The Smyrna fig has lately been introduce_Foods and Their Adulteration Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations

part of the United States with great success. It grows especially well

in the southern part of California and Arizona. The Smyrna fig is one

of the varieties which requires fertilization of the flower through the

mediation of an insect. This process is called caprification. Although

this variety of fig has only been introduced into California to any

extent in the last five or six years, the growth of this most highly

esteemed variety has so increased that at the present time the output

of California alone amounts to about twelve million pounds per annum.

The Smyrna and Adriatic figs, used largely for drying and preserving

purposes, are seen in their natural colors in the appended colored

plate.

_Composition of Fresh Figs (Edible Portion)._--

Water, 79.11 percent

Protein, 1.52 „

Sugar, 15.53 „

Pure ash, .58 „

Fat, fiber, etc., 3.26 „

_Composition of Dried Figs._--

Water, 28.78 percent

Total sugar, 51.43 „

Acid as malic, .71 „

Protein, 3.58 „

Ether extract, 1.27 „

Cellulose, etc., 5.29 „

Crude fiber, 6.19 „

Ash, 2.75 „

[Illustration: FIG. 51.--FIG TREE THIRTY FEET HIGH NEAR YUBA,

CALIFORNIA.--(_Photograph by H. W. Wiley._)]

The interesting process of caprification is thus described by Professor

Hugh N. Starnes of the Georgia Experiment Station:

“In the base or false ovary of the gall flowers, which are merely

degenerate pistillates, the egg of the _Blastophaga grossorum_ or fig

wasp--a minute insect--is deposited and develops to maturity. The

wingless males emerge first and, with their powerful mandibles, cut

into the flowers containing the female wasps, partially release them,

and impregnate them. The gravid females shortly complete the liberating

process and, being winged, at once seek to escape for the instinctive

purpose of laying their eggs. They emerge from the eye of the

caprifig, after squeezing through the mass of pollen-covered anthers

protecting the exit, and seek other fruit in which to lay their eggs.

Naturally they would enter the nearest caprifig in the proper stage of

development. But, meanwhile, if the caprifig containing the colony has

been plucked from its stem and suspended in the branches of an adjacent

Smyrna tree, the female on emerging forces her way in a fruit of the

latter class, losing her wings in the process, and at once begins a

frantic scramble around the interior, searching for the anticipated

gall flowers in which to deposit her eggs. Failing, necessarily, to

find them, and incapable of again taking flight, she finally curls up

and dies heartbroken, but not until she and her companions have between

them pollinated every female flower in the cavity with the plentiful

store of pollen conveyed from the caprifig--thereby insuring the

development of the fruit.”

=Grape Fruit= (=Pomelo=) (_Citrus decumana_).--The so-called grape

fruit or pomelo is one of the biggest products of the citrus family and

also possesses properties which may be regarded as a cross between the

lemon and the orange. It is more acid than the orange and more sweet

than the lemon. This fruit is perhaps more highly esteemed than any

other citrus variety for direct edible purposes, forming a breakfast

dish which is eaten very extensively throughout all parts of the United

States by those who are able to afford the luxury, for so it still is

by reason of the high price of the product. Grape fruit grows to a

large extent in the United States, and its culture is confined to the

same region as that where the orange and lemon are grown.

_Composition of Grape Fruit (Pomelo)._--The composition of the pomelo

as given for the California product (Station Report, 1892, p. 256)

shows this fruit to have the following composition:

Average weight, 357.00 grams

Rind, 23.50 percent

Seeds, 3.70 „

Edible portion, 72.80 „

Composition of the juice from the edible portion:

Total solids, 13.20 percent

Total sugars, 9.50 „

Acids (as citric), 2.70 „

Professor Colby says in discussing these analyses that the proportion

of acid is larger in these samples than the general taste demands.

_Cuban Grape Fruit._--The grape fruit which is grown in Cuba has quite

a different character. Its flavor is mild, and it is almost devoid of

the bitter taste which is found in the American product, and which

adds greatly to its palatable properties when the consumer becomes

accustomed to it.

A marmalade is made from the grape fruit similar in all respects,

except the peculiar flavor given by the raw material, to that made

from oranges. It is evident from its high palatable properties and its

wholesomeness that grape fruit will become more and more an article of

value and be consumed in large quantities throughout the country.

=Guava= (_Psidium Guajava_).--This fruit is grown very extensively in

both California and Florida, also in Cuba, where a number of varieties

grow wild. The white guava is a small, round fruit, grayish-white

or yellow in color, and having an average weight of 1.5 ounces. The

pear-shaped fruit, the guava of Peru, is about twice the size of

the white variety, but otherwise resembles it very closely. Both

varieties contain large numbers of small seeds scattered throughout

the yellowish-white pulp. As a rule the guava is not eaten raw, but it

is a fruit from which some of the most highly prized jelly pastes and

preserves are made.

_Composition of the Guava._--The guava contains, in its fresh state,

an average of a little less than 80 percent of water and a little

more than 20 percent of solid matter. The solid materials in guavas

are quite insoluble in water, more than one-half of them not passing

into solution. The chief part of the soluble constituents of guavas

are the sugars, and these exist chiefly in the invert state. The total

percentage of sugar in guavas in the fresh state averages about six,

the protein amounts to about one percent, and the ash to a little over

one-half of one percent. The value of the guava, therefore, is more

condimental than nutritive, and for this reason it is seen why it is

not a valuable food product eaten in the raw state.

_Guava Preserves._--A large number of preserves are made from the

guava, and these products are well known and relished throughout the

country. The preserves are in various forms, being chiefly pastes,

marmalades, and jellies. These preparations contain the aromas and

flavoring qualities of the fruit, and when pure contain no added

product save sugar. They contain from 60 to 75 percent of added

sugar. The preserved products of the guava are generally packed in

wooden boxes, lined with paper, though some are packed in glass. The

crystallized guava, the guava cream, and the pastes contain large

quantities of added sugar, namely, about 80 percent. These preserves

naturally have a very low acid content by reason of the quantity of

sugar which has been added in their preparation. In this country often

the whole fruits are preserved in sugar sirup.

=Hicaco= (_Chrysobalanus icaco_).--The fruit of the hicaco is small and

round, varying from one to three inches in diameter. The average weight

of each fruit is about ¹⁄₄ oz. The skin is thin and green in color,

shading to red on the side exposed to the sun. It grows on a small

shrub and is sometimes called the cocoa plum. The surface is somewhat

shrivelled and wrinkled, and the seed weighs almost half as much as the

whole fruit. The fruit is not eaten in a fresh state, but is used for

making preserves. It is sweet to the taste and has a low acid content.

The composition of the fresh fruit is shown by the following table:

_Composition of Edible Portion--68.9 percent._--

Total solids, 14.29 percent

Total sugar, 5.18 „

Protein, .46 „

Acidity, .10 „

Ash, .96 „

These data show that the hicaco is a fruit low in nutritive value, in

so far as sugar is concerned, of a low content of protein and very

slight acidity.

_Hicaco Preserves._--A sample of hicaco preserves was found to have the

following composition:

Total solids, 65.07 percent

Sugar, 60.08 „

Protein, .12 „

Ash, .14 „

Acidity, .05 „

The above data indicate only the change in composition which would

come from adding the sugar in the process of manufacture. By reason

of the low acidity of the fruit the sugar in the preserves would,

theoretically, be largely cane sugar. In the case mentioned, however,

one-third of the sugar was inverted. Whether this was accomplished by

the action of the acid on the sugar during the process of manufacture

or whether by the use of molasses instead of sugar in the preserves

does not appear. More likely it is due to the latter.

=Kumquat= (_Citrus japonica_).--The kumquat is one of the smallest of

citrus fruits. It stands as one extreme of that important family of

which the grape fruit or pomelo represents the other. The fruit is

oval in shape, about one inch in diameter, and is one and one-half

inches long. It may be regarded as a dwarf orange, and was brought

into the United States from Japan, although it is a native of China.

The name--kumquat--is of Chinese origin and is intended to mean “Gold

Orange.” The kumquat tree, under favorable circumstances, reaches a

height of 10 or 12 feet and forms a compact, symmetrical, and handsome

head. The pulp of the fruit is very tender and agreeably acid and the

rind is spicy, as is the case with most of the acid fruits. It is

not only valued as a fruit, but the tree is also highly prized as an

ornament. Its beautifully colored fruit, in contrast with its green

leaves, presents a most agreeable spectacle. It is grown in the United

States principally in Florida. The composition of the kumquat is

practically that of the orange.

=Lemons.=--The citrus fruit, next in importance to the orange, if not

more important, is the lemon (_Citrus limonum_). This fruit is grown

extensively in the United States in the same localities that produce

the orange, that is, chiefly in Florida and southern California.

Its method of cultivation, general treatment, time of ripening and

harvesting are the same as that of the orange. Its principal difference

from the orange is in its greater acidity and in certain peculiarities

of its aromatic and oily substances. From the rind is produced an

essential oil which, while resembling that of the orange in general

character, has distinct properties which easily discriminate it

from the orange product. The lemon also has a correspondingly less

proportion of sugar than the orange. In 22 analyses of California

lemons they were found to contain 5.26 percent of acid and only 2.33

percent of sugar. The distinct feature of the lemon, therefore, is its

acidity. The principal acid present in lemons is citric acid, though

other organic acids are also found. The acids are either free or in

combination with a base, the principal base being potash. On account

of its high acidity and low sugar content the lemon is used more as

a relish and in the manufacture of acid beverages than directly as a

food. There are some varieties known as sweet lemons which are eaten as

oranges or used directly for food purposes, but generally the lemon is

too sour and acid for consumption in this manner.

=Lime.=--A species of citrus fruit which is even more acid than the

lemon is known as the lime (_Citrus hysrix acida_).

Limes are not eaten directly as food on account of their high acidity,

but their expressed juice is sold throughout the world for beverages

and medicinal purposes. The lime also yields an essential oil, which

is very similar in character to that derived from lemons. In fact the

lime may be regarded as a very sour lemon, just as the orange may be

regarded as a very sweet one.

_Adulteration of Lime Juice._--Unfortunately lime juice is offered

on the market often in entirely spurious forms, that is, a mixture

made up with flavoring of an acid character resembling that of the

natural juice. The natural juice is also frequently adulterated by the

addition of preservatives. Among these, sulfurous and salicylic acids

are perhaps the most frequent. Lime juice can be perfectly preserved by

sterilization, and there is no necessity for the use of preservatives

therein.

In the tropics there is also found a lime of a saccharine character

known as the sweet lime, but this fruit does not have a very great

vogue.

=Mamey Colorado.=--This is a tropical fruit which is very extensively

grown in Cuba, and derives its local name from a very slight outward

resemblance to the mammee (_Mammea americana_). These two fruits,

however, have no botanical or other relation to each other, nor do they

have any internal resemblance. The mamey colorado is chocolate brown

in color, oval or round in shape, and its average weight is about 1.5

pounds. The skin is thick and coarse. The pulp has a yellowish color,

varying to a deep scarlet, and is slightly fibrous and firm, but

mealy and rather dry. It has a sweetish taste with very little acid

flavor. It is eaten chiefly in the fresh state and is also stewed with

sugar. The fruit usually contains but one seed, though as many as four

are sometimes found. The seeds are imbedded in a soft core and are

irregularly oval. The natural season is from December to August. These

fruits are very largely used for making preserves.

