[1] A round-bottomed, strongly built boat, 30 to 36 ft. long,
propelled by 8 men. It was devised by the Hudson's Bay Company for
carrying freight, as a substitute for the less serviceable canoe, and
was named after their York factory, the centre to which the traders
brought down the furs for shipment to England and from which they
took back merchandise and supplies to the interior of Rupert's Land.
MANITOU or MANITO (Algonquian Indian, "mystery," "supernatural"), among
certain American Indian tribes, a spirit or genius of good or evil. The
manitou is almost always an animal, each individual having one assigned
him, generally by dream-inspiration, at the greatest religious act of
his life--his first fast. This animal then becomes his fetish; its skin
is carried as a charm, and representations of it are tattooed and
painted on the body or engraved on the weapons.
MANITOWOC (Indian, "Spirit-land"), a city and the county-seat of
Manitowoc county, Wisconsin, on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, 75 m. N.
of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890), 7710; (1900), 11,786, of whom 2998 were
foreign-born; (1910 census), 13,027. It is served by the Chicago &
North-Western, and the Wisconsin Central railways; by ferry across the
lake to Frankfort, Mich., and Ludington, Mich.; by the Ann Arbor and the
Père Marquette railways; and by the Goodrich line of lake steamers. The
city is finely situated on high ground above the lake at the mouth of
the Manitowoc river. At Manitowoc are the county insane asylum and a
Polish orphan asylum. The city has a training school for county
teachers, a business college, two hospitals and a Carnegie library.
There are ship-yards for the construction of both steel and wooden
vessels, and several grain elevators. The value of the factory products
increased from $1,935,442 in 1900 to $4,427,816 in 1905, or 128.8 per
cent.--a greater increase than that of any other city in the state
during this period. There is a good harbour, and the city has a
considerable lake commerce in grain, flour, and dairy products. Jacques
Vieau established here a post for the North-west Company of fur traders
in 1795. The first permanent settlement was made about 1836, and
Manitowoc was chartered as a city in 1870. In Manitowoc county, 18 m.
south-west of the city of Manitowoc, is St Nazianz, an unorganized
village near which in 1854 a colony or community of German Roman
Catholics was established under the leadership of Father Ambrose Oswald,
the primary object being to enable poor people by combination and
co-operation to supply themselves with the comforts of life at minimum
expense and have as much time as possible left for religious thought and
worship. The title of the colony's land was vested in Father Oswald
after the panic of 1857 until his death in 1874, when he devised the
lands to "the colony founded by me." The colony had no legal existence
at the time, but was then incorporated as the "Roman Catholic Religious
Society of St Nazianz," and as such sued successfully for the bequest.
Financially the colony was successful, but as there were some desertions
and no new recruits after Father Oswald's death, there were few members
by 1909. There are no longer any traces of communism, and the colony's
property is actually held by an organization of the local Roman Catholic
church.
MANIZALES, a city of Colombia and capital of the department of Cáldas
(up to 1905 the northern part of Antioquia), 75 m. S. of Medellin, on
the old trade route across the Cordillera between Honda, on the
Magdalena, and the Cauca Valley. Pop. (1906, estimate), 20,000. The city
is situated on a plateau of the western slope of the Cordillera, 6988
ft. above the sea. It is surrounded by rich mineral and agricultural
districts.
MANKATO, a city and the county-seat of Blue Earth county, Minnesota,
U.S.A., at the southern bend of the Minnesota river, where it is joined
by the Blue Earth about 86 m. S.W. of Minneapolis. Pop. (1890), 8838;
(1900), 10,599, of whom 2578 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 10,365.
Mankato is served by the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha, the
Chicago & North-Western (both "North-Western Lines"), the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago Great-Western railways. The city
has two fine parks, a Carnegie library, a Federal building, the Immanuel
and St Joseph hospitals, two commercial colleges, and a state normal
school (1868). The numerous lakes in the neighbourhood, particularly
Lake Madison and Lake Washington, are widely known as summer resorts.
Four miles west of the city is Minneopa state park (area, 60 acres), in
which are Minneopa Falls (60 ft.) and a fine gorge; the park was
established by the state in 1905-1906. Mankato has an extensive trade in
dairy and agricultural products (especially grain), stone (a pinkish
buff limestone is quarried in the vicinity), and forest products. The
value of its factory products increased from $1,887,315 in 1900 to
$3,422,117 in 1905, or 81.3%.
