distinguish Them”):
“FAVORABLE SIGNS.
1. Pleasant taste and odor.
2. Peeling of the skin of the cap from rim to center.
3. Pink gills, turning brown in older specimens.
4. The stem easily pulled out of the cap and inserted in it like a
parasol handle.
5. Solid stems.
6. Must be gathered in the morning.
7. ‘Any fungus having a pleasant taste and odor, being found
similarly agreeable after being plainly broiled without the least
seasoning is perfectly safe.’
“UNFAVORABLE SIGNS.
8. Boiling with a ‘silver spoon,’ the staining of the silver
indicating danger.
9. Change of color in the fraction of the fresh mushroom.
10. Slimy or sticky on the top.
11. Having the stems at their sides.
12. Growing in clusters.
13. Found in dark, damp places.
14. Growing on wood, decayed logs, or stumps.
15. Growing on or near manure.
16. Having bright colors.
17. Containing milky juice.
18. Having the gill plates of even length.
19. Melting into black fluid.
20. Biting the tongue or having a bitter or nauseating taste.
21. Changing color by immersion in salt-water, or upon being dusted
with salt.
“These present but a selection of the more prevalent notions. Taken
_in toto_, they would prove entirely safe, as they would practically
exclude every species of toadstool or mushroom that grows. But as a
rule the village oracle bases his infallibility upon two or three
of the above ‘rules,’ and inasmuch as the entire list absolutely
_omits_ the _only_ one test by which danger is to be avoided, it is
a seven days’ wonder that the grewsome toadstool epitaph is not more
frequent.”
The following tests are regarded as favorable by Gibson:
1. Avoid every mushroom having a cup or suggestion of such, at base;
the distinctly fatal poisons are thus excluded.
2. Exclude those having an unpleasant odor, a peppery, bitter, or other
unpalatable flavor, or tough consistency.
3. Exclude those infested with worms or in advanced age or decay.
4. In testing others which will pass the above probation let the
specimen be kept by itself, not in contact with or enclosed in the same
basket with other species.
Begin by a mere nibble, the size of a pea, and gentle mastication,
being careful to swallow no saliva, and finally expelling all from
the mouth. If no noticeable results follow, the next trial, with the
interval of a day, with the same quantity may permit of a swallow of a
little of the juice, the fragments of the fungus expelled as before.
No unpleasantness following for twenty-four hours, the third trial
may permit of a similar entire fragment being swallowed, all of these
experiments to be made on an empty stomach. If this introduction of
the actual substance of the fungus into the stomach is succeeded by
no disturbance in twenty-four hours, a larger piece, the size of a
hazelnut, may be attempted, and thus the amount gradually increased day
by day until the demonstration of edibility, or at least harmlessness,
is complete and the species thus admitted into the “safe” list. By
following this method with the utmost caution the experimenter can at
best suffer but a slight temporary indisposition as the result of his
hardihood, in the event of a noxious species having been encountered,
and will at least thus have the satisfaction of discovery of an enemy
if not a friend.
It may be said that any mushroom, _omitting the Amanita_, which is
pleasant to the taste and otherwise agreeable as to odor and texture
when raw, is probably harmless and may safely be thus ventured on
with a view of establishing its edibility. A prominent author on our
edible mushrooms (McIlvaine) applies this rule to all the Agarics
with confidence. “This rule may be established,” he says: “All
Agarics--excepting the Amanitæ--mild to the taste when raw, if they
commend themselves in other ways, are edible.” This claim is borne out
in his experience, with the result that he now numbers over one hundred
species among his habitual edible list out of the three hundred which
he has actually found by personal test to be edible or harmless. “So
numerous are toadstools,” he continues, “and so well does a study of
them define their habits and habitats, that the writer _never fails
upon any day from April to December to find ample supply of healthy,
nutritious, delicate toadstools for himself and family_.”
“In gathering mushrooms one should be supplied with a sharp knife. The
mushrooms should be carefully cut off an inch or so below the cap,
or at least sufficiently far above the ground to escape all signs of
dirt on the stems. They should then be laid gills upward in their
receptacle, and it is well to have a special basket, arranged with
one or two removable bottoms or horizontal partitions, which are kept
in place by upright props within, thus relieving the lower layers of
mushrooms from the weight of those above them. Such a basket is almost
indispensable.
“Before preparing mushrooms for the table, the specimens should be
carefully scrutinized for a class of fungus specialists which we have
not taken into account, and which have probably anticipated us. The
mushroom is proverbial for its rapid development, but nature has not
allowed it thus to escape the usual penalties of lush vegetation, as
witness this swarming, squirming host, minute grubs, which occasionally
honey-comb or hollow its entire substance ere it has reached its prime;
indeed, in many cases, even before it has fully expanded or even
protruded above ground.