The composition of the mamey colorado is as follows:

_Composition of Edible Portion--86.10 percent._--

Solids, 34.01 percent

Total ash, .80 „

Acid, .10 „

Total sugar, 22.05 „

The analysis shows that the mamey colorado is a fruit which in its

edible properties and nutritive value very closely resembles the banana.

=Mamey de Santo Domingo= (_Mammea americana_).--This is a fruit

extensively used in Cuba and other tropical countries. It is of a

light brown color, from three to ten inches in diameter, and weighs

sometimes as much as 1¹⁄₂ pounds. The skin is thick and fibrous, the

outer surface being tough and covered with small brown spots. The

pulp is dark yellow in color, firm, and very juicy. It has a sweet

characteristic flavor and a pleasant aromatic odor. The seeds sometimes

measure three inches in diameter and cling tenaciously to the pulp.

It is very commonly eaten raw and is highly esteemed for preserving

purposes.

The composition of the mamey de Santo Domingo is shown in the following

table:

_Composition of Edible Portion--60.70 percent._--

Solids, 14.12 percent

Total ash, .31 „

Acids, .42 „

Protein, .49 „

Total sugar, 9.47 „

The above data show that this fruit is very much less sweet and very

much more acid than the mamey colorado and for nutritive purposes is

of much less value, but by reason of its greater acidity and higher

flavoring it is more suitable for the manufacture of preserves than

the fruit resembling it in external appearances and name. It is used

extensively in the manufacture of preserves and marmalades which are so

similar in composition as not to be distinguished from each other by

their chemical analyses.

The compositions of a preserve known as mamey en almibar and a

marmalade known as mermelade de mamey are shown in the following table:

---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

almibar, | 60.05 | .154 | .194 | .363 | 57.45

de mamey,| 69.74 | .149 | .123 | .269 | 62.68

---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

[Illustration: FIG. 52.--JAMAICA MANGO TREE.--(_By permission American

Nut and Fruit Co._)]

=Mango= (_Magnifera indica_ L.).--The mango is a fruit which is highly

prized throughout the world. It is a native of southern Asia, where it

has been known from earliest times. In the United States the mango is

chiefly grown in Florida as a horticultural crop. The mango is a tree

peculiarly sensitive to frost, and therefore does not grow as far north

as oranges. Its profitable cultivation at present is confined to the

extreme southern part of the Florida peninsula.

The mango is an evergreen tree. In Florida, under favorable conditions

of growth, it reaches as high as 40 or 50 feet. It makes a tree of

graceful appearance with a dense, dome-shaped top. The color of the

mango fruit is varied; it may be red, green, or yellow, or a mixture of

these colors. The tree and fruit both possess an agreeable odor, and

every part of the tree, almost, can be of some economic value. The ripe

fruit is a delicious dessert and is wholesome. It is often recommended

for its medicinal properties. The rind and fiber, as well as the unripe

fruit, are acid and full of tannin, which makes them astringent to the

taste. Mangos may be eaten in the raw state, and they are also valued

for making preserves, pickles, marmalades, and jelly. A very popular

sauce known as mango chutney is prepared from the mango and is largely

used in the United States and England, being mostly imported from

India. The appearance of the tree is shown in Fig. 52.

=Oranges= (_Citrus aurantium_).--This fruit is characterized by its

delightful flavor and by the distribution of certain aromatic oils,

especially in the rind, which give it a peculiar aroma and flavor. The

orange has a thick yellow rind which, while edible, is not usually

eaten, but is the source of valuable essential oils. A large part

of the orange, as far as weight is concerned, is not usually eaten;

usually from 25 to 40 percent of the weight is in the rind or some

inedible portion. The ash of the orange is usually less than one-half

of one percent. The predominant organic acid of the orange is citric,

although other organic acids are present. The quantity of protein

present in an orange is very small, usually not exceeding very much a

half of one percent. The quantity of sugar varies greatly in different

samples. It is present both as cane sugar or sucrose and as reducing

or invert sugar. In the very sweet orange the quantity reaches as

high as 10 percent or even greater, while in the sour orange it is

less. The principal food value of the orange, as far as nutriment

is concerned, is its sugar. The orange, however, has other valuable

properties, especially from a hygienic standpoint, aside from its

nutriment. The organic salts which it contains, the organic acids, and

other condimental material make the orange an exceptionally wholesome

fruit, exercising a beneficial effect upon the digestive process and

especially aiding in the passage of the undigested food through the

alimentary canal. The orange is a fruit which has lasting keeping

qualities. It is not unusual to see ripe oranges which are edible

hanging on the same tree with the blossoms which are blooming for the

next year’s crop. In California and Florida the oranges begin to ripen

in November and may be continuously harvested until the following

April, if it be advisable to leave them on the tree for that length of

time. Owing to the thick and resistant skin of the orange, it can be

kept for a long time without material deterioration after harvesting,

if care be taken to avoid bruising or injuring the fruit in any way

while handling. Oranges thus harvested and wrapped in paper and kept

at a low temperature will keep for weeks and even months, and still be

edible and nourishing. This property of the orange makes it possible

to supply the markets of the world practically throughout the entire

year with one of the most delicious and nutritious of fruits. In former

years the orange was regarded as a luxury, but at the present time it

is a staple article of diet even for people in moderate circumstances,

and is often eaten by those who are poor. In Fig. 53 is given a typical

illustration of a California orange grove.

[Illustration: FIG. 53.--AN EDGE OF A CALIFORNIA ORANGE GROVE.--(_Bureau

of Plant Industry._)]

The culture of the orange has demanded the highest agricultural and

scientific skill, and perhaps there is no crop produced to which

greater attention has been paid. In Florida, especially, the oranges

are grown on soil which is not much more than poor sand, and hence the

scientific feeding of the trees, that is, the fertilization of the

soil in which they grow, is necessary to success. As a result of this

application of science luxuriant crops of oranges are found growing

upon sandy soil which without scientific treatment would be almost

barren. The soils in southern California, on the other hand, are very

rich in natural plant food, but this does not obviate the necessity

of scientific manuring. Oranges grow throughout the year in tropical

and semi-tropical regions. It is considered by connoisseurs, however,

that the oranges grown in the semi-tropical regions, that is far enough

north for a little frost to come during the winter, but without a

sufficient degree of cold to injure the trees, are of better quality

than those grown in tropical regions where frost is unknown.

[Illustration: FIG. 54.--THE ORIGINAL SEEDLESS ORANGE TREE.--(_Courtesy

Bureau of Plant Industry._)]

_The Seedless Orange._--The variety of orange which contains no seed

has been widely cultivated in the United States, and by reason of the

absence of seeds is more highly prized by many than the ordinary orange

for edible purposes. Since the orange tree has been cultivated by

grafting rather than by direct production of the different varieties

from the natural seed, it has been possible to secure a fruit without

seeds. Whether such an unnatural product will continue to maintain its

high rank as an edible product remains to be seen. The seedless orange

tree, from which are descended the greater part of these trees in the

United States, was secured by Mr. William Sanders from Bahia. Its

present appearance in the greenhouse of the Department of Agriculture

is shown in Fig. 54. The naval orange is exceedingly beautiful as it

grows upon the tree. A bunch of these oranges growing on the parent

tree in Washington is shown in Fig. 55.

[Illustration: FIG. 55.--A GROUP OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE ON THE

TREE.--(_Courtesy Bureau of Plant Industry._)]

=Pineapple.=--The pineapple is a fruit grown very extensively in

tropical and also subtropical countries. It is a crop of great

importance in Florida. The flavor and aroma of the pineapple grown

in subtropical countries is often preferred to that of the tropical

grown fruit. Pineapples grow best when sheltered to some extent from

the direct rays of the sun. In Florida it is planted near live oaks,

where a partial shade is secured. It is often artificially covered by

means of narrow boards placed near together and yet leaving abundant

space for the sunlight. Sometimes these covered fields are two or three

acres in extent. In Fig. 56 is given a representation of the pineapple

growing under a covering of this kind in Florida at the Agricultural

Experiment Station, Lake City.

Formerly pineapples were regarded as great luxuries, and often were set

up in the center of the table as an ornament rather than as a dessert.

They have now become very common and are frequently used as a dessert,

for flavoring ice cream, for preserving, and for general use as a fruit.

[Illustration: FIG. 56.--COVERED PINEAPPLE.--(_Courtesy of Florida

Experiment Station._)]

_Adulteration of Pineapples._--The only adulterations which are found

in pineapples are of course in the canned product. Investigations in

the Bureau of Chemistry show that adulteration is not extensively

practiced, unless the addition of cane sugar without notice can be so

regarded.

From the point of view of the collection of duties, the addition of

cane sugar without notice is an adulteration, since under provision

of law pineapples canned in their own juice pay one rate of duty and

when preserved with sugar pay another. Inasmuch as the label of a food

product should tell the whole truth concerning it, the addition of

cane sugar, without notice to that effect upon the label, is calculated

to deceive and should not be practiced. There is no objection of any

kind to the use of cane sugar in the canning of pineapples if the

label indicates that this has been done. On the other hand there is no

reason why the addition of sugar should be practiced. The pineapples

are bought and consumed for their natural flavor, and not on account of

the added sugar which they may contain. In the canning of pineapples it

is just as easy to secure complete sterilization in their own juice as

it is to secure it with the added sirup. In practice, however, it is

more convenient after filling the cans with the pieces of pines to add

a sugar sirup to fill up the spaces than to secure sterilization by the

application of heat alone, which would not cause a sufficient quantity

of juice to exude to fill up the interstices of the cans, and they,

therefore, would be partially empty.

_Canned Pineapples._--There is a very large trade in this country in

canned pineapples imported from Singapore and the Straits Settlements

and the Bahamas. The pines are usually canned with the addition of

sugar, and those that come to our ports are as a rule sweetened only

with cane sugar.

A large number of analyses has been made of these canned pineapples in

the Bureau of Chemistry and the general data which were secured are

presented below:

Canned pineapples from Singapore, average, maximum, and minimum

composition:

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

Average,| 20.15 | 17.90 | .46 | .28 | .30

Maximum,| 25.30 | 25.10 | .60 | .36 | .43

Minimum,| 18.18 | 14.87 | .39 | .21 | .16

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The above data show that it is possible to compute the average quantity

of sugar which is added in the preparation of the sample. If we assume

in round numbers that the natural pine contains 12 percent of sugar,

we find that approximately eight pounds per hundred of fruit have been

added in the preparation of the pines from Singapore.

Below is found the average, maximum, and minimum composition of ten

samples of canned pineapples from the Straits Settlements:

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

Average,| 21.04 | 18.45 | .47 | .26 | .26

Maximum,| 24.28 | 21.94 | .57 | .32 | .32

Minimum,| 17.32 | 14.54 | .39 | .22 | .17

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

These data show that the preparation of the pines in the Straits

Settlements for shipment in cans is the same as that in Singapore. The

average amount of sugar added appears to be about one percent greater.