Mankato was settled about 1853, and was first chartered as a city in
1868. On or near the site of the city stood a village of the Mankato
("blue earth") band of the Mdewakanton Sioux, who derived their name
from one of their chiefs, "Old Mankato." In this region occurred the
Sioux uprising of 1862, and from this point operations were carried on
which eventually resulted in the subjugation of the Indians and the
hanging, at Mankato, in December 1862, of 38 leaders of the revolt. In
the uprising the Mankato band was led by another chief named Mankato,
who took part in the attack on Ft Ridgeley, Minn., in August, in the
engagement on the 3rd of September at Birch Coolie, Minn., and in that
on the 23rd of September at Wood Lake, where he was killed.
MANLEY, MARY DE LA RIVIERE (c. 1663-1724), English writer, daughter of
Sir Roger Manley, governor of the Channel Islands, was born on the 7th
of April 1663 in Jersey. She wrote her own biography under the title of
_The Adventures of Rivella, or the History of the Author of the
Atalantis_ by "Sir Charles Lovemore" (1714). According to her own
account she was left an orphan at the age of sixteen, and beguiled into
a mock marriage with a kinsman who deserted her basely three years
afterwards. She was patronized for a short time by the duchess of
Cleveland, and wrote an unsuccessful comedy, _The Lost Lover_ (1696); in
freedom of speech she equalled the most licentious writers of comedy in
that generation. Her tragedy, _The Royal Mischief_ (1696) was more
successful. From 1696 Mrs Manley was a favourite member of witty and
fashionable society. In 1705 appeared _The Secret History of Queen Zarah
and the Zarazians_, a satire on Sarah, duchess of Marlborough, in the
guise of romance. This was probably by Mrs Manley, who, four years
later, achieved her principal triumph as a writer by her _Secret Memoirs
... of Several Persons of Quality_ (1709), a scandalous chronicle "from
the New Atalantis, an island in the Mediterranean." She was arrested in
the autumn of 1709 as the author of a libellous publication, but was
discharged by the court of queen's bench on the 13th of February 1710.
Mrs Manley sought in this scandalous narrative to expose the private
vices of the ministers whom Swift, Bolingbroke and Harley combined to
drive from office. During the keen political campaign in 1711 she wrote
several pamphlets, and many numbers of the _Examiner_, criticizing
persons and policy with equal vivacity. Later were published her tragedy
_Lucius_ (1717); _The Power of Love, in Seven Novels_ (1720), and _A
Stage Coach Journey to Exeter_ (1725).
MANLIUS, the name of a Roman gens, chiefly patrician, but containing
plebeian families also.
1. MARCUS MANLIUS CAPITOLINUS, a patrician, consul 392 B.C. According to
tradition, when in 390 B.C. the besieging Gauls were attempting to scale
the Capitol, he was roused by the cackling of the sacred geese, rushed
to the spot and threw down the foremost assailants (Livy v. 47;
Plutarch, _Camillus_, 27). Several years after, seeing a centurion led
to prison for debt, he freed him with his own money, and even sold his
estate to relieve other poor debtors, while he accused the senate of
embezzling public money. He was charged with aspiring to kingly power,
and condemned by the comitia, but not until the assembly had adjourned
to a place without the walls, where they could no longer see the Capitol
which he had saved. His house on the Capitol (the origin of his surname)
was razed, and the Manlii resolved that henceforth no patrician Manlius
should bear the name of Marcus. According to Mommsen, the story of the
saving of the Capitol was a later invention to explain his surname, and
his attempt to relieve the debtors a fiction of the times of Cinna.
Livy vi. 14-20; Plutarch, _Camillus_, 36; Cicero, _De domo_, 38.
2. TITUS MANLIUS IMPERIOSUS TORQUATUS, twice dictator (353, 349 B.C.)
and three times consul (347, 344, 340). When his father, L. Manlius
Imperiosus (dictator 363), was brought to trial by the tribune M.