“Like the carrion flies, the bees, and wasps, which in early times
were believed to be of spontaneous origin--flies being generated from
putrefaction, bees from dead bulls, and the martial wasps from defunct
“war-horses”--these fungus swarms, which so speedily reduce a fair
specimen of a mushroom to a melting loathsome mass, were also supposed
to be the natural progeny of the ‘poisonous toadstool.’ But science has
solved the riddle of their mysterious omnipresence among the fungi,
each particular swarm of grubs being the witness of a former visit
of a maternal parent insect, which has sought the budding fungus in
its haunts often before it has fully revealed itself to human gaze,
and implanted within its substance her hundred or more eggs. To the
uneducated eye these larvæ all appear similar, but the specialist in
entomology readily distinguishes between them as the young of this or
that species of fly, gnat, or beetle.
“As an illustration of the assiduity with which the history of these
tiny scavenger insects has been followed by science, I may mention that
in the gnat group alone over seven hundred species have been discovered
and scientifically described, many of them requiring a powerful
magnifier to reveal their identities.
“Specimens of infected or decaying mushrooms preserved within a
tightly closed box--and, we would suggest, duly quarantined--will at
length reveal the imago forms of the voracious larvæ; generally a
swarm of tiny gnats or flies, with an occasional sprinkling of small
glossy black beetles, or perhaps a beautiful indigo-blue insect half
an inch in length of most nervous habit, and possessed of a long and
very active tail. This insect is an example of the curious group of
rove-beetles--staphylinus--a family of insect scavengers, many of whose
species depend upon the fungi for subsistence.
“Even the large woody growth known as ‘punk’ or ‘touchwood,’ so
frequently seen upon decaying trunks, is not spared. A huge specimen in
my keeping was literally reduced to dust by a single species of beetle.
“Considering the prevalence of these fungus hosts, it is well in
all mushrooms to take the precaution of making a vertical section
through stem and cap, excluding such specimens as are conspicuously
monopolized, and not being too critical of the rest, for the
over-fastidious gourmet will often thus have little to show for his
morning walk. I have gathered a hundred specimens of fungi in one
stroll, perhaps not a quarter of which, upon careful scrutiny, though
fair of exterior would be fit for the table. The fungus hunter _par
excellence_ has usually been there before us and left his mark--a mere
fine brown streak or tunnel, perhaps winding through the pulp or stem,
where his minute fungoid identity is even yet secreted. But we bigger
fungus eaters gradually learn to accept him--if not too outrageously
promiscuous--as a natural part and parcel of our Hachis aux
Champignons, or our simple mushrooms on toast, even as we wink at the
similar lively accessories which sophisticate our delectable raisins,
prunes, and figs, to say nothing of prime old Rochefort” (pages 33-34).
E. Faupin, the author of the work “Les Champignons Comestibles et
Vénéneux,” gives some valuable hints respecting the confusion of edible
and poisonous varieties of mushrooms. He also says that the so-called
rules which are often formulated to distinguish the good mushrooms from
the bad are nearly all misleading. If they are applicable in a few
particular cases they surely are not in all, and consequently ought to
be judged as of no value. For instance, it has been commonly said that
the mushrooms whose flesh changes color when exposed are poisonous.
This is true for certain kinds but it is not true for others. There
are, indeed, some mushrooms whose flesh undergoes an alteration when
it is exposed and which are, nevertheless, of most excellent quality.
As an example of this, the variety known as “delicious lactaire” may
be cited. On the contrary there are other kinds whose flesh remains
white on exposure and which are decidedly poisonous, as for example
_Amanita citrina_ Pers. It is also said that a mushroom whose stem
is surrounded by a ring is to be considered edible. This indication
is altogether deceptive. Some of the most poisonous varieties have
well formed rings. It is also misleading to credit the action of the
juice of the mushroom in coloring a piece of silver. It is said that
those mushrooms whose juice blackens silver are poisonous, while those
which do not are harmless. This perhaps is the most dangerous of all
the rules to go by, as some of the most poisonous varieties would be
admitted on this test. It is also misleading to suppose, as is commonly
the case, that mushrooms which are attacked by insects, larvæ, etc.,
can be eaten without danger. Likewise misleading is the general opinion
that mushrooms whose odor is agreeable or which have no appreciable
odor are not poisonous. It is high time to eradicate these misleading
notions and to let the people know with certainty that aside from
the botanical character there does not exist any particular sign nor
any particular means of affirming that a given mushroom is edible or
poisonous. Science alone, therefore, has the sole power of teaching to
distinguish the poisonous from the non-poisonous varieties. For many
years attempts have been made to popularize the science which will give
to the people the desired information, but in spite of these efforts
the number of cases of poisoning does not seem to diminish, and why?
The response is evident. It is because the efforts which have been made
by mycologists have not yet been appreciated by the mass of people,
and because it has not yet been possible to point out to the public
at large the poisonous species. The number of species of poisonous
mushrooms which are capable of causing death is happily not very great.