Average composition of canned pineapples from the Bahamas:

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

Average,| 13.78 | 10.69 | .34 | .38 | .57

Maximum,| 26.78 | 22.43 | .46 | .50 | 1.18

Minimum,| 8.54 | 6.33 | .20 | .22 | .22

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The above data show that nearly all the canned pineapples coming from

the Bahamas must be regarded as canned in their natural juice without

the addition of sugar. Of the whole number of samples examined, only

four gave any indication of containing added sugar.

_Composition of the Pineapple._--The average composition of twenty-two

samples of fresh pineapple grown in Florida, as determined in the

Bureau of Chemistry, is as follows:

Total solids, 13.85 percent

Total sugar, 11.69 „

Protein, .40 „

Ash, .42 „

Acidity, .52 „

Of the sugars 4.44 percent existed in the form of invert or reducing

sugar and 6.88 percent as cane sugar. These data show that the value

of a pineapple as a food product lies chiefly in the sugar which it

contains. The ethereal and aromatic properties of the pineapple give to

it its chief value as a food, since it is the flavor and aroma rather

than the nutriment in the fruit which make it valued as a food. These

flavors and aromas are due to essential oils and ethers or compound

ethers, and they exist in such minute quantities as to escape ordinary

chemical investigation. A study of the details of analyses show that

there is a wide variation in the percentage of sugar. In two instances

the total sugar fell below eight percent, but those evidently were

green and imperfect samples and were not included in the general

average.

The highest quantity of sugar found in any case of a Florida pineapple

was 15.28 percent.

The data show that in general it may be said that the Florida pineapple

contains nearly 12 percent of its weight of sugar.

_Average Composition of Cuban Pineapples._--The average composition of

10 samples of Cuban pineapples examined in the Bureau of Chemistry is

shown in the following data:

Total solids, 14.52 percent

Sugars, 11.87 „

Protein, .40 „

Ash, .35 „

Acidity, .56 „

These data show that the Cuban pineapple is only a trifle sweeter than

that grown in Florida and has in general the same composition.

The Florida pineapples when placed on the market have qualities which

are by most connoisseurs judged to be superior to those of Cuban

origin, although these qualities are not indicated by any marked

difference in the analytical results.

The average composition of Bahama pineapples, examined in the Bureau of

Chemistry, is given in the following table:

Total solids, 14.81 percent

Sugar, 12.22 „

Protein, .48 „

Ash, .40 „

Acidity, .77 „

The Bahama pineapple, as is seen by the above data, is somewhat sweeter

than the Florida or Cuban grown fruit and also has a higher acidity.

_Average Composition of Porto Rican Pineapples._--Two samples of Porto

Rican pines, examined in the Bureau of Chemistry, had the following

composition:

Total solids, 15.91 percent

Total sugar, 15.36 „

Protein, .48 „

Ash, .37 „

Acidity, .72 „

The other samples of pines coming from Porto Rico were so immature that

it was found they contained only about one-half the percentage of sugar

and one-half the total solids of the ripened fruits. They were probably

harvested in an immature state in order to withstand the vicissitudes

of transportation. The above data show that the ripe pines of Porto

Rico are even richer than those of the Bahamas in sugar and nutritive

value.

The average, maximum, and minimum of all samples of the fresh pine from

all countries examined in the Bureau of Chemistry show the following

composition:

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

Average,| 14.17 | 11.90 | .42 | .40 | .60

Maximum,| 18.86 | 15.28 | .57 | .55 | .85

Minimum,| 10.78 | 8.20 | .21 | .27 | .30

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

In order that some idea might be obtained of the composition of the

pines grown at Singapore and Nassau, the consuls in those localities

were requested to secure the preservation of the pines by sterilization

without the addition of any substance, that is, their preservation in

their natural juice. In this condition the fruit of the pine, naturally

preserved, was sent to the Bureau of Chemistry and subjected to

analysis with the following average results:

_Average Composition_ (ten samples from Singapore).--

Solids, 13.39 percent

Sugars, 11.73 „

Protein, .48 „

Ash, .38 „

Acidity, .39 „

_Average Composition_ (two samples from Nassau).--

Solids, 13.18 percent

Sugars, 10.86 „

Protein, .40 „

Ash, .41 „

Acidity, .58 „

The above data show that the pineapples grown in Singapore and Nassau

are not notably different in composition from those grown in Florida,

Cuba, and Jamaica. All the data indicate that the pineapples grown in

different parts of the world have practically the same composition at

the same state of maturity.

=Sapota= (=Sapodilla=) (_Sapota zapotilla_ (Jacq.) Coville).--This is

a tropical fruit which is grown in large quantities in Cuba, where two

varieties are known, differing only in shape, one being round and the

other oval. In the Havana markets the latter variety is incorrectly

known as the nispero. This name, however, is properly applied to the

fruit loquat (_Eriobotrya japonica_). The fruit is small, weighing

usually under two ounces, has a brown or brownish-green color and

in general appearance resembles a smooth, dark potato. The skin is

thick and coarse in texture, the pulp is yellowish-brown in color,

granular in texture, and rich in juice. The odor is characteristic,

and the taste is quite sweet. The seeds number from one to five and

are contained in a soft open core,--they are of a brownish-black color

with a single white stripe. They measure from three-quarters to one

inch in length. The fruit comes into use about the first of April and

lasts until the end of summer. It is a very popular fruit in summer

and deserves more attention in the various markets than it has yet

received. The sap of the sapota tree and juice of the green fruit

when concentrated furnish the material known as chicle, from which

chewing-gum is made. The compositions of the round and long sapota and

the natural preserved pulp of the sapota are given in the following

table:

_Composition of Edible Portion._--

-------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------

| | COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE PORTION.

| +-------+------+------+------+------

-------------------------+--------+-------+------+------+------+------

| _Per- | _Per- | _Per-|_Per- | _Per-| _Per-

Round sapota, | 76.40 | 23.07 | 0.384| 0.132| 0.350| 10.85

Long sapota, | 80.90 | 21.01 | .555| .162| .650| 12.76

Natural sapota preserves,| .... | 22.95 | .399| .086| .231| 11.30

-------------------------+--------+-------+------+------+------+------

The sapota is also used in the manufacture of preserves by boiling it

with sugar in the usual way. The analyses show that the sapota is a

fruit which is principally valuable as a carbohydrate food. It has,

however, very little acid, and is a much sweeter fruit than the anona

and, therefore, more pleasant to the taste.

=Star-apple= (=Cainito=) (_Chrysophyllum cainito_).--The star-apple is

one of the less important fruits which abound in Cuba. It is not very

extensively used, but medicinal properties are attributed to it. Three

different varieties are sold in the Havana markets,--one of a white

color and two purple. The first attains the size of a small apple,

approaching about seven ounces in weight. There are two kinds of meat

in the pulp; the outer portion is a white, gelatinous matter which

contains the small black seed and is really the edible portion, and

constitutes about one-third the weight of the fruit. The outer fibrous

and purple portion of the flesh is inedible. The inner pulp has a sweet

characteristic flavor and is eaten raw. No preserves were found made of

this in Cuban markets. The composition of the white star-apple is shown

in the following table:

_Composition of Edible Portion--41.80 percent._--

Solids, 14.23 percent

Sugar, 7.91 „

Protein, .67 „

Ash, .35 „

Acidity, .05 „

These data show that the fruit is not of a very high nutritive order,

and on account of its low acidity it is not suitable for the making of

preserves.

=Tamarind= (_Tamarindus Indica_).--This fruit belongs to the leguminous

family and forms a dark brown pod from one to six inches in length

and from three-fourths of an inch to one inch in width. The rind is

thin and very brittle. Within the pod is found a dark-colored pasty

material, closely attached to the seed sacks and joined to the stem of

the pod by coarse fibers. This pasty material constitutes the edible

portion of the fruit and has a very sour taste which serves to mask

the large amount of sugar, sometimes as much as 30 percent, which it

contains. The tamarind is remarkable as having the highest content both

of acid and sugar of any of the edible fruits which are in common use.

It contains more acid, for instance, than the sourest lime and more

sugar than the sweetest fruit. The tamarind is not very largely used

directly for edible purposes but is a component of many refreshing

summer beverages and is used for flavoring other products. It has

mild purgative properties, and hence its intermittent use in small

quantities tends to keep in proper regulation the mechanical movements

which are so necessary to normal digestion.

_Composition of the Tamarind._--

Water, 47.47 percent

Acid, 6.03 „

Sugar, 31.43 „

Protein, 1.36 „

Ash, 1.56 „

The above data show that the tamarind is essentially of a carbohydrate

nature, its chief food value being in the sugar which it contains. On

account of its high acidity very little of the sugar which is present

is in the form of sucrose or cane sugar, but is mostly in an invert

condition.

_Preparation of Tamarinds._--Tamarinds are not only used directly

but most extensively in the form of tamarind paste which is made up

chiefly by the addition of cane sugar to the pulp; as much as 75

percent of sugar is often added to the making of paste. Another form

of preparation is called tamarind pulp, which has practically the same

composition as the paste. These two bodies may be called tamarind

preserves. The proportion of pulp to added sugar is about as 20 to 80.

=Mineral Constituents of Tropical Fruits.=--The mineral content of

the edible portions of fruits is important, both from a dietetic and

chemical point of view.

The mineral substances in fruits not only add to their palatability

but also have important functions in digestion and assimilation. The

lime and phosphoric acid which the ash of fruits contain are foods

that nourish certain tissues of the body, such as the bones. The other

mineral ingredients of fruits take an active part in the circulation of

the fluids of the body. Since the modern development of physiological

chemistry, what is known as osmotic force, or the power that causes

solutions to pass through membranes, is believed to be due largely

to the mineral constituents of the juices of the body. These mineral

constituents are therefore necessary in the food. The following table

gives the total quantity of ash in the edible portion of the tropical

fruits named, together with the composition of the ash in respect of

its most important constituents (Bulletin 87, Bureau of Chemistry):

ANALYSES OF THE ASH OF THE EDIBLE PORTION OF THE SEVERAL FRUITS.

--------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+

| | | | | |

OF SAMPLE. | ASH. |(SiO₂).|(K₂O).|(CaO).| (MgO). |

--------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+

| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per- |

Orange (china), | 0.52 | 1.01 | 40.66|10.26 | 5.27 |

Orange (rough skin),| .55 | .. | 49.15| 2.62 | 1.41 |

Orange (sour), | .57 | .. | 45.09| 7.95 | 2.17 |

Grape fruit, | .39 | .. | 44.19| 7.34 | 3.92 |

Lime, | .98 | .. | 43.01| 7.84 | 2.36 |

Sweet lemon, | .98 | .. | 54.35| 4.29 | 1.08 |

Tamarind, | 1.56 | 15.57 | .. | .68 | 2.19 |

| | [34] | | | |

Guava, | .84 | 1.13 | 55.00| 2.48 | 1.64 |

Banana (niño), | .70 | .. | 46.46| .95 | .42 |

Banana (oronoco), | 1.08 | .. | 52.41| 1.02 | 1.90 |

Banana (colorado), | .83 | .. | 51.47| .37 | .65 |

Mango (French), | .53 | .. | 47.37| 6.38 | 1.62 |

Mango (Filipino), | .41 | 1.75 | 51.79| 1.74 | 3.25 |

Manga, | .78 | 2.14 | 49.37| 2.38 | .. |

Guanabana, | .86 | 1.48 | 48.93| .44 | 2.17 |

Anona, | .80 | .63 | 47.27| .81 | 2.07 |

Chirimoya, | 1.04 | .. | 49.73| 2.21 | .66 |

Sapota, | .50 | .. | 43.13| 7.49 | 2.83 |

Mamey (colorado), | .80 | .. | 50.57| 1.38 | 1.36 |

Do., | .89 | .. | 48.20| 1.73 | 3.35 |

Hicaco, | .91 | .. | 35.15| 5.84 | 4.51 |

Cainito, | .35 | .. | 54.75| 1.31 | .. |

Pineapple, | .. | .. | 59.18| 9.44 | 5.52 |

Do., | .. | .. | 57.13| 4.80 | 3.44 |

--------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+

--------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------

| FERRIC |PHOSPHORIC|SULFURIC|

DESCRIPTION | OXID | ACID | ACID |CHLORIN

OF SAMPLE. |(Fe₂O₃).| (P₂O₅). | (SO₃). | (Cl).