Pomponius for abusing his office of dictator, he forced Pomponius to
drop the accusation by threatening his life (Livy vii. 3-5). In 360,
during a war with the Gauls, he slew one of the enemy, a man of gigantic
stature, in single combat, and took from him a torques (neck-ornament),
whence his surname. When the Latins demanded an equal share in the
government of the confederacy, Manlius vowed to kill with his own hand
the first Latin he saw in the senate-house. The Latins and Campanians
revolted, and Manlius, consul for the third time, marched into Campania
and gained two great victories, near Vesuvius, where P. Decius Mus
(q.v.), his colleague, "devoted" himself in order to gain the day, and
at Trifanum. In this campaign Manlius executed his own son, who had
killed an enemy in single combat, and thus disobeyed the express command
of the consuls.
Livy vii. 4, 10, 27, viii. 3; Cicero, _De off._ iii. 31.
3. TITUS MANLIUS TORQUATUS, consul 235 B.C. and 224, censor 231,
dictator 208. In his first consulship he subjugated Sardinia, recently
acquired from the Carthaginians, when the temple of Janus was shut for
the second time in Roman history (Livy i. 19). In 216 he opposed the
ransoming of the Romans taken prisoners at Cannae; and in 215 he was
sent to Sardinia and defeated a Carthaginian attempt to regain
possession of the island.
Livy xxiii. 34; Polybius ii. 31.
4. GNAEUS MANLIUS VULSO, praetor 195, consul 189. He was sent to Asia to
conclude peace with Antiochus III., king of Syria. He marched into
Pamphylia, defeated the Celts of Galatia on Mt Olympus and drove them
back across the Halys. In the winter, assisted by ten delegates sent
from Rome, he settled the terms of peace with Antiochus, and in 187
received the honour of a triumph.
Polybius xxii. 16-25; Livy xxxviii. 12-28, 37-50; xxxix. 6.
MANN, HORACE (1796-1859), American educationist, was born in Franklin,
Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1796. His childhood and youth were
passed in poverty, and his health was early impaired by hard manual
labour. His only means for gratifying his eager desire for books was the
small library founded in his native town by Benjamin Franklin and
consisting principally of histories and treatises on theology. At the
age of twenty he was fitted, in six months, for college, and in 1819,
graduated with highest honours, from the Brown University at Providence,
Rhode Island, having devoted himself so unremittingly to his studies as
to weaken further his naturally feeble constitution. He then studied law
for a short time at Wrentham, Massachusetts; was tutor in Latin and
Greek (1820-1822) and librarian (1821-1823) at Brown University; studied
during 1821-1823 in the famous law school conducted by Judge James Gould
at Litchfield, Connecticut; and in 1823 was admitted to the Norfolk
(Mass.) bar. For fourteen years, first at Dedham, Massachusetts, and
after 1833 at Boston, he devoted himself, with great success, to his
profession. Meanwhile he served, with conspicuous ability, in the
Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1827 to 1833 and in the
Massachusetts Senate from 1833 to 1837, for the last two years as
president. It was not until he became secretary (1837) of the newly
created board of education of Massachusetts, that he began the work
which was soon to place him in the foremost rank of American
educationists. He held this position till 1848, and worked with a
remarkable intensity--holding teachers' conventions, delivering numerous
lectures and addresses, carrying on an extensive correspondence,
introducing numerous reforms, planning and inaugurating the
Massachusetts normal school system, founding and editing _The Common
School Journal_ (1838), and preparing a series of _Annual Reports_,
which had a wide circulation and are still considered as being "among
the best expositions, if, indeed, they are not the very best ones, of
the practical benefits of a common school education both to the
individual and to the state" (Hinsdale). The practical result of his
work was the virtual revolutionizing of the common school system of
Massachusetts, and indirectly of the common school systems of other
states. In carrying out his work he met with bitter opposition, being
attacked particularly by certain school-masters of Boston who strongly
disapproved of his pedagogical theories and innovations, and by various
religious sectaries, who contended against the exclusion of all
sectarian instruction from the schools. He answered these attacks in
kind, sometimes perhaps with unnecessary vehemence and rancour, but he
never faltered in his work, and, an optimist by nature, a disciple of
his friend George Combe (q.v.), and a believer in the indefinite
improvability of mankind, he was sustained throughout by his conviction
that nothing could so much benefit the race, morally, intellectually and
materially, as education. Resigning the secretaryship in 1848, he was
elected to the national House of Representatives, as an anti-slavery
Whig to succeed John Quincy Adams, and was re-elected in 1849, and, as
an independent candidate, in 1850, serving until March 1853. In 1852 he
was the candidate of the Free-soilers for the governorship of
Massachusetts, but was defeated. In Congress he was one of the ablest
opponents of slavery, contending particularly against the Compromise
Measures of 1850, but he was never technically an Abolitionist and he
disapproved of the Radicalism of Garrison and his followers. From 1853
until his death, on the second of August 1859, he was president of the
newly established Antioch College at Yellow Springs, Ohio, where he
taught political economy, intellectual and moral philosophy, and natural
theology. The college received insufficient financial support and
suffered from the attacks of religious sectaries--he himself was charged
with insincerity because, previously a Unitarian, he joined the
Christian Connexion, by which the college was founded--but he earned the
love of his students, and by his many addresses exerted a beneficial
influence upon education in the Middle West.