The _Amanitas_ and the _Volvarias_ are almost exclusively the poisonous
species. Let it be understood, therefore, by the people that there do
exist mushrooms which are capable of killing. If the people desire
to place themselves out of danger let them begin by learning these
varieties. Their number is very limited, as there are only five or
six species at most. When they are well known it will be very easy to
distinguish them and to recognize all others as edible. Following is a
list of the most poisonous mushrooms known, and all that are likely at
any time to produce death:
Amanita phalloides Fr.
Amanita citrina Pers.
Amanita verna Bull.
Amanita virosa Fr.
Volvaria gloiocephala, var. speciosa (Fr.).
Amanita muscaria (L.) Pers.
Amanita pantherina DC.
Lactarius torminosus (Schaeff.) Fr.
Lactarius rufus Fr.
Lactarius zonarius (Bull.) Fr.
Lactarius pyrogalus (Bull.) Fr.
Russula emetica Fr.
Russula queletii Fr.
Russula fœtens (Pers.) Fr.
Boletus felleus Bull.
Boletus satanus Lenz.
Boletus erythropus Cke.
Boletus luridus Schaeff.
Entoloma lividum Bull.
_The Most Poisonous of Mushrooms._--The most poisonous of the common
mushrooms is known as _Amanita verna_ Bull. So active is its poison
that this variety has become known as the “deadly Amanita.”
=Types of Edible Mushrooms.=--While it is quite impossible for
a manual of this kind to give any directions by which a person,
not an expert, may make certain distinctions between the edible
and poisonous varieties of mushrooms, it is thought advisable to
give a fair technical illustration of the two classes. The common
mushroom, _Agaricus campestris_, is shown in the accompanying Fig.
61,--three-fourths its natural size. The second specimen from the left
is young and is in a state of development known as a button. The figure
at the extreme left is a larger specimen, showing the slightly checked
surface that sometimes occurs in this species. In fresh specimens the
surface is white, but various shades of light brown, either checked or
plain, are often found. The specimen at the right shows the gills on
the lower surface of the cap. These gills in a newly expanded mushroom,
fresh from the field, are of a beautiful delicate pale pink color,
often with a touch of salmon. In the older samples the gills turn to a
light brown and finally almost to a black color. This discoloration is
chiefly due to the development of almost innumerable spores from which
new plants are propagated. If the stem of a common mushroom be broken
off and the cap be laid gills downward on a piece of white paper, the
spores will drop off and after a few hours will appear as a brown dust.
The usual diameter of full-grown specimens of this variety of mushroom
is from 1¹⁄₂ to 3 inches, though many smaller and many larger samples
are found.
[Illustration: FIG. 61.--COMMON MUSHROOM, _Agaricus campestris_.
EDIBLE. (THREE-FOURTHS NATURAL SIZE.)--(_F. V. Coville, Circular No.
13, Division of Botany, Department of Agriculture._)]
This variety of mushroom is the principal one which is exposed upon the
markets of Washington. They are especially abundant in the autumn after
copious rains often succeeding the usual period of drought in that
region. October is the banner month for this variety of mushroom. The
mycelium from which the autumn mushroom grows is formed in the spring,
and after the dry period of summer the little spheroid granules formed
upon the mycelium are capable of absorbing the moisture of the warm
autumnal rains and rapidly expand to the full-grown mushroom. After
all the conditions of growth are fulfilled it usually requires only a
single night for a button to push through the surface of the soil and
expand its cap. Mushrooms are particularly obnoxious to the ravages
of insects, and it is always advisable that they should be gathered
and eaten immediately after they are formed. The insect larvæ attack
the mature mushroom, travelling up through the stem into the cap, and
decomposition rapidly follows.
[Illustration: FIG. 62.--EDIBLE MUSHROOMS (_Agaricus arvensis_
Schaeff.).--(_F. V. Coville._)]
It is easy to determine whether a mushroom is wormy or not by breaking
off the stem close to the cap and observing if there are little
holes through which the larvæ have passed upward into the cap. The
common mushroom occurs most frequently on lawns and in pastures, and
especially in neglected fields where weeds have been succeeded by a
scant covering of grass. Sometimes during the spring and summer, as
well as in the autumn, the common mushroom is found upon the market.
These mushrooms usually are produced upon the garbage dumping grounds
near the city. The garbage and refuse from the city furnish the
manurial conditions required for a speedy development of the mushroom
from the mycelium.
[Illustration: FIG. 63.--SHAGGY MUSHROOM, _Coprinus comatus_. EDIBLE.
(THREE-FOURTHS NATURAL SIZE.)--(_Coville, Circular 13, Division of
Botany._)]
_The Horse Mushroom_ (_Agaricus arvensis_ Schaeff.).--This variety of
mushroom is also one which grows in great abundance in the neighborhood
of Washington and in other latitudes affording a similar environment.