--------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------

| _Per- | _Per- | _Per- | _Per-

| cent._ | cent._ | cent._ | cent._

Orange (china), | 1.09 | 8.56 | 2.84 | 2.44

Orange (rough skin),| 4.51 | 7.42 | 3.42 | 1.50

Orange (sour), | 2.40 | 8.70 | 2.72 | .98

Grape fruit, | 1.28 | 11.09 | 3.39 | 1.38

Lime, | .. | 8.45 | 2.62 | 4.07

Sweet lemon, | .. | 9.83 | 4.09 | 1.32

Tamarind, | .. | 4.99 | 1.40 | .48

| | | |

Guava, | .. | 8.29 | 3.58 | 5.33

Banana (niño), | .. | 10.36 | 2.36 | 6.59

Banana (oronoco), | .. | 5.16 | 3.32 | 8.48

Banana (colorado), | .. | 3.25 | 2.77 | 7.63

Mango (French), | .. | 6.49 | 3.67 | 3.88

Mango (Filipino), | .. | 9.04 | 4.88 | 1.56

Manga, | .. | 5.57 | 3.84 | 4.20

Guanabana, | .. | 9.15 | 4.54 | 3.40

Anona, | .. | 13.63 | 3.19 | 3.51

Chirimoya, | .. | 6.57 | 4.49 | 7.40

Sapota, | .. | 2.74 | 4.55 | 17.41

Mamey (colorado), | .. | 4.90 | 3.54 | 17.34

Do., | .. | 9.66 | 3.80 | 16.00

Hicaco, | .. | 3.09 | 4.77 | 18.62

Cainito, | .. | 11.00 | 5.50 | 9.46

Pineapple, | .. | 6.51 | 3.04 | 3.22

Do., | .. | 4.29 | 3.65 | 4.08

--------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------

[34] 2.88 percent sand.

The above data show that the percentage of ash in the edible portion

of tropical fruits is never very high. In only three instances in

the above table does it exceed one percent and in two of those only

slightly. The principal mineral constituent is potash, which in round

numbers may be said to constitute one-half of the total ash. Of the

acid constituents phosphoric acid is the most important. In four cases

the amount of phosphoric acid is greater than 10 percent of the total

weight of the ash. The proportion of sulfuric acid in the ash is quite

constant, while the amount of chlorin varies from less than one-half of

one percent to more than 18 percent.

In this case of high ash there is a low content of phosphoric acid,

which leads to the supposition that the chlorin is partially or wholly

combined with sodium and potassium. In addition to the elements

mentioned above the ash of edible fruits often contains notable

quantities of silica and sometimes considerable quantities of sand,

added accidentally or by the collection of dust. The ash of fruit also

quite universally contains iron. In some cases the quantity of iron

amounts to as much as four percent of the total weight of the ash. The

data in the above table are calculated on the percentage of total ash

and not on the percentage of pure ash, that is, ash deprived of its

carbon, sand, and carbonic acid.

There are some peculiarities in the composition of the ash of tropical

fruits to which attention may be called. The citrus fruits contain

somewhat larger amounts of lime and iron than ordinary fruits. The

ash of the tamarind contains large quantities of silica. The ash of

the banana has a low content of lime and magnesia and a high content

of chlorin. Attention is also called to the fact that in the ordinary

combustion of an organic substance to secure the mineral matter notable

quantities of the phosphoric acid and chlorin contained may be lost.

Therefore, the data for phosphoric acid and for chlorin are probably

lower than would be the case if all of these substances present in

the fruit had been secured in the ash. The ash of pineapples is not

peculiar in any respect, nor does it contain any marked amount of a

constituent by which it can be identified. The pineapple, as is seen,

contains slightly more potash than the other tropical fruits.

SUGAR AND ACID IN FRUIT.

The palatable quality of fruit depends largely upon the aromatic

substances which they contain in the form of essential oils, esters,

and ethers, and especially upon their sugar and acid content. The

sweet taste of sugar in fruits and also often in nuts is modified and

relieved by the acid or astringent materials, chiefly tannin, with

which it is associated. In the analyses indicating the composition of

fruits and of nuts and also of vegetables the sugar has not always been

given separately, but as one member of a group consisting of sugar,

starch, and cellulose materials soluble in weak acid and alkalies,

and for this reason deemed to be digestible. It seems advisable to

supplement this information with a special table giving the average

quantity of sugar and acid found in some of the principal fruits. It

must not be forgotten that in individual cases the quantity of sugar

and acid may vary largely from the average, but the following data may

be regarded as expressing very accurately the average content of sugar

and acid in the common fruits.

SUGAR. ACID.

_Percent._ _Percent._

Apples, Rhode Island Greening, 10.95 .70 as malic

„ Winesap, 11.95 .50 „ „

„ Northern Spy, 11.80 .70 „ „

Apricots, fresh, 11.01 1.15 „ „

„ dried, 29.59 2.52 „ „

Bananas, 20.28 .30 „ sulfuric

Blackberries, 5.78 .77 „ malic

Cranberries, 1.52 2.34 „ „

Currants, 6.70 2.24 „ „

Grapes, 7.90-26.40 .59 „ tartaric

Lemons, .37 5.39 „ citric

Oranges, 5.65 1.35 „ „

Peaches, 7.88 .56 „ sulfuric

Pears, 9.11 .19 „ malic

Pineapples, 11.50 .60 „ sulfuric

Plums, 14.71 .77 „ malic

Prunes, 16.11 .32 „ „

Raspberries, 5.33 1.48 „ „

Strawberries, 6.24 1.10 „ „

In the above data the acidity is determined as malic acid in apples,

blackberries, and strawberries, in which the predominant acid is malic.

In cranberries one of the acids is benzoic, amounting sometimes to as

much as 0.05 percent, in grapes tartaric, in lemons and oranges citric.

In the other fruits where the character of the organic acid is not

distinctly of one kind, the total organic acid is estimated as sulfuric

acid (SO₃), not meaning by that, however, that the acids are present in

the form of sulfuric acid but merely that their quantity was measured

in terms of sulfuric acid.

CANNED FRUITS.

The industry devoted to canning fruits is of less importance in the

United States than that identified with canned vegetables. Practically,

nevertheless, every fruit which has been produced in this country has

become a commercial article in the form of canned goods. With the

exception of the method of preparation, the process of canning and

other treatments are essentially the same as that of vegetables and

therefore does not warrant any further description.

In the following data are found a brief description and the composition

of the leading varieties of canned fruit:

=Canned Cherries.=--Cherries are one of the fruits which are valued for

canning purposes. The pits may or may not be removed, according to the

desire of the manufacturer and the demand of the consumer. The galvanic

action which the cherry juice sets up on the tin plate tends to bleach

the natural color of the cherry, and this action can be avoided by

coating the interior of the can with a gum or some similar substance

which entirely protects the metallic surface from contact with the

juice of the fruit. When treated in this way the natural color of the

cherry is preserved for a reasonable length of time.

_Adulteration of Canned Cherries._--The only adulteration of canned

cherries which is of any consequence is that which relates to

artificial coloring. By reason of the tendency to bleach the color,

mentioned above, it has been quite customary to add an artificial color

to the cherry so that the red color may be preserved. Coal tar dyes,

under various names, and an animal dye, cochineal, have been used for

this purpose. The practice of artificial coloring is reprehensible and

may, in the case of some colors, be harmful to health. By observing the

precautions already mentioned, the natural color of the cherry may be

preserved without artificial color, and in general this is desirable.

The consumer should at all times demand canned cherries which have not

been artificially colored.

_Maraschino Cherries._--A very common method of treating cherries is to

bleach them in a brine of common salt and sulfurous acid until all the

natural color has disappeared. The cherries are then thoroughly washed

for the removal of the salt and sulfurous acid and at the same time the

juice and soluble portions of the cherry are removed, so that at the

end of the washing there is little left but the cellular structure. The

cherries are then saturated with sugar or sugar and glucose and colored

a deep artificial red by coal tar dye or cochineal. If the natural

flavor of cherries has been destroyed by the bleaching an artificial

flavor is often added. The product is a cherry of an even deep red

tint, more or less sweet, according to the use of greater or less

quantities of sugar or glucose, and having a flavor of almond oil. When

cherries of this kind are preserved in a solution of alcohol, flavored

or unflavored, they are called maraschino cherries. The name is taken

from a kind of cherry first used in making the product. They are used

to a very large extent with certain beverages such as cocktails, soda

water, mint juleps, etc., and also in ice cream and other preparations

for the table. Little can be said in praise either of the taste or

wholesomeness of these preparations and they are valuable chiefly for

their supposed attractive appearance. The offense which is committed

against the æsthetic taste of the individual in the preparation of

such a product probably offsets any good effect which comes from

attractiveness or ornamentation. The product cannot be regarded in any

sense as resembling even in color the natural fruit, since practically

the whole of the natural fruit, except its cellular structure, has been

withdrawn and artificial substances substituted in place thereof.

=Canned Peaches.=--A great industry in this country is the canning of

peaches. Some of the finest and most perfect varieties are used for

this purpose. Peaches may be canned whole or by slicing in half or

quarters and removing the pit. The principles of sterilization are not

different from those which have already been described. Since the peach

is a fruit which decays easily and is thus difficult of transportation,

the establishment of canning factories in the vicinity of large peach

orchards renders it possible to preserve this delicate fruit in a

condition practically as good as that of the natural article, and thus

makes it accessible to the people in all parts of the country at all

seasons of the year.

_Adulteration of Canned Peaches._--Fortunately in this case there

is no record of adulterations which is of any consequence. The

perfection of the method of sterilization has rendered it unnecessary

to make further use of antiseptics for canned peaches. The use of

the artificial sweetening agent, saccharin, is almost unknown and is

about the only adulteration which at the present time can be practiced

without easy detection. It may be confidently stated that the consumer

can rely, with a fair degree of assurance, upon the purity of the

product which is taken from the can. The only real danger is in the

action of the fruit juice upon the imperfect tin plate, and this is a

danger which probably will soon pass away, since there is a tendency

manifested now to so protect the tin by a varnish of some kind as

to render it impossible for any electric action to take place which

impairs the color or flavor of the fruit and also to exclude the

poisonous salts of tin and lead from the contents of the can.

