[1] Nestle (_Septuaginta Studien III._) contends that the text of A
and T is derived from the Apost. Const. ii. 22, or from its original,
and not from a MS. of the Septuagint.
MANATI (often anglicized as "manatee"), the name, adapted from the Carib
_manattouï_, given by the Spanish colonists of the West Indies to the
American representative of a small group of herbivorous aquatic mammals,
constituting, with their allies the dugong and the now extinct
_Rhytina_, the order Sirenia. The name, though possibly of Mandingo
origin (see MANDINGO), was latinized as _manatus_, furnished with hands,
thus referring the etymology to the somewhat hand-like form, or
hand-like use, of the fore-flippers, which alone serve these creatures
for limbs. Manatis, as shown in the illustration in the article SIRENIA,
are somewhat whale-like in shape, having a similar horizontally expanded
tail-fin; but here the resemblance to the Cetacea ceases, the whole
organization of these animals being constructed on entirely different
lines. The American manati, _Manatus_ (or, as some would have it,
_Trichechus latirostris_), inhabits the rivers of Florida, Mexico,
Central America and the West Indies, and measures from 9 to 13 feet in
length. The body is somewhat fish-like, but depressed and ending
posteriorly in a broad, flat, shovel-like horizontal tail, with rounded
edges. The head is of moderate size, oblong, with a blunt, truncated
muzzle, and divided from the body by a slight constriction or neck. The
fore limbs are flattened oval paddles, placed rather low on the sides of
the body, and showing externally no signs of division into fingers, but
with three diminutive flat nails near their extremities. No traces of
hind limbs are discernible either externally or internally; and there is
no dorsal fin. The mouth is peculiar, the tumid upper lip being cleft in
the middle line into two lobes, each of which is separately movable. The
nostrils are two semilunar valve-like slits at the apex of the muzzle.
The eyes are very minute, placed at the sides of the head, and with a
nearly circular aperture with wrinkled margins; and external ears are
wanting. The skin generally is of a dark greyish colour, not smooth or
glistening like that of whale or dolphin, but finely wrinkled. At a
little distance it appears naked, but close inspection, at all events in
young animals, shows a scanty covering of delicate hairs, and both upper
and under lips are supplied with short, stiff bristles.
[Illustration: (From Murie.)
Front view of head of American Manati, showing the eyes, nostrils, and
mouth. A, with the lobes of the upper lip divaricated; B, with the lip
contracted.]
Manatis have a number--as many as 20 pairs in each jaw--of two-ridged
teeth, of which, however, but comparatively few are in use at once. They
lack the large tusks of the male dugong, and the fore part of the skull
is not so much bent down as in that animal. In life the palate has a
horny plate, with a similar one in the lower jaw. The skeleton is
described under SIRENIA.
Manatis pass their life in the water, inhabiting bays, lagoons,
estuaries and large rivers, but the open sea is unsuited to their
peculiar mode of life. As a rule they prefer shallow water, in which,
when not feeding, they lie near the bottom. In deeper water they often
float, with the body much arched, the rounded back close to the
surface, and the head, limbs and tail hanging downwards. The air in the
lungs assists them to maintain this position. Their food consists
exclusively of aquatic plants, on which they feed beneath the water.
They are slow in their movements, and perfectly harmless, but are
subject to persecution for the sake of their oil, skin and flesh.
Frequent attempts have been made to keep specimens alive in captivity,
and sometimes with considerable success, one having lived in the
Brighton Aquarium for upwards of sixteen months. From such captive
specimens certain observations on the mode of life of these animals have
been made. We learn, for instance, that from the shoulder-joint the
flippers can be moved in all directions, and the elbow and wrist permit
of free extension and flexion. In feeding, manatis push the food towards
their mouths by means of one of the hands, or both used simultaneously,
and any one who has seen these members thus employed can believe the
stories of their carrying their young under their arms. Still more
interesting is the action of the peculiar lateral pads formed by the
divided upper lip, thus described by Professor A. Garrod: "These pads
have the power of transversely approaching towards and receding from one
another simultaneously (see fig.). When the animal is on the point of
seizing (say) a leaf of lettuce, the pads are diverged transversely in
such a way as to make a median gap of considerable breadth. Directly the
leaf is within grasp the lip-pads are approximated, the leaf is firmly
seized between their contiguous bristly surfaces, and then drawn inwards
by a backward movement of the lower margin of the lip as a whole." The
animal is thus enabled by the unaided means of the upper lip to
introduce food placed before it without the assistance of the
comparatively insignificant lower lip, the action recalling that of the
mouth of the silkworm and other caterpillars in which the mandibles
diverge and converge laterally during mastication. All trustworthy
observations indicate that the manati has not the power of voluntarily
leaving the water. None of the specimens in confinement has been
observed to emit any sound.