This specimen is in many respects like _Agaricus campestris_ but
the surface of the cap is somewhat darker colored. The ring on the
stem is also wider and thicker than in _campestris_. This variety
also grows larger than _campestris_, and the diameter of the cap is
commonly from three to six inches. The figure is only about one-half
the natural size. The horse mushroom is frequently confounded with
the common mushroom, and there is practically no difference in their
edible qualities. It grows preferably in gardens rather than fields,
and especially in gardens which have been heavily fertilized. It also
frequently appears in old beds composed of decayed stable manure which
has been used for forcing beds for early vegetables.
_Shaggy Mushroom_ (_Coprinus comatus_ Fr.).--The accompanying Fig.
63 represents a group of three specimens of this variety of mushroom
growing from a single base. The largest one is already showing signs
of liquefaction and decomposition and a part of the cap has already
disappeared. One of the peculiarities of this species is that beginning
with the edge of the cap the whole mushroom dissolves sometimes within
a day, when it is full grown, into an inky-black fluid. A portion of
this inky fluid has run partly down the white stem of the largest
mushroom. The cap of this mushroom, except when it begins to liquefy,
resembles somewhat the form of a partially closed umbrella. In the
early stages of growth the cap, gills, and stem are white, except the
apex of the cap, which is generally dark-colored. The surface of the
cap is covered with delicate lacerated scales, the characteristic from
which the name _comatus_ or shaggy is derived. The juice from the
fresh sample is colorless as water. When it first begins to turn it is
wine-colored, and until the juice is very deeply discolored the sample
is still edible. After the juice has turned completely black it is
considered too old to be eaten. This species of mushroom grows best in
shady places, in a soil well supplied with humus. The season in which
this variety of mushroom is most abundant is late in the autumn or
early in the winter, when the nights are cold but the ground is not yet
frozen. The liquefaction and decay of this mushroom come on so quickly
that it is not usually infested with larvæ which do not have time to
develop before the mushroom is reduced to a shapeless mass. The most
common organism found is the myriapod, a thousand-legged worm, which
often finds its way between the gills and stem. This cavity should
always be examined for worms of this kind when the mushroom is being
prepared for the table.
_Fairy Ring Mushroom_ (_Marasmius oreades_ Fr.).--This variety is one
which is interesting both on account of its edible properties and by
reason of the circular areas in which it often grows. This illustration
is about three-fourths of the natural size. The tendency of this
variety to grow in the annual form designated is beautifully shown
in the accompanying figure, from a photograph taken on the grounds
of the Department of Agriculture. The ring in question is seven feet
in diameter and the photograph was taken early in November. The stem
in this variety has no ring,--the gills are few and widely separated
and the cap as it becomes fully expanded has a peculiar knob-like
projection in the center. This gives a characteristic appearance to
this variety of mushroom. The cap and stem are colored a pinkish-buff,
and the gills have a lighter shade of the same color varying in early
growth toward a cream tint. The spores are white and can be observed
by placing the cap, as already indicated, on a dark-colored paper,
preferably black glazed paper. The fairy ring mushroom is one of
the commonest species which grows on the lawns in Washington and
vicinity. As many as twenty of these fairy rings have been found on
the grounds of the Department of Agriculture in one season. In the
earlier days, when superstition was more rife than at present, these
rings were supposed to mark the places of the dances of the fairies.
Another fanciful cause assigned for the production of the rings was
that it was due to the effect of lightning striking the ground and
burning the grass in a circle, and thus favoring the growth of fungi.
Investigations, however, show that the fairy ring is due to a peculiar
way in which the mycelium is produced, which begins at a central point,
growing uniformly in all directions a few inches each year. After
a while the central portion, being older, begins to die, and thus
a small circular band is formed which each year increases in size,
growing regularly on the outside and dying as regularly on the inside.
The fairy rings are not always complete circles,--they are sometimes
broken and often are crescent-shaped. This variety of mushroom is quite
permanent, does not tend to decay as rapidly as some, and resists
better than most varieties the attacks of insects. They, however, are
very small as compared with the other common varieties.
[Illustration: FIG. 64.--FAIRY RING FORMED BY _Marasmius oreades_, AN
EDIBLE MUSHROOM.--(_Coville, Circular 13, Division of Botany._)]
_Puff-balls._--A typical mushroom known as the puff-ball is the
variety known as _Lycoperdon cyathiforme_ Bosc. The puff-ball is so
plain in its form that a description of its appearance is difficult.
Usually the outside is colored brown and the covering is more or less
irregularly checked, the white color of the interior showing between
the darker, elevated areas. When still quite young the flesh is solid,
of a milk-white color, and apparently quite dry. After two or three
days it becomes soft, has a yellowish tint, develops a watery and
later an amber-colored juice as it continues its development through
to the later stages. If the mushroom remains ungathered, the interior
dries up into a fine brown powder which is projected into the air when
pressed by the finger. It is often blown away by the wind. When the
fungus reaches this stage of decay it is very commonly known as “the
devil’s snuff-box.” Finally the spores and other dust-like bodies
are blown away, and there is left only a dry and leathery framework.