=Adulteration of Canned Fruit.=--_Artificial coloring:_ The principal

adulteration of canned fruit is that due to artificial coloring.

There is, perhaps, no other form of adulteration which has so little

excuse. It only needs a cursory observation of the fruits of Nature

to show that even in the same varieties they differ to a vast degree

in natural tint. Bright colors are especially prized in fruits. For

instance, the yellow of the peach, the red of the cherry, the purple of

the plum, etc. The object of artificial coloring is to make all kinds

and varieties of these fruits imitate those of naturally rich color.

Its sole purpose is deception, since it can add nothing whatever to

the nutritive value. The claim that it adds to the dietetic value of

the fruit, as in other cases of the same kind of argument, is plainly

fallacious. The very moment the consumer realizes he is eating an

artificially tinted fruit, if his temperament be as artistic as should

always be the case, he becomes sensitive to the effort made to deceive

him. Such artificially colored foods, thus, instead of tasting better

than they otherwise would, have a worse taste due to the feeling of

antipathy excited by their presence. Hence there can be no excuse,

under any circumstances, for the addition of artificial colors to food

products of this kind, or in fact, of any kind except those which are

purely synthetic and have no relation in composition or in quality to

a natural product. With the exception of cherries and berries, the

addition of artificial color to canned fruits is not common.

Another form of adulteration, which fortunately is seldom practiced in

fruit, is one which has already been described in sufficient detail,

that is, the addition of saccharin, a substance which has even less

place in fruits than in vegetables. The addition of a non-sugar, such

as saccharin, with an intensely sweet taste for the purpose of inducing

the consumer to believe that the article is a natural sweet product,

is an adulteration of the most reprehensible type, to say nothing of

the evil effects of the adulterant employed upon health. The addition

of spices and other condimental substances to fruit products cannot

be regarded as an adulteration, because they reveal their own presence

and are not added for the purpose of imitation or deception. As has

been mentioned above, the manufacturer would save all criticism in

such cases by a plain statement upon the label of the nature of the

substance added.

Canned fruits properly preserved retain their natural aroma and

flavor better than any other form of canned food and deserve the high

estimation in which they are held by the consumer. The time is now

rapidly approaching when all such goods will be free of any imitation

or adulteration, and this will add greatly to their value in the

markets of the country. The consumer will then only need to have the

date of preservation marked on the can to be fully protected.

FRUIT SIRUPS.

The expressed juice of fruits mixed with the proper proportion of

sugar produces an important article of commerce known as fruit sirup.

These fruit sirups are used principally in the preparation of cooling,

non-alcoholic beverages such as are drunk at the “soda fountains”

so-called in the United States. In the preparation of fruit sirups

only the choicest and best fruits are to be used. The juice, after

expression, is properly freed from suspended matter by filtration or

sedimentation and is brought to a proper consistence by mixing at

once with pure sugar. When it is used as soon as prepared no further

preparation in regard to its preservation is necessary, since juice

prepared in this way and kept in an ice-box will keep several days

without fermenting. When prepared on a large scale for commercial

purposes it becomes necessary to prepare these sirups in some more

permanent form. To this end they are subjected to the usual process of

pasteurization. On account of their liquid condition, sterilization,

that is, the use of a temperature of boiling water, is rarely

necessary. If, on pasteurization, a precipitate is formed in these

sirups, they should be heated to the temperature of pasteurization

previous to the final processing and any deposited matter be separated

by filtration or deposit. The sirup thus clarified is placed in

bottles or separate containers and subjected to the pasteurizing

process for a sufficient length of time, and is then ready for the

market. These pasteurized sirups, if stored in a cool place, will keep

almost indefinitely. In all cases where pasteurization is practiced

at a very low temperature it is necessary to keep the product at a

low temperature, since, as is well known, pasteurization does not

kill all the spores, but does act with deadly effect upon the yeasts

which produce alcoholic fermentation. Fresh sirups thus prepared and

pasteurized are wholesome and palatable and are unobjectionable.

=Composition of Fruit Sirup.=--Naturally the principal constituent

of fruit sirup is the added sugar. The other constituents correspond

to those of the juice from which the sirup is made. As one of the

principal constituents of fruit juice is sugar, it is seen that the

natural sugar plus the addition makes up practically the total solid

components in articles of this kind.

=Adulteration of Fruit Sirup.=--Fruit sirups have been extensively and

unnecessarily adulterated. The principal adulteration is the omission

of the pasteurization process and the preserving of the fruit juice

by means of an antiseptic. The two antiseptics which have been most

commonly employed for this purpose are salicylic and benzoic acids. At

the present time, by reason of prohibitive legislation in respect of

salicylic acid, benzoic acid or its compounds are quite universally

employed. These antiseptics are injurious to health and even in small

quantities cannot fail to have some deleterious effect upon the system.

As they are not necessary in the preservation of fruit sirups, they

should be rigidly excluded therefrom. In justice to those who use

antiseptics of this kind it is said that, as a rule, they frankly admit

that these sirups can be preserved by sterilization, but that when

consumed they are used only in small quantities, and when the air has

access to the remaining portion fermentation is set up. To this the

answer may be made that if unstoppered and used under proper conditions

to avoid the admission of germs, and if kept on ice or in a cool place,

fermentation will not set up for several days, during which time

opportunity will be had for disposing of the contents of the bottle.

It does not appear that there is any convincing reason to warrant the

continuance of the use of preservatives in this kind of products.

=Imitation Fruit Sirups.=--By far the most general adulteration of

fruit sirups is that of the imitations thereof, pure and simple, by

synthetic products. The flavors which give to fruits their character

and aroma are chemical compounds produced by Nature and are chiefly of

the nature of a volatile oil or compound ether. Of these flavors, the

compound ethers especially are readily produced by purely synthetic

processes. It is possible, therefore, for the chemist to make an

approximate imitation of the natural fruit flavor. No difference

how great his skill, however, or the skill of the mixer, there is

always a gustatory and hygienic difference between the synthetic

and the natural product, and the natural product always has the

advantage of the difference. While I do not go so far as to say that

synthetic flavors or sirups should be excluded in the preparation of

non-alcoholic beverages, I do say with emphasis that they should never

be used, except with notification to the consumer, and never, under any

circumstance, if they contain any ingredient which is prejudicial to

health.

One of the principal arguments which has been made against the

enactment of the pure food bill has been that it would exclude from the

market these synthetic products. At least let them be sold under their

proper designations. A law which requires plain and honest branding can

hardly be objected to on any ground whatever.

JAMS, JELLIES, AND PRESERVES.

The preparation of various fruits or fruit juices with sugar is an

important industry both for domestic purposes and for commerce in the

United States. When the fleshy portion of the fruit is treated with

sugar sirup and boiled, it produces the product known as preserves.

When a fruit is reduced to a pulp and treated with sugar sirup and

boiled, it makes a product known as jam. When the fruit juice itself

is treated with sugar and boiled, it forms a product known as jelly.

The above are general definitions of three important classes of fruit

products, though it is not intended by any means in the definitions

to describe the details of preparation. These vary greatly in respect

of the method of preparation, the fruit, the quantity of sugar used,

the length of time the boiling is continued, and the consistency of

the final product. These definitions merely outline the three distinct

classes of products which are made from fruits.

=Selection of the Fruit.=--In the selection of the fruit for making

these sweet products it is highly important that only the very best

quality should be used. The fruit should be of a proper degree of

maturity, and yet not overripe. The practice of using immature, waste,

or partially deformed or decayed fruit for the purposes named cannot be

too strongly condemned. The great advantage of preparing these products

at the home consists in the fact that the character of the material

used is under the immediate supervision of the housewife. In large

factories where no official inspection is exercised it is possible that

any kind of fruit or any portion of the fruit may be devoted to the

purpose. All deteriorated raw material should be rigidly excluded from

the factory. Various fruits are utilized in different manners in the

preparation of the above-named products. Large fruits with tough skins,

such as apples, peaches, and pears, are pared, the cores removed, and

all decayed or infected portions cut away, and the clean, fresh, fleshy

portion of the fruit used for manufacturing purposes. Small fruits,

such as berries, after the exclusion of all dirt, immature or imperfect

samples, and the removal of the stem, are used in the whole state for

the purposes named.

It would be manifestly impracticable, as a rule, to remove even the

seeds of small fruits, except where jelly is to be manufactured. The

fruits, having been properly prepared, are mixed with sugar or thick

sugar sirup and subjected to heat for two purposes. The first purpose

of heat is to sterilize completely the material so that no bacteria,

germs, or spores may be left alive in the finished product. The

second purpose of heating is to concentrate the material to a proper

consistence and to thoroughly saturate all portions with sugar sirup.

Incidentally, the heating also by the combined action of temperature

and free acids in the fruit inverts a large quantity of the cane sugar

that is used and thus prevents the finished product from granulating.

The crystallization of the sugar in these bodies renders them very

much less desirable and suitable for consumption. For this reason,

among others, the precaution above mentioned, namely, that the fruit

should not be overripe, should be observed. It has been seen that

overripe fruit diminishes in acidity, and hence it is less suitable for

converting the cane sugar than fruit just short of complete maturity.

For this reason, too, the more strongly acid fruits are better suited

for making these sweetened products than those in which the acidity is

less strongly developed.

=Jams.=--As has already been said, jams differ from jellies in that

they contain not only the juice of the fruit but the whole pulp of the

fruit or the whole fruit. The methods of preparation in effect produce

the same changes upon the sugars that are produced by the fruit juice.

The fruit after proper comminution is boiled with large quantities of

sugar a sufficient length of time to reduce the fruit flesh to a pulp

and to invert more or less of the sugar which is used. The insoluble

matter which jam contains consists chiefly of the cellulose and pectose

matter in the fruit, together with the seeds of the small fruit. The

various solids are made up of the solid bodies in the fruits, including

the sugars which are added. The character of the ash of the jams is

a good indication whether or not they are pure, that is, made out of

sugar and fruit only. While it is true that the ash of fruit varies, it

is also true that the real ash of fruit has certain characteristics in

regard to alkalinity which are not possessed by the ash of adulterated

fruit products. For the sake of convenience and reference it is seen

advisable to append a table showing the composition of the ash of some

of the fresh fruits (Bulletin 66, Bureau of Chemistry).

---------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------

| | | | | P₂O₅.| SO₃. |

| | | | | PHOS-| SUL- |

| PURE | K₂O. | Na₂O.| CaO. |PHORIC| FURIC| Cl.