The Amazonian manati (_M. inunguis_) is a much smaller species, not
exceeding 7 or 8 ft. in length, and without nails to the flippers. It
ascends most of the tributaries of the Amazon until stopped by rapids.
From a specimen which lived a short time in London it appears that the
lip-pads are less developed than in the northern species. The third
species is the West African _M. senegalensis_, which extends a distance
of about ten degrees south and sixteen north of the equator, and ranges
into the heart of the continent as far as Lake Tchad. From 8 to 10 ft.
appears to be the normal length; the weight of a specimen was 590 lb.
The colour is bluish black, with a tinge of olive-green above and yellow
below. (R. L.*)
MANBHUM, a district of British India, in the Chota Nagpur division of
Bengal. The administrative headquarters are at Purulia. Area, 4147 sq.
m.; pop. (1901), 1,301,364, showing an increase of 9.1% since 1891.
Manbhum district forms the first step of a gradual descent from the
table-land of Chota Nagpur to the delta of lower Bengal. In the northern
and eastern portions the country is open, and consists of a series of
rolling downs dotted here and there with isolated conical hills. In the
western and southern tracts the country is more broken and the scenery
much more picturesque. The principal hills are Dalma (3407 ft.), the
crowning peak of a range of the same name; Gangabari or Gajboro (2220
ft.), the highest peak of the Baghmundi range, about 20 m. south-west of
Purulia; and Panchkot or Panchet (1600 ft.), on which stands the old
fort of the rajas of Panchet. The hills are covered with dense jungle.
The chief river is the Kasai, which flows through the district from
north-west to south-east into Midnapore, and on which a considerable
floating trade in _sal_ timber is carried on. The most numerous
aboriginal tribe are the Sontals; but the Bhumij Kols are the
characteristic race. In Manbhum they inhabit the country lying on both
sides of the Subanrekha. They are pure Mundas, but their compatriots to
the east have dropped the title of Munda and the use of their
distinctive language, have adopted Hindu customs, and are fast becoming
Hindus in religion. The Bhumij Kols of the Jungle Mahals were once the
terror of the surrounding districts; they are now more peaceful.
Three principal crops of rice are grown, one sown broadcast early in
May on table-lands and the tops of ridges, an autumn crop, and a
winter crop, the last forming the chief harvest of the district. Other
crops are wheat, barley, Indian corn, pulses, oilseeds, linseeds,
jute, hemp, sugar-cane, indigo, pan and tobacco. Owing to the
completeness of the natural drainage, floods are unknown, but the
country is liable to droughts caused by deficient rainfall. The
principal articles of export are oilseeds, pulses, _ghi_, lac, indigo,
tussur silk (manufactured near Raghunathpur), timber, resin, coal, and
(in good seasons) rice. The chief imports are salt, piece goods, brass
utensils and unwrought iron. Cotton hand-loom weaving is carried on
all over the district. Manbhum contains the Jherria coalfield, in the
Damodar valley, where a large number of mines have been opened since
1894. The United Free Church of Scotland has a mission at Pakheria,
with a printing press that issues a monthly journal in Sonthali; and a
German Lutheran mission has been established since 1864. The district
is traversed by the Bengal-Nagpur railway, while two branches of the
East Indian railway serve the coalfield.