In the latter stages the puff-ball is not regarded as edible, not
because of its being poisonous, but on account of its dry and leathery
consistency. In the neighborhood of Washington puff-balls are found
commonly in the autumn on lawns and in gardens, and especially on
vacant lots where the soil has remained uncultivated and been closely
grazed by cattle. The puff-ball also tends to grow in a fairy ring
form, and in the circular area in which it grows the grass is likely
to be darker in color, showing the existence of a richer soil. It is
only while the interior of the puff-ball is still solid and white, with
something like the texture of cheese, that it has its highest edible
properties.
[Illustration: FIG. 65.--PUFF-BALL, _Lycoperdon cyathiforme_, TOP VIEW.
EDIBLE. (THREE-FOURTHS NATURAL SIZE.)--(_Coville, Circular 13, Division
of Botany._)]
_Cepe_ (_Boletus edulis_ Bull.).--This variety of mushroom is one of
the most highly esteemed, especially in the south of France. It is
large and has a very large, half-pear shaped stem. The flesh of this
variety of mushroom is white and quite firm in the young mushroom,
but becomes softer with age and assumes on the outside a wine tint.
It grows, especially in the late summer and through the autumn, wild
in the forest. In the extreme south of France it sometimes appears
as early as April. (“Nouvel Atlas de Champignons,” Paul Dumée, page
45.) (“The Mushroom Book,” by Nina L. Marshall, page 109.) The cap is
usually from four to six inches in diameter and is a gray, brownish-red
or tawny-brown in color.
[Illustration: FIG. 66.--AMANITA (FULL-GROWN). (ONE-HALF NATURAL
SIZE.)--(_Coville, Circular 13, Division of Botany._)]
_The Fly Amanita_ (_Amanita muscaria_ (L.) Fr.).--This is one of the
very poisonous varieties of mushrooms. In the illustration the fully
matured mushroom is shown at one-half its natural size. This is the
most common poisonous mushroom which grows in the District of Columbia
and other nearby localities. The points especially to be noticed are
the bulbous enlargement at the base of the stem, breaking into thick
scales above, the very broad drooping ring near the top of the stem,
and the corky particles loosely attached to the smooth, glossy upper
surface of the cap. The stem, gills, and the spores are white, the
corky particles commonly of a buff color, but sometimes varying almost
to white. The glossy upper surface of the cap, beneath the corky
particles, varies from a brilliant red to orange-yellow, buff, and even
white. Commonly in the vicinity of Washington the coloration is orange
in the center, shading to yellow toward the margin. Brilliant red ones
are rarely seen in this locality, but white ones are not infrequent,
especially late in the season. This was the variety of mushroom that
lately caused the death of a well known man in Washington. This
poisonous variety is one of the largest, handsomest, and most dangerous
of mushrooms, and is one whose poisonous character has been most fully
studied. It is abundant in the vicinity of Washington in the fall,
growing chiefly in the pine woods and, especially, in the localities
which have been frequented by hogs. The chief active poisonous
principle of the _fly amanita_ is an alkaloid called muscarine,
but other poisonous substances whose exact nature has not yet been
discovered also occur in the plant.
[Illustration: FIG. 67.--FLY AMANITA BUTTONS (_Amanita muscaria_).
(NATURAL SIZE.)]
When this variety of mushroom is reduced to a paste and exposed where
it can be eaten by flies the latter are readily poisoned, and hence the
common name of “_fly amanita_.”
=Symptoms of Mushroom Poisoning.=--The symptoms of poisoning from the
_fly amanita_, as deduced from a number of cases, are varied. In some
instances they begin only after several hours, but usually in from
one-half to one or two hours. Vomiting and diarrhea almost always
occur, with a pronounced flow of saliva, suppression of the urine,
and various cerebral phenomena, beginning with giddiness, loss of
confidence in one’s ability to make ordinary movements, and derangement
of vision. This is succeeded by stupor, cold sweats, and a very marked
weakening of the heart’s action. In case of rapid recovery the stupor
is short and usually marked with mild delirium. In fatal cases the
stupor continues from one to two or three days, and death at last
ensues from the gradual weakening and final stoppage of the heart’s
action.
=Treatment for Poisoning.=--The treatment for poisoning by _Amanita
muscaria_ consists primarily in removing the unabsorbed portion of the
_Amanita_ from the alimentary canal and in counteracting the effect
of the muscarine on the heart. The action of this organ should be
fortified at once by the subcutaneous injection, by a physician, of
atropin, in doses of from one one-hundredth to one-fiftieth of a grain.
The strongest emetics, such as tartarized antimony or apomorphin,
should be used, though in case of profound stupor even these may not
produce the desired action. Freshly ignited charcoal or two grains of
a one percent alkaline solution of permanganate of potash may then be
administered in order, in the case of the former substance, to absorb
the poison, or in case of the latter, to decompose it. This should be
followed by oils and oleaginous purgatives, and the intestines should
be cleaned and washed out with an enema of warm water and turpentine.