---------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------

| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-| _Per-

Apple, | 0.264| 55.21 | 11.69| 4.79| 12.83| 4.62 | 0.83

Apricots,| .508| 59.36 | 10.26| 3.17| 13.09| 2.63 | .45

Banana, | 1.078| 63.06 | 2.34| .86| 1.62| 2.32 | 26.93

Cherries,| 0.440| 57.67 | 6.80| 4.20| 15.11| 5.83 | 1.83

Figs, | .682| 57.16 | 2.38| 10.90| 12.76| 3.90 | 2.05

Grapes, | .500| 50.95 | 6.32| 4.96| 21.27| 4.28 | 1.54

Lemons, | .526| 48.26 | 1.76| 24.87| 11.09| 2.84 | .39

Oranges, | .432| 48.94 | 2.50| 22.71| 12.37| 5.25 | .92

Prunes, | .486| 63.83 | 2.65| 4.66| 14.08| 2.68 | .34

---------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+--------

From the above table it is seen that there is not a very large

percentage of sulfuric acid in the natural ash in fruits, and very

little chlorin, with the exception of the banana, in which the ash

is principally potassium chlorid. Since the ash of glucose, as it is

made at the present time, consists almost entirely of sulfates and

chlorids, any considerable increase of these ingredients of an ash over

the normal may be regarded as an indication that the fruit product

from which the ash is obtained contains added glucose. Inasmuch as

there are chemical and physical methods of detecting glucose which

are entirely reliable, the utility of the composition of ash for this

purpose is rather confirmatory than otherwise. Since the added sugar

is the chief constituent of jams there is little difference in other

respects in the composition of jams made from different fruits, as will

be seen by the table of analysis given below:

------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

Apple, | 63.22 | 0.282 | 25.52 | 29.11 | 54.63

Blackberry, | 55.42 | .851 | 18.77 | 29.00 | 47.77

Grape, | 56.64 | .744 | 33.44 | 11.33 | 44.77

Orange, | 80.52 | .433 | 13.61 | 54.23 | 67.84

Pear, | 61.52 | .163 | 13.20 | 33.74 | 46.94

Peach, | 65.65 | .500 | 36.48 | 23.16 | 59.64

Pineapple, | 73.92 | .314 | 14.05 | 46.40 | 60.45

Plum, | 50.43 | 1.012 | 28.29 | 9.70 | 37.99

------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The characteristics of fruit which give the special flavors to the jams

are imparted by constituents such as ethers, essential oils, and other

aromatic substances, together with the free acids which are present

in such quantities as not to be susceptible of easy quantitative

determination by chemical means. The relation which exists between the

cane sugar and the invert sugar is not a safe index of the method of

preparation, but is rather an indication of the excess or deficiency

of the acid in the fruit employed. The greater the quantity of active

acids, other things being equal, the larger the quantity of inverted

sugar and the smaller the quantity of cane sugar in the finished

product.

In the following table is given the composition of a number of jams

made in the laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry. These analyses are

selected from a great many which are available because the character

and amount of sugar in the composition of the jam were carefully

controlled, and thus the chemical data afford a base of direct

composition.

------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| | | | ACIDS | +

| | | | EX- | |

NUM- |DESCRIPTION OF | TOTAL | | AS | (N × |

BER. |SAMPLE. | SOLIDS.| ASH. | H₂SO₄. | 6.25). |

------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|

20446 |Apple (fall pippin) | 63.22 | 0.20 | 0.282 | 0.175 |

20414 |Blackberry | 55.42 | .48 | .851 | .737 |

20445 |Grape (fox) | 61.80 | .19 | .698 | .200 |

20416 |Grape (Ives seedling) | 56.64 | .48 | .744 | .525 |

20443 |Orange (Florida navel)| 80.52 | .44 | .433 | .944 |

20448 |Pear (Bartlett) | 61.52 | .28 | .163 | .312 |

20442 |Pineapple | 73.92 | .30 | .315 | .312 |

20421 |Plum (damson) | 50.43 | .54 | 1.102 | .525 |

20423 |Plum (wild fox) | 62.10 | .46 | 1.355 | .212 |

------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

------+----------------------+--------------------------+

| | SUGARS. |

| +--------+--------+--------+

| | | | |

------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+

| |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|

20446 |Apple (fall pippin) | 25.52 | 51.31 | 29.11 |

20414 |Blackberry | 18.77 | 43.99 | 29.00 |

20445 |Grape (fox) | 50.06 | 54.21 | 3.70 |

20416 |Grape (Ives seedling) | 33.44 | 42.45 | 11.33 |

20443 |Orange (Florida navel)| 13.61 | 69.13 | 54.23 |

20448 |Pear (Bartlett) | 13.20 | 46.52 | 33.74 |

20442 |Pineapple | 14.05 | 60.20 | 46.40 |

20421 |Plum (damson) | 28.29 | 37.75 | 9.70 |

20423 |Plum (wild fox) | 28.78 | 47.86 | 23.26 |

------+----------------------+--------+--------+--------+

------+----------------------+-----------------------------

| | POLARIZATIONS.

| +--------+------+------+------

NUM- |DESCRIPTION OF | in- | at | at | at

BER. |SAMPLE. | verted.|18° C.|18° C.|86° C.

------+----------------------+--------+------+------+------

| |_P. ct._| _°V._| _°V._| _°V._

20446 |Apple (fall pippin) | 43.22 | +26.3| -13.0| +4.8

20414 |Blackberry | 34.08 | +24.6| -14.6| +1.6

20445 |Grape (fox) | 92.96 | -9.0| -14.0| +2.2

20416 |Grape (Ives seedling) | 73.38 | +3.5| -11.8| 0

20443 |Orange (Florida navel)| 21.55 | +55.9| -17.5| +2.0

20448 |Pear (Bartlett) | 18.87 | +32.3| -13.2| +1.0

20442 |Pineapple | 22.90 | +52.3| -10.3| +6.2

20421 |Plum (damson) | 74.42 | +3.1| -10.0| +1.2

20423 |Plum (wild fox) | 53.43 | +13.9| -17.5| 0

------+----------------------+--------+------+------+------

The following table represents the data relating to the composition of

jams from samples purchased in the open market, free from glucose and

apparently pure:

-------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

-------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

Apricots, | 70.15 | .407 | 38.96 | 26.00 | 64.96

Currants, | 66.32 | 1.117 | 52.45 | 1.64 | 54.09

Figs, | 69.89 | .744 | .... | 45.92 | ....

Grape fruit, | 69.20 | .387 | 27.00 | 35.51 | 62.51

Guava, | 82.46 | .299 | 25.14 | 52.73 | 77.87

Peach, | 65.65 | .500 | 36.48 | 23.16 | 59.64

Strawberries,| 75.83 | .480 | 37.15 | 31.43 | 68.58

-------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The average composition of a large number of pure jams, some of which

were made in the laboratory and some purchased in the open market, is

as follows:

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

Average,| 65.98 | .536 | 36.41 | 22.15 | 58.56

Maximum,| 82.46 | 1.355 | 61.02 | 54.23 | ....

Minimum,| 50.43 | .163 | 13.20 | .30 | ....

--------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------

The analytical data show that the jams, in so far as active food

constituents are concerned, are composed chiefly of sugar. These sugars

include both that natural to the fruit and that which has been added.

The average content of sugar in round numbers is 58.5 percent, while in

round numbers the average content of solids, not sugar, is 7.5 percent.

It is thus seen that the amount of sugar present in round numbers is

eight times as great as that of the other solids. It is also noticed

that the percentage of reducing sugar is about one-third greater than

the cane sugar, indicating that the inversion of the sugar, when the

real fruits have been used in the manufacture, has been carried to such

an extent as to avoid any danger of crystallization. These data are all

in complete refutation of the claims made by many manufacturers that

it is necessary to add glucose in the manufacture of complex products

of this kind in order to prevent crystallization. If the real fruit is

used in the proper quantity and the manufacture conducted according to

the approved method, there is no danger of crystallization except in

those rare cases where the fruits used have little or no acid.

_Adulteration of Jams._--The adulterations of jams are practically

the same as those which are practiced with jellies. Artificial colors

have been very extensively used together with the artificial flavors

resembling the fruits, the names of which appear erroneously upon the

packages. Glucose is used to a large extent in these adulterated goods.

In the adulterated articles a preservative is nearly always present.

Starch is used but very rarely for adulterating articles of this kind.

Fifty-eight samples of jams which proved to be adulterated were bought

on the open market by the Bureau of Chemistry, none of which bore any

label or description indicating that it was an adulterated article.

The character of the principal adulterant (glucose) in each case

is revealed at once by the polarization, which is always strongly

right-handed, and also by other chemical tests for glucose. The

quantity of sulfate and chlorid in the ash of these samples is always

very considerably increased over that of the natural product. The

quantity of glucose in some of the samples is so great as to indicate

that practically the whole of the solid matter is composed of this

substance. In two samples the alleged jam contained no fruit product

whatever. In many cases more than 70 percent of glucose is found and

in one instance as high as 76 percent. In a great majority of the

cases the glucose is approximately one-half of the whole weight of

the jam. In a great many cases the glucose was present in quantities

which indicated the utilization of some fruit product. There were a few

cases where the amount of glucose fell below 10 percent. Artificial

coloring matter was present in almost every case, and in the great

majority of cases either benzoic acid or salicylic acid is present as a

preservative. The colors used are coal tar dyes and cochineal.

It is evident that articles of food adulterated in this manner should

not be permitted to bear the name of the natural product, and in many

of the states the local laws forbid the use of a misleading name.

The national law, which was approved on the 30th of June, 1906, also

forbids misbranding of this description.

In addition to the jams which on their labels bore no indication of

the adulterations, a number of samples of jam were purchased labeled

“Compound,” or in some way indicating that they were not the pure

article. Thirteen samples of this kind were examined in the Bureau of

Chemistry and all of them had very large quantities of glucose, the

largest amount present in any one case being 37 percent. They were all

artificially colored, and ten of them contained preservatives, either

benzoic or salicylic acid.

=Jellies.=--In addition to the jellies which were made in the

laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry for the purpose of controlling

the manufacture, 44 samples of jelly were bought upon the open market.

Of these commercial samples 19 contained no glucose, 13 of them

contained glucose, but were not so labeled, and 12 were labeled as

compound or adulterated articles. Nearly all of the commercial jellies

were made with apple jelly as the base. The apple jelly and glucose

made up practically the total solids, no matter what name was applied.

The flavors were artificial, and a very large number of the samples

contained preservatives. The samples of jelly which contained no

glucose were evidently made of the natural fruit,--they contained no

artificial coloring matter and in only a few instances did they contain

preservatives. On the other hand the jellies which were made of glucose

were uniformly colored and contained preservatives.

It is of interest here to say a few words about the very cheapest of

adulterated jellies which are found upon the market. These jellies were

made with some apple juice, but chiefly of glucose. They contained

large quantities of preservatives, and the ash was rich in sulfates and

chlorids except in two instances. In these cases it is possible that

the glucose which was used was manufactured by some special process not

involving the use of either sulfuric or hydrochloric acid.

=Adulteration of Jelly.=--Jellies are of the class of fruit products

which have been extensively adulterated. The markets of the country

have been flooded for years with so-called “compound jellies” or

imitations of jelly. The chief forms of adulteration are the following:

The use of apple stock for making all kinds of jelly. Attention has

already been called to the fact that apples contain a large number

of pectose bodies which favor jellification. A common method of

manufacturing jelly has been to use a stock of apple juice or cider

or a preparation made from the cores, skins, and rejected portions

of the apple at evaporating factories or from whole rejected apples.

This stock is used as a common base for the manufacture of jellies

of different kinds. Whenever apple juice enters into the composition

of a jelly made from any other fruit than the apple it becomes an

adulteration. Apple juice is not an adulteration in the sense of being

an injury to health, but in the sense of being substituted for other

fruit juices.