A collected edition of Mann's writings, together with a memoir (1
vol.) by his second wife, Mary Peabody Mann, a sister of Miss E. P.
Peabody, was published (in 5 vols. at Boston in 1867-1891) as the
_Life and Works of Horace Mann_. Of subsequent biographies the best is
probably Burke A. Hinsdale's _Horace Mann and the Common School
Revival in the United Stales_ (New York, 1898), in "The Great
Educators" series. Among other biographies O. H. Lang's _Horace Mann,
his Life and Work_ (New York, 1893), Albert E. Winship's _Horace Mann,
the Educator_ (Boston, 1896), and George A. Hubbell's _Life of Horace
Mann, Educator, Patriot and Reformer_ (Philadelphia, 1910), may be
mentioned. In vol. I. of the _Report_ for 1895-1896 of the United
States commissioner of education there is a detailed "Bibliography of
Horace Mann," containing more than 700 titles.
MANNA, a concrete saccharine exudation obtained by making incisions on
the trunk of the flowering or manna ash tree, _Fraxinus Ornus_. The
manna ash is a small tree found in Italy, and extending to Switzerland,
South Tirol, Hungary, Greece, Turkey and Asia Minor. It also grows in
the islands of Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia. It blossoms early in
summer, producing numerous clusters of whitish flowers. At the present
day the manna of commerce is collected exclusively in Sicily from
cultivated trees, chiefly in the districts around Capaci, Carini, Cinisi
and Favarota, small towns 20 to 25 m. W. of Palermo, and in the
townships of Geraci, Castelbuono, and other places in the district of
Cefalù, 50 to 70 m. E. of Palermo. In the _frassinetti_ or plantations
the trees are placed about 7 ft. apart, and after they are eight years
old, and the trunk at least 3 in. in diameter, the collection of manna
is begun. This operation is performed in July or August during the dry
weather, by making transverse incisions 1½ to 2 in. long, and about 1
in. apart, through the bark, one cut being made each day, the first at
the bottom of the tree, another directly above the first, and so on. In
succeeding years the process is repeated on the untouched sides of the
trunk, until the tree has been cut all round and exhausted. It is then
cut down, and a young plant arising from the same root takes its place.
The finest or flaky manna appears to have been allowed to harden on the
stem. A very superior kind, obtained by allowing the juice to encrust
pieces of wood or straws inserted in the cuts, is called _manna a
cannolo_. The fragments adhering to the stem, after the finest flakes
have been removed are scraped off, and form the small or Tolfa manna of
commerce. That which flows from the lower incisions is often collected
on tiles or on a concave piece of the prickly pear (_Opunlia_), but is
less crystalline and more glutinous, and is less esteemed.
Manna of good quality dissolves at ordinary temperatures in about 6
parts of water, forming a clear liquid. Its chief constituent is mannite
or manna sugar, a hexatomic alcohol, C6H8(OH)6, which likewise occurs,
in much smaller quantity, in certain species of the brown seaweed,
_Fucus_, and in plants of several widely separated natural orders.