Experiments on animals poisoned by the _fly amanita_ and with pure
muscarine show very clearly that when the heart has nearly ceased to
beat it may be stimulated to strong action almost instantly by the
use of atropin. Its use as thus demonstrated has been the means of
saving numerous lives. We have in this alkaloid an almost perfect
physiological antidote for muscarine, and therefore in such cases of
poisoning its use should be pushed as heroically as the symptoms of the
case will warrant.
The presence of phallin in _Amanita muscaria_ is possible and its
effects should be looked for in the red color of the blood serum
discharged from the intestines. (Circular 13, Div. of Botany.)
=Removal of the Poisonous Principle.=--In some parts of Europe the _fly
amanita_ is soaked in vinegar and then is eaten with impunity. Some of
the colored people in Washington and vicinity are acquainted with this
method of treatment, and the practice of soaking these fungi in vinegar
and then eating them is not unknown, though the majority of colored
women in the markets who deal in mushrooms look upon this species with
unrestrained horror.
The poisonous variety is denatured as follows: The stem is well
scraped, and the gills are removed from the cap and the upper surface
peeled off. The mushrooms prepared in this way are boiled in salt and
water and afterward steeped in vinegar. They are finally washed in
clear water and then cooked in the ordinary manner and eaten without
any injurious results. It is not recommended, however, that a mushroom
which contains so much deadly poison should be eaten at all, even after
a preparation of this kind. Any carelessness in the preparation or any
failure to carry out the process completely would result fatally.
=Canned Mushrooms.=--The canning of mushrooms is an industry of large
magnitude, especially in France. The young, unexpanded mushrooms in the
form of buttons are those which are usually subjected to the canning
process. Mushrooms are brought to the factory where they are cleaned
and scraped, the stem cut to a proper length, thoroughly washed in
several washings of clean water, and taken to a sulfuring furnace
where they are exposed to the fumes of burning sulfur for some time.
The purpose of this treatment is to bleach the mushroom and make it
as white as possible. Decayed or deformed buttons are not included in
the cans of highest quality. The prepared mushrooms are then placed in
cans, usually of tin, and preserved by subjecting them to a temperature
at or above boiling water until thoroughly sterilized.
=Canned Pieces and Stems of Mushrooms.=--The imperfect portions,
the pieces which are cut away, and other fragments of the mushroom,
resulting from the preparation of the product described above, are
treated practically in the same manner for sterilizing purposes and
are sold to the trade under various names, the most common of which
is Champignons d’Hotel. They also frequently appear under the name of
Champignon Choix and other deceptive labels.
=Adulteration of Mushrooms.=--There is no adulteration practiced of
fresh mushrooms unless the occasional occurrence of poisonous varieties
may be so considered. It is evident, however, that the introduction
of poisonous varieties is the result of carelessness or mistake and
not for any purpose. Nevertheless a most exacting supervision over the
preparation of fresh mushrooms for the market should be required, and
any failure to exercise this care may be considered as resulting in
adulteration or depreciation of the character of the product.
In canned mushrooms the presence of sulfurous acid may be regarded
as an adulterant, and such a substance, believed to be inimical to
health, is not necessary in the preparation of the goods. It is quite
certain that the public taste would soon adapt itself to an amber-
or brown-colored product in canned mushrooms and value it as highly
as the buttons which are white. Since the sole purpose of the use
of sulfur is for bleaching, the end secured scarcely justifies the
means. It is claimed, naturally, that the use of sulfur is also a
safeguard in securing a better keeping of the product, but such an
adjunct for keeping purposes is only necessary when the sterilization
is not complete. It is to be hoped that the day will soon come when
mushrooms bleached with sulfurous acid shall no longer be found upon
our market. The use of other preservatives than sulfurous acid has
at times been practiced, but it is not believed that there are many
cans of mushrooms offered upon the market which contain any chemical
preservatives whatever save the sulfurous acid above noted. Since the
canned mushrooms are valued principally as a condiment, the inclusion
of imperfect or partially decayed or malformed buttons is extremely
unusual. The buttons are separated into sizes of approximately the same
magnitude, so that a can of the product is uniform in size as well as
in quality. The customer may be reasonably certain that he is getting
a good, young, carefully selected product, free from disease and from
accidental impurities which might render the product unwholesome or
unpalatable.
=Truffles.=--The truffle has been known almost, if not quite as long
as the mushroom as an edible delicacy. The use of truffles in France
became very common during the 14th century, but on account of their
high price they remained for a long time a luxury and not a general
article of commerce. It is only within the 19th century, after 1840,
that their consumption became general. The truffle belongs to the
botanical family Tuberaceæ.