=Artificial Coloring.=--In as much as each kind of fruit tends to give

to a jelly a particular color, it is evident that if apple stock is

used the natural colors of the other fruits must be imitated.

To this end coal tar dyes have been generally employed, and sometimes

vegetable or animal coloring matter to imitate the color of the fruit

whose name is given to the product.

=Artificial Flavors.=--Since when apple stock is used as a base of

manufacture it imparts to the finished product only the flavor of

apples, artificial chemical flavors resembling other fruits are

employed. Thus the jellies which, presumably, are made from other

fruits, have the particular flavor of those fruits imitated in a wholly

artificial way.

=Composition of Jelly.=--The properties of a jelly, in respect of its

distinct character, are due solely to the fruit from which it is made.

Each one of the fruits contains essential oils, ethereal substances,

acids, etc., which give to it a distinct character. These bodies are

carried with the fruit juice into the finished product and give to

it its distinct characteristics. The sugar, of course, in all these

products is the same. In the following table are found the data showing

the composition of jellies made from different fruits in the Bureau of

Chemistry.

COMPOSITION OF JELLY.

-----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| | | | ACIDS | +

SE- | | | | EX- | |

NUM-| DESCRIPTION | TOTAL | | AS | (N × |

BER.| OF SAMPLE. | SOLIDS.| ASH. | H₂SO₄. | 6.25). |

-----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|

20408|Apple (fall | | | | |

|pippin) | 59.18 | 0.22 | 0.279 | 0.175 |

20405|Blackberry | 59.63 | .33 | .475 | .243 |

20410|Crab apple | 63.28 | .11 | .171 | .137 |

20405|Grape (Ives | | | | |

|seedling) | 63.66 | .45 | .524 | .175 |

20412|Huckleberry | 63.02 | .28 | .245 | .069 |

20435|Orange (Florida | | | | |

|navel) | 68.56 | .30 | .171 | .418 |

20437|Peach | 69.98 | .21 | .245 | .175 |

20434|Pear (Bartlett) | 69.12 | .34 | .181 | .156 |

20436|Pineapple | 80.28 | .43 | .328 | .387 |

20433|Pineapple husk | 76.34 | .73 | .352 | .350 |

20404|Plum (damson) | 45.56 | .68 | 1.127 | .350 |

20409|Plum (wild fox) | 54.49 | .40 | 1.029 | .138 |

20411|Plum (wild fox),| | | | |

|boiled down | 73.01 | .65 | 1.529 | .175 |

20407|Mixed fruit | 66.58 | .21 | .367 | .069 |

-----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----+----------------+-----------------------------------+

| | SUGARS. |

| +--------+--------+--------+--------+

SE- | | | | | Cane |

-----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| |_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|_P. ct._|

20408|Apple (fall | | | | |

|pippin) | 20.78 | 51.76 | 33.04 | 36.17 |

20405|Blackberry | 12.51 | 54.89 | 44.90 | 18.20 |

20410|Crab apple | 34.93 | 57.61 | 23.68 | 58.88 |

20405|Grape (Ives | | | | |

|seedling) | 32.29 | 60.29 | 30.52 | 49.33 |

20412|Huckleberry | 24.27 | 53.39 | 32.74 | 37.54 |

20435|Orange (Florida | | | | |

|navel) | 3.95 | 65.59 | 62.52 | 4.91 |

20437|Peach | 8.75 | 63.70 | 56.59 | 11.16 |

20434|Pear (Bartlett) | 6.58 | 63.09 | 58.46 | 7.33 |

20436|Pineapple | 22.13 | 72.98 | 56.70 | 28.45 |

20433|Pineapple husk | 7.40 | 70.22 | 65.22 | 7.12 |

20404|Plum (damson) | 19.18 | 38.00 | 22.67 | 40.38 |

20409|Plum (wild fox) | 24.00 | 48.05 | 25.48 | 46.97 |

20411|Plum (wild fox),| | | | |

|boiled down | 44.22 | 64.66 | 22.37 | 66.18 |

20407|Mixed fruit | 39.70 | 59.72 | 24.22 | 40.38 |

-----+----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

-----+----------------+--------------------

| | POLARIZATIONS.

| +------+------+------

SE- | | | |

RIAL| |Direct|Invert|Invert

NUM-| DESCRIPTION | at | at | at

BER.| OF SAMPLE. |18° C.|18° C.|86° C.

-----+----------------+------+------+------

| | _°V._| _°V._| _°V._

20408|Apple (fall | | |

|pippin) | +24.0| -20.6| -1.2

20405|Blackberry | +47.0| -20.1| 0

20410|Crab apple | +13.0| -19.0| 0

20405|Grape (Ives | | |

|seedling) | +22.3| -18.9| + .2

20412|Huckleberry | +24.1| -20.1| - .4

20435|Orange (Florida | | |

|navel) | +61.3| -23.1| - .2

20437|Peach | +53.4| -23.0| - .6

20434|Pear (Bartlett) | +52.7| -26.2| -1.8

20436|Pineapple | +50.4| -26.1| 0

20433|Pineapple husk | +63.7| -24.3| - .6

20404|Plum (damson) | +17.8| -12.8| 0

20409|Plum (wild fox) | +16.7| -17.8| 0

20411|Plum (wild fox),| | |

|boiled down | +7.6| -22.6| - .6

20407|Mixed fruit | +14.8| -17.9| +2.2

-----+----------------+------+------+------

As is to be expected the chief constituent of these jellies is the

sugar which is derived both from the sugar present in the natural juice

and from that added in the manufacture. The data show that the quantity

of cane sugar inverted varies greatly with the different fruits. Some

of the fruit juices appear to have little or no effect whatever in the

inversion of sugar. This is particularly true of the orange, the pear,

and the jelly made from the husks of pineapples.

=Manufacture of Jellies.=--In the manufacture of jellies the fruit

juices are separated from the pulpy mass of the fruit, and these alone

are used in the process. The most common method of procedure is to boil

the fruit with more or less water until the juices are more or less

separated and then to remove them by straining or pressure. The fruits

are heated for this purpose with sufficient water to prevent scorching

until they are thoroughly softened and then reduced to a pulp. The best

jellies are made from juices which are obtained by simply allowing the

pulpy mass to drain through cloth. The juices thus obtained are clear

and free of any suspended matter. When pressure is used the juices are

less clear and contain more or less suspended solid matter. In the

preparation of jellies approximately equal portions of pure cane sugar

and the strained juices are used, and the mixture is heated to the

boiling point. It is evident that in the manufacture of jelly where

boiling is not continued for any length of time the amount of sugar

inverted is less than in the manufacture of jams and preserves where

the boiling is continued for a greater length of time.

The quantity of non-crystallizing material in the juices from which the

jellies are made, namely, the pectose bodies in fruits, is sufficient

in most cases to prevent the crystallization of the cane sugar in the

jelly. The jelly is formed by these pectose bodies being present in the

juice in sufficient quantities to become semi-solid on cooling after

manufacture. The solidifying may take place in a short time or only

after several hours. The juice at the time of completion of the boiling

is thoroughly sterilized, and in this hot condition should be placed

in sterilized vessels and covered before setting away with sterilized

parchment paper or a thin film of sterilized paraffine. The covering

of the surface will prevent the deposition of the seed of moulds and

bacteria which often infect the top layer of jellies or other fruit

products prepared in a similar manner whose surface is not properly

protected.

=Preservatives.=--Since the care which is necessary to prepare a jelly

in a thoroughly sterilized condition and to protect the exposed surface

so that infection thereof cannot take place is a matter of expense and

requires great attention to details, it has been sought to avoid these

by the use of chemical preservatives. Salicylic acid and benzoic acid

or benzoate of soda have been the principal preservatives employed,

and until state and municipal laws introduced a proper inspection or

analysis of these products the use of these chemical preservatives was

very common. In later years their use has been gradually diminished,

owing to the objections on the part of the laws and the public to the

presence of these bodies in the finished products. There are, however,

still on the market many products which are preserved by salicylic

acid, benzoic acid, or benzoate of soda or some similar active agent.

From the above résumé it is seen that the consumer who buys in the

open market is not quite certain that he is getting the product for

which he pays. This condition of affairs will doubtless pass away

with the advent of the proper inspection of fruits which are used

in manufacturing on a large scale and a proper supervision of the

manufacturing establishments, together with a rigid execution of the

national and state food laws. Under such conditions the adulterations

will either disappear from the market or be so labeled as to

practically inform the purchaser of their character.

=Marmalade.=--The term “marmalade” is applied to a special character

of fruit product prepared in the same manner as jam in which the fruit

is not so thoroughly pulped. The orange is a fruit which is used very

extensively for making marmalade,--an orange marmalade, in other words,

is only a fruit product of the character of jam and made after the same

manner. This class of fruit products is so nearly the same as jam as

not to need any special description.

_Adulteration._--The adulterations to which the marmalades are

subjected are practically the same as for jams. In the study of

marmalade in the Bureau of Chemistry 96 samples were examined. Of

this number 86 were commercial products and 10 were prepared in the

laboratory of the Bureau. Of the commercial articles 18 samples,

somewhat less than 20 percent, contained no glucose. Fifty-three

contained glucose, but were not so labeled, and 15 were labeled as

compound or artificial. The percentage of solids in these products

varied within a wide limit. The maximum percentage of solids found

was 82.46 and the minimum 53.43. The average percentage of ash in the

marmalade not containing glucose was 0.32, and the average alkalinity

of the ash as measured by a standard acid was 0.26. In the adulterated

marmalade containing glucose the average percentage of ash was 0.59,

almost as great as in the pure article, and the average alkalinity was

0.29, somewhat greater than in the pure article.

=Compound Jams and Jellies.=--A word should be said respecting

the meaning of the word “compound” as attached to fruit products,

especially jams and jellies, since it is a word which has been

selected as somewhat more euphonious than the term “adulterated” or

“misbranded.” So true is this that the word “compound” when placed

upon a food product indicates at once to the purchaser that the

article is a mixture or substitute. The term, therefore, indicates the

character of sophistication. To such an extent may this be practiced

that the actual material named in connection with the word “compound”

may be absent from the mixture altogether. The term arose first on

account of the desire of the manufacturer to leave off of the labels

a statement of the exact composition of the contents of the package

and to substitute a word of less significance, and at the same time to

comply with certain state laws which require that all fruit products

containing glucose be labeled with the word “compound” or some similar

term. A much simpler and more direct method would be to make the label

a truthful one, indicating, as nearly as possible, the character of the

product. A compound generally means a jelly or jam made without the

fruit named, that is, largely of glucose. It also indicates, as a rule,

that the product is artificially colored and artificially flavored. In

these cases the word “imitation” is to be preferred, inasmuch as the

mixtures bearing the word “compound” can only be regarded in reality as

a mixture of unlike substances.