Mannite is obtained by extracting manna with alcohol and crystallizing
the solution. The best manna contains 70 to 80%. It crystallizes in
shining rhombic prisms from its aqueous solution and as delicate needles
from alcohol. Manna possesses mildly laxative properties, and on account
of its sweet taste is employed as a mild aperient for children. It is
less used in England now than formerly, but is still largely consumed in
South America. In Italy mannite is prepared for sale in the shape of
small cones resembling loaf sugar in shape, and is frequently prescribed
in medicine instead of manna.
The manna of the present day appears to have been unknown before the
15th century, although a mountain in Sicily with the Arabic name
Gibelman, i.e. "manna mountain," appears to point to its collection
there during the period that the island was held by the Saracens,
827-1070. In the 16th century it was collected in Calabria, and until
recently was produced in the Tuscan Maremma, but none is now brought
into commerce from Italy, although the name of Tolfa, a town near Civita
Vecchia, is still applied to an inferior variety of the drug.
Various other kinds of manna are known, but none of these has been
found to contain mannite. Alhagi manna (Persian and Arabic
_tar-angubin_, also known as terendschabin) is the produce of _Alhagi
maurorum_, a small, spiny, leguminous plant, growing in Arabia, Asia
Minor, Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and northern India. This manna
occurs in the form of small, roundish, hard, dry tears, varying from
the size of a mustard seed to that of a coriander, of a light-brown
colour, sweet taste, and senna-like odour. The spines and pods of the
plant are often mixed with it. It is collected near Kandahar and
Herat, and imported into India from Cabul and Kandahar. Tamarisk manna
(Persian _gaz-angubin_, tamarisk honey) exudes in June and July from
the slender branches of _Tamarix gallica_, var. _mannifera_, in the
form of honey-like drops, which, in the cold temperature of the early
morning, are found in the solid state. This secretion is caused by the
puncture of an insect, _Coccus manniparus_. In the valleys of the
peninsula of Sinai, especially in the Wady el-Sheikh, this manna
(Arabic _man_) is collected by the Arabs and sold to the monks of St
Catherine, who supply it to the pilgrims visiting the convent. It is
found also in Persia and the Punjab, but does not appear to be
collected in any quantity. This kind of manna seems to be alluded to
by Herodotus (vii. 31). Under the same name of _gaz-angubin_ there are
sold commonly in the Persian bazaars round cakes, of which a chief
ingredient is a manna obtained to the south-west of Ispahan, in the
month of August, by shaking the branches or scraping the stems of
_Astragalus florulentus_ and _A. adscendens_.[1] _Shir Khist_, a manna
known to writers on materia medica in the 16th century, is imported
into India from Afghanistan and Turkestan to a limited extent; it is
the produce of _Cotoneaster nummularia_ (_Rosaceae_), and to a less
extent of _Atraphaxis spinosa_ (_Polygonaceae_); it is brought chiefly
from Herat.
Oak manna or _Gueze-elefi_, according to Haussknecht, is collected
from the twigs of _Quercus Vallonia_ and _Q. persica_, on which it is
produced by the puncture of an insect during the month of August. This
manna occurs in the state of agglutinated tears, and forms an object
of some industry among the wandering tribes of Kurdistan. It is
collected before sunrise, by shaking the grains of manna on to linen
cloths spread out beneath the trees, or by dipping the small branches
in hot water and evaporating the solution thus obtained. A substance
collected by the inhabitants of Laristan from _Pyrus glabra_ strongly
resembles oak manna in appearance.
Australian or Eucalyptus manna is found on the leaves of _Eucalyptus
viminalis_, _E. Gunnii_, var. _rubida_, _E. pulverulenta_, &c. The
Lerp manna of Australia is of animal origin.
Briançon manna is met with on the leaves of the common Larch (q.v.),
and _bide-khecht_ on those of the willow, _Salix fragilis_; and a kind
of manna was at one time obtained from the cedar.
The manna of the Biblical narrative, notwithstanding the miraculous
circumstances which distinguish it from anything now known, answers in
its description very closely to the tamarisk manna.
See Bentley and Trimen, _Medicinal Plants_ (1880); Watt, _Dictionary
of Economic Products of India_, under "Manna" (1891). For analyses see
A. Ebert, _Abst. J.C.S._, 1909, 96, p. 176.