The propagation of truffles is similar to that of mushrooms, by spores,
which first give rise to a mycelium which by further condensation
forms the body of the truffle. This mycelium furnishes the nutritients
for the tubercle during a certain time of its early growth. In the
cultivation of the truffle, artificially, it is necessary to make use
of a forest or other similar artificial covering. If trees are planted
especially for the development of truffles it requires six or eight
years growth before the cultivation of truffles is successful. The
truffle grows very readily in the shade of nut-bearing trees and in
the shade of the oak. The mycelium does not produce truffles until
after several years of vegetation. When it once begins to fructify and
produce the truffle it continues to bear for many years. The truffle,
like the mushroom, grows rapidly. At first, as has already been
stated, it is nourished by the mycelium, but when this is exhausted
it is nourished by absorbing the nutritious elements from the soil
and air. When it reaches maturity and its spores are well formed the
truffle acquires its maximum of aroma and palatability. After it has
reached maturity it can remain a certain time in the soil without being
changed. However, after a time it is rapidly decomposed and its tissues
become the seat of various chemical reactions or it is devoured by
insects.
_Cultivation of Truffles._--The truffle may only be grown in the midst
of very favorable conditions of climate, altitude, mellowness of the
soil, moisture, and proper shade. The planting of truffle trees serves
as a _vehicle_ for the spores which are later to give birth to the
mycelium which itself produces the truffle. The spores of the truffles
usually reach the forests in which they are grown by natural means
without being particularly planted. Sometimes, however, the spores are
carried directly to the soil where the new crop is to be grown.
_Geographic Distribution._--The truffle, like the mushroom, is spread
over all parts of the earth. In Europe it is especially abundant in
France and Italy. The provinces in France where it grows in greatest
abundance are Provence, Dauphiné, Languedoc, and Périgord.
_Principal Varieties._--The varieties of truffles are not so numerous
as mushrooms, of which perhaps a thousand different varieties are
known, but still they are sufficiently numerous. One of those
frequently cultivated in France is known as truffles of Périgord
(_Tuber melanosporum_ Vittad.). It grows best under the shade of a
growing walnut or a young oak. The tubers of these plants, which are
the part valuable for food, may weigh from 60 to 500 grams. Other
botanical varieties which are much cultivated are _Tuber brumale_
Vittad., _Tuber æstivum_ Mich., _Tuber magnatum_ Vittad., and many
others.
_Harvesting of Truffles._--The truffle comes into production from the
sixth to the tenth year after planting the appropriate forest trees.
It is easy to determine the year when the harvest should begin, since
during the preceding year there is found in the soil some hypogæan
mushrooms which may be considered as precursors of the truffles.
Moreover, the soil under the tree becomes practically free of all
vegetation. The truffle ripens from November to April, according to
its variety. It is important that it should not be harvested except
at the period of complete maturity. For harvesting purposes certain
animals are made use of, such as the dog and hog. These animals have
a delicate smell in these matters and only bring out of the soil the
ripe truffles while they leave the others. Man is not able to make
this nice distinction, and harvests all indiscriminately, from which
there results great financial loss. In the harvesting of truffles the
ground should be gone over about once in eight days in order that the
tubercles may be secured during the whole winter at the proper time of
maturity. When the truffles are developed the soil above them is hilled
or cracked, especially after rains. These are the places which are
selected for the harvesting when it is done by the hand of man.
_Harvesting by Means of Flies._--When the weather is warm and clear
there is seen above the place where the tubers are lying, a multitude
of flies,--these mark the place where the harvest should be made. The
best time for this kind of a harvest is about nine o’clock in the
morning. Good results are not obtainable from this sign except when
the sun rises clear and becomes afterward warm. In order to find the
flies the husbandman stoops down near the surface of the soil and
looks horizontally over it. The colonies of flies are thus easily
distinguished, and below each one of these colonies the truffles are
found. This is also an ineffective method because only the overripened
tubercles attract the flies while those in their very prime are not
thus marked.
_Harvesting with Hogs._--The utilization of hogs for harvesting
purposes is by far the best and most economical method. It is employed
especially in Périgord and Midi. The harvesting can be either in the
morning or afternoon. The hogs which are used for harvesting should be
previously well fed in order to prevent them from eating the truffles
which they dig out of the ground. Each animal is led with a rope. As
soon as the hog gets the scent of truffles it pounces upon them and
rapidly uncovers them with its snout. When the weather is favorable a
hog can easily smell a truffle at a distance of 150 feet. As soon as
the animal has brought the truffle to the surface instead of allowing
him to eat it he should be recompensed by giving him some suitable food
such as maize. If this little attention is neglected the animal soon
becomes discouraged and refuses to work any longer. Before leaving the
spot the hog assures himself that no other truffles are contained in
that neighborhood. When the hog becomes very tired he walks very slowly
and with his mouth open. It is then necessary to give him a period of
rest before continuing the harvest. If the search for truffles does not
bring good results the animal becomes morose, indolent, and refuses to
obey. Sometimes when the hog is hungry and wants to eat the truffles
it is necessary to give him a smart blow on the snout with a stick. A
special race of hogs is used in this harvesting whose parents have also
possessed the skill, and thus it becomes hereditary. A good hog is able
to engage in the harvesting from the age of two to 25 years but they do
their best work at three or four years. A single animal may be able to
harvest from six to 40 pounds of truffles per day, according to their
abundance in the soil. This class of hogs have a very high value, and
are often sold in the south of France for this sole purpose at from
$30.00 to $70.00 per head.