=General Conclusions.=--In regard to fruit products made by boiling

with sugar, the general statement that they should be true to name and

free from artificial colors, preservatives, or other adulterations

apparently covers the whole ground. If it is desired to make a cheaper

article for the benefit of consumers of small means, the principles

which should guide the manufacturers are plain. The materials which

are added should be wholesome and free of deleterious or injurious

matter. The poor man, while entitled to get a cheaper article, is

likewise entitled, as well as the rich man, to protection against

deleterious substances. In the present state of our knowledge, glucose

is not regarded by the majority of hygienists as a substance injurious

to health. If it be injurious it is due more to a lack of care in

manufacture than to any inherent properties. Pure glucose, being simply

a hydrolyzed production of starch, cannot be regarded as a substance

injurious to health. The objections to glucose which have been

legitimately made are due to the fact that the acids which have been

used in converting the starch and also the sulfurous acid which has

been used in bleaching the product have not been entirely removed. It

appears that the glucose used for food purposes can be freed from all

objection by inverting the starch with which it is made with diastase

and avoiding the use of all bleaching reagents. The glucose thus made

would not be water-white, nor is it desirable for edible purposes that

it be so, since it is always, except, perhaps, in the manufacture

of certain candies, used in connection with naturally colored food

products. There is no reason to believe that a glucose made as above

and possessing, as it naturally would, an amber or reddish color would

be made less desirable than a product which is absolutely colorless.

This suggestion, therefore, is made to the manufacturer of glucose

for edible purposes in the interest of public health and to avoid

any possible condemnation of the glucose by reason of the method

of manufacture, namely, that the use of acid in the manufacture of

glucose be discontinued, that malt or some other form of diastase

be substituted and that bleaching, except by passing through animal

charcoal, be entirely omitted. The product made in this way would be

free from the objections which have been, and may in the future still

be, urged with reason against the use of the article at the present

time.

=Preserves.=--The term “preserves” is a general one which is applied

in common language to a preparation of fruit preserved by boiling

with sugar until complete sterilization is accomplished. The term in

its general application includes the different varieties of preserves

which have already been mentioned, namely, jams, marmalades, etc. It

must also be extended to include the class of fruit products known as

jellies, though, as a rule, it is not made so comprehensive in meaning,

inasmuch as the jelly does not contain any of the solid particles

of fruit. Perhaps there is no other part of the food-manufacturing

industry which is so universally practiced in the household as the

manufacture of preserves. Not only is this true of farm life in the

country but also of those living in the city. The sterilization of

fresh fruit without the use of sugar is not nearly so common as the

making of the domestic supply of preserved fruits in the sense above

mentioned. There is only one sufficient reason for the preparation of

such foods, namely, the suspicion which attaches to the manufactured

article appearing upon the market. So universal has been the custom

of artificially coloring the product, and of the use of glucose and

preservatives, as to create a general impression among consumers that

the articles thus purchased in the open market are adulterated and

misbranded. When these preparations are made in the household we are at

least assured of the genuineness of the product. It must be admitted

that the art and technique of manufacture cannot possibly be so perfect

in the home as in the large factories. It follows as a necessary

consequence that such goods as those indicated ought to be better and

cheaper and more readily preserved if made in large manufacturing

centers than when made at home. Even those who make the genuine product

suffer in common with those who make adulterated articles, since the

suspicion of adulteration attaches to the whole output. The practice

of domestic manufacture will undoubtedly continue until the public is

fully convinced that better and cheaper articles can be purchased in

the open market.

=Peach Preserves.=--A common practice among the housewives throughout

the United States is to boil peaches with sugar or sugar sirup, forming

the well known product, peach preserves. Preserves of this kind are

considered a delicacy, and, as they are easily made and kept, they are

a very common article of diet throughout all parts of the country where

peaches are grown.

=Fruit Butter.=--There are several preparations of fruit which differ

in some respect from those just mentioned, to which the term “butter”

has been applied, such as apple butter, peach butter, etc., and these

are common articles of domestic manufacture. This type of article is

illustrated by a description of apple butter.

Apple butter is made by boiling comminuted, sound, carefully selected

apples of a proper degree of maturity with cider until the whole mass

forms a bulk of the proper consistence. The preparation thus made is

treated with certain spices according to the desire of the manufacturer

and the taste of the consumer. There is quite a quantity of material

insoluble in water in genuine fruit butter. The rest consists of water,

the added sugar, if any, and the fruit juice with which the butter is

made.

_Adulteration of Fruit Butter._--Very extensive adulterations are

practiced with fruit butter offered in the open market. In the Bureau

of Chemistry as high as 30 percent of glucose has been found as an

added product. The addition of cane sugar cannot be regarded as an

adulteration but the best fruit butters are made without it. Artificial

colors are sometimes used, and preservatives, especially benzoic acid,

are quite common in the commercial article.

=Brandied Fruit.=--The use of brandy in common with sugar in the

preservation of fruit is widely practiced. Sometimes alcohol alone

is relied upon as a preserving agent. At other times greater or less

quantities of cane sugar are used. Usually heat is employed in addition

to the other preserving agents to complete sterilization. Nearly all

forms of fruit may be preserved in this way. Brandied cherries and

peaches are perhaps the most abundant. The quantity of alcohol employed

varies between 15 and 20 percent of the total weight of the goods. The

quantity of cane sugar used has been found to range from six to 20

percent of the weight of the fruit. Fruit preserved in this way cannot

be regarded in the light of food solely, but only as a condimental

substance. The eating of any large quantity of food containing that

percentage of alcohol could not be accomplished without danger of

intoxication. The utilization of such foods upon the table should be of

a restricted character, and, especially, they should not be used with

children or very young people where the danger from the direct effects

of the alcohol is magnified and the possibility of forming the alcohol

habit is also present.

_Adulteration of Brandied Fruits._--The principal adulteration of

brandied fruit is in the use of alcohol which is not genuine brandy.

It is well known that much of the brandy offered in commerce is

fictitious, that is, is not the pure distilled alcoholic product

from sound wine properly aged in wood before using. When brandy is

purchased for preserved fruit, unless special care is taken to secure

the genuine article the imitation article may be supplied. Instead of

the real brandy the manufacturers may use an article which is entirely

devoid of any product of the distillation of wine or containing only

a small amount thereof. The term “brandy” used with the fruit in such

a case is a misnomer and the article would be deemed misbranded under

the provisions of the law. The manufacturer can assure himself of the

purity of the brandy by obtaining it from a bonded warehouse, since it

is made under the supervision of the officials of the internal revenue

and kept under such supervision until delivered to the consumer.

Inasmuch as preparations of this kind are regarded as delicacies and

the cost of the product does not enter materially into consideration it

is highly advisable that only genuine brandy, distilled from sound wine

and aged in wood for a period of not less than four years, be employed

in the manufacture.

=Importance of the Canning and Preserving Industries.=--The statistics

for the canning and preserving industries for the calendar year ending

December 31, 1904, form a part of the census of manufactures, which is

made in conformity with the act of Congress of March 6, 1902, and are

compared with similar statistics for the census of 1900, which covered

the fiscal year ending May 31st.

There has been a large increase in those industries. The slight

decrease in the average number of wage-earners is more apparent than

real, and is due largely to the fact that a considerable number were

employed in fish canneries under a contract system. The contractor

furnishes the laborers and is paid for an agreed quantity of product.

The establishment reporting has no record of the number employed by

the contractors, and they were not included in the number reported,

the amount paid for such contract work being included in the item of

miscellaneous expenses. Fishermen were not included in the census, and

it is possible that a larger proportion of the salted fish was prepared

in connection with the actual catch than at the census of 1900, thus

accounting in part, at least, for the decrease in the quantity.

CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, AND FISH AND OYSTERS.

COMPARATIVE SUMMARY--CENSUSES OF 1904 AND 1900.

---------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------+

| | |PERCENT|

| | | OF IN-|

| 1904. | 1900. |CREASE.|

---------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------+

Number of establishments, | 2,687| 2,182| 23.1 |

Capital, | $69,589,316| $47,970,787| 45.1 |

Salaried officials, clerks,| | | |

etc.: | | | |

Number, | 3,604| 2,418| 49.0 |

Salaries, | $3,216,773| $1,926,639| 67.0 |

Wage-earners: | | | |

Average number, | 50,258| 51,955| 3.3 |

| | | [35] |

Wages, | $14,154,730| $12,759,459| 10.9 |

Miscellaneous expenses, | 8,544,497| 3,290,459| 159.7 |

Materials used, | 69,814,330| 52,243,948| 33.6 |

Products:[36] | | | |

Aggregate value, | $107,534,464| $81,020,384| 32.7 |

Fruits and Vegetables--| | | |

Total value, | $72,570,974| $44,460,665| 63.2 |

Canned Vegetables--| | | |

Pounds, |1,672,759,438|1,142,327,265| 46.4 |

Value, | $45,262,148| $28,734,598| 57.5 |

Canned Fruits-- | | | |

Pounds, | 295,760,355| 293,637,273| .7 |

Value, | $11,644,042| $11,311,062| 2.9 |

Dried Fruits-- | | | |

Pounds, | 343,579,623| 81,189,406| 323.2 |

Value, | $15,664,784| $4,415,005| 254.8 |

Fish-- | | | |

Total value, | $24,452,533| $20,542,691| 19.0 |

Canned-- | | | |

Pounds, | 259,469,861| 167,836,808| 54.6 |

Value, | $15,966,513| $14,308,723| 11.6 |

Smoked-- | | | |

Pounds, | 35,439,619| 21,252,066| 66.8 |

Value, | $2,362,740| $973,041| 142.8 |

Salted-- | | | |

Pounds, | 112,156,655| 125,669,131| 10.8 |

| | | [35] |

Value, | $6,123,280| $5,260,927| 16.4 |

Oysters-- | | | |

Value, | $3,799,412| 2,054,800| 84.9 |

All other products, | 6,711,545| $13,962,228| 51.9 |

| | | [35] |

---------------------------+-------------+-------------+-------+

[35] Decrease.

[36] Exclusive of fruits and vegetables valued at $715,920, fish at

$274,403, and oysters at $12,900, manufactured by establishments

classified as food preparations, pickles, preserves and sauces,

slaughtering and meat packing, wholesale, etc.

=Importance of the Industry.=--The importance of the canning industry

is not to be measured solely by its commercial extent. The principle of

the conservation of food products by sterilization or pasteurization is

of immense significance in the nutrition of man. It enables nourishing

foods of a perishable character to be kept and transported to great

distances and to be used in localities where fresh foods of similar

kinds are otherwise unobtainable. Such preserved foods mean everything

to pioneers, explorers, armies, and navies. The “winning of the west”

in the United States has been marked by the débris of the rusty cans.

The roads along which the pioneers who settled the great American

desert marched since 1865 have been bordered with the discarded

packages in which they carried their foods.

It is doubtless true that foods when they can be had fresh are to

be preferred to those which have been sterilized. It is also true

that many unsterilized foods from unsanitary environments are more

dangerous in the fresh state than when they have been exposed to a

high temperature. Taking into consideration all the circumstances

in the case, it must be conceded that the process of sterilization,

first practiced by Appert and afterward placed on a scientific basis

by Pasteur, has proved of almost immeasurable advantage to mankind.

Thus for this greater reason the character and quality of foods thus

preserved should be wholly above suspicion, and no adulteration

or sophistication of any kind should be practiced therewith. The

manufacturer is quite as much interested as the consumer in placing the

whole output of sterilized foods on a plane above suspicion.

Foods and Their Adulteration Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations · 第 12 / 19 章

The Smyrna fig has lately been introduced into the southern and western