_Harvesting with the Dog._--The dog is also employed in regions where
truffles are produced, and especially in those regions where the yield
is not so great and where the area to be gone over is very large. The
dog is used especially in the Dauphiné, Champagne, Bourgogne, Provence,
and Languedoc, and also in the neighborhood of Paris. These dogs are
trained, as in the case of hogs, especially for this purpose and should
be rewarded when a find is made, in the same manner as the hog. This
recognition of their services should never be forgotten if animals of
the greatest skill are to be secured. The dog, as is the case with the
hog, locates the truffles by the scent and digs with his four paws
until the truffles are laid bare,--the husbandman then draws them out
of the soil with long forceps. The hog is preferable to the dog because
it does the whole harvesting itself, whereas in the case of the dog the
husbandman must finish the operation.
The yield of the truffle farm is naturally extremely valuable, varying
with the relative abundance of growth and character of the soil itself.
Sometimes the yield drops as low as five pounds per acre and sometimes
rises as high as 70 pounds per acre. The average price of truffles is
$2.00 per pound. The largest yield is found in the truffle farms from
the tenth to the twentieth year.
_Properties of Truffles._--It is difficult to describe the properties
of truffles. They are, when prepared for the table, black, rather
firm in flesh, and have a distinct and most agreeable odor and taste.
A good truffle is extremely firm and resists the ordinary pressure
of the finger. If it is soft it shows that it is lacking in its best
characteristic.
The size of the truffle has a marked influence upon its value because
the small truffle loses a large part of its weight in the preparation
for eating. Truffles of good size are those which weigh from 40 to
50 grams, those of first choice weighing from 60 to 100 grams. After
the truffle passes 100 grams in weight the increased weight does not
proportionately increase the value. The truffles which come from light
soil are considered superior to those which come from rich soil. If
the soil contains a large quantity of iron the truffles are usually of
finer quality. All truffles are not black, though the best ones, like
those of Périgord, are black. Others are gray or brown.
_Adulteration of Truffles._--Commerce in truffles is the subject of
considerable fraud on account of the very high price of the genuine
article. The principal adulterations are the mixture of the inferior
or imperfect varieties with the choicest or best varieties. This
adulteration is easily discovered by making a careful examination of
the tubercles individually. Another fraud which is very much practiced
is the introduction of soil into the cracks or crevices in order
to increase their weight. This adulteration, of course, is easily
discovered by anyone who prepares the truffles for the table. Another
form of adulteration is the mingling with the ripe truffle of those
which have not reached maturity. The unripe tubercles have very little
flavor or taste and are thus easily distinguished from those which are
mature. Also practiced is the pressing together with some kind of a
glue of a number of smaller truffles in order to form a large mass, as
if it were an entire truffle, and thus securing a larger price. This is
also a fraud easily discovered. Still another form of sophistication is
the production of artificial truffles made from potatoes and especially
those which are partially spoiled which are colored in imitation of
the truffle itself. Only those who are ignorant of the texture of
the truffle can be deceived by this gross imitation. Another form
of adulteration is the sale of the truffle coming from regions less
esteemed for their products for those of other more esteemed regions
as for instance, the sale of truffles from Sarladais or from Domme for
those of Périgord.
_Preservation of the Truffle During Transit._--For the purpose of
keeping truffles in good condition during transit they may be placed in
moss, fine sand, or powdered chalk. They can be kept in this way for
a few days during transit, but should not be long preserved in this
manner. Truffles may also be preserved indefinitely by sterilization.
It is necessary to do this whenever they are to be sent over long
distances or kept for a long time. The methods of sterilizing are not
different from those described for ordinary vegetables. Truffles are
also preserved by desiccation, but in this case they lose something
of their odor and taste and are not so highly esteemed. Finally the
truffles are sometimes preserved by cooking them and preserving them in
wine or olive oil. (Raymond Brunet, “Manuel Pratique de la Culture des
Champignons et de la Truffe.”)
=Food Value of Fungi.=--While the mushroom and the truffle are the
principal fungi used as food they are by no means the only kinds.
Their value, as has already been indicated, is rather condimental than
nutritive. Those, however, who have eaten fresh or well preserved
mushrooms or truffles, cooked in the best style of the culinary art,
are fully acquainted with their value. The fear of poisoning does much
to restrict the use of the wild mushrooms. The fields and forests are
full of many varieties of these fungi, especially in the autumn. Very
few of the varieties are poisonous, but the conservative gourmand
hesitates to consume the fruits of his own activity as a collector.
In the hills of the Blue Ridge Mountains near Harper’s Ferry I have
seen large areas of the forest almost covered with these growths in
August and September, but the courage leading to their consumption was
wanting.