MANCHA, LA (Arabic, _Al Mansha_, "the dry land" or "wilderness"), a name
which when employed in its widest sense denotes the bare and monotonous
elevated plateau of central Spain that stretches between the mountains
of Toledo and the western spurs of the hills of Cuenca, being bounded on
the S. by the Sierra Morena and on the N. by the Alcarria region. It
thus comprises portions of the modern provinces of Toledo, Albacete and
Cuenca, and the greater part of Ciudad Real. Down to the 16th century
the eastern portion was known as La Mancha de Montearagon or de Aragon,
and the western simply as La Mancha; afterwards the north-eastern and
south-western sections respectively were distinguished by the epithets
_Alta_ and _Baja_ (upper and lower). La Mancha is famous as the scene of
Cervantes' novel _Don Quixote_; in appearance, with its multitude of
windmills and vast tracts of arid land, it remains almost exactly as
Cervantes described it. Many villages, such as El Toboso and Argamasilla
de Alba, both near Alcázar de San Juan, are connected by tradition with
episodes in _Don Quixote_.
MANCHE, a department of north-western France, made up chiefly of the
Cotentin and the Avranchin districts of Normandy, and bounded W., N. and
N.E. by the English Channel (Fr. _La Manche_), from which it derives its
name, E. by the department of Calvados, S.E. by Orne, S. by Mayenne and
Ille-et-Vilaine. Pop. (1906), 487,443. Area, 2475 sq. m.
The department is traversed from south to north by a range of hills, in
many parts picturesque, and connected in the south with those of Maine
and Brittany. In the country round Mortain, which has been called the
Switzerland of Normandy, they rise to a height of 1200 ft. The
coast-line, running northward along the bay of the Seine from the rocks
of Grand Camp to Cape Barfleur, thence westward to Cape la Hague, and
finally southward to the Bay of Mont St Michel, has a length of 200
miles. The Vire and the Taute (which near the small port of Carentan
receives the Ouve as a tributary on the left) fall into the sea at the
Calvados border, and are united by a canal some miles above their
mouths. From the mouth of the Taute a low beach runs to the port of St
Vaast-la-Hougue, where the coast becomes rocky, with sandbanks. Off St
Vaast lies the fortified island of Tatihow, with the laboratory of
marine zoology of the Natural History Museum of Paris. Between Cape
Barfleur and Cape la Hague lie the roads of Cherbourg, protected by the
famous breakwater. The whole western coast is inhospitable; its small
havens, lying behind formidable barriers and reefs, are almost dry at
low tide. Great cliffs, such as the points of Jobourg (420 ft. high) and
Flamanville, alternate with long strands, such as that which extends for
30 m. from Cape Carteret to Granville. Between this coast and the
Channel Islands the tide, pent up between numerous sandbanks, flows with
a terrific force that has given these passages such ill-omened names as
_Passage de la Déroute_ and the like. The only important harbours are
Granville and the haven of refuge of Diélette between Granville and
Cherbourg. Carteret carries on a passenger traffic with the Channel
Islands. The chief stream is the Sienne, with its tributary the Soulle
flowing by Coutances. South of Granville the sands of St Pair are the
commencement of the great bay of Mont Saint Michel, whose area of
60,000 acres was covered with forest till the terrible tide of the year
709. The equinoctial tides reach a vertical height of nearly 50 ft. In
the bay the picturesque walls of the abbey rise from the summit of a
rock 400 ft. high. The Sée, which waters Avranches, and the Couesnon
(separating Manche from Ille-et-Vilaine) disembogue in the bay.
The climate of Manche is mild and humid, from its propinquity to the
sea. Frosts are never severe; myrtles and fuchsias flourish in the open
air. Excessive heat is also unusual; the predominant winds are
south-west.
The characteristic industry of the department is the rearing of horses
and cattle, carried on especially in the rich meadow of the eastern
Cotentin; sheep are raised in the western arrondissement of Coutances.
Wheat, buckwheat, barley and oats are the chief cereals cultivated.
Manche is one of the foremost departments for the production of
cider-apples and pears; plums and figs are also largely grown. Butter is
an important source of profit, as also are poultry and eggs. Flourishing
market-gardens are found in the west. The department contains valuable
granite quarries in the Cherbourg arrondissement and the Chausey
islands; building and other stone is quarried.
Villedieu manufactures copper-ware and Sourdeval iron and other
metal-ware; and there are wool-spinning mills, paper-works and
leather-works, but the department as a whole is industrially
unimportant. There are oyster-beds on the coast (St Vaast, &c.), and the
maritime population, besides fishing for herring, mackerel, lobsters or
sole, collect seaweed for agricultural use. Coutances is the seat of a
bishopric of the province of Rouen. The department forms part of the
region of the X. army corps and of the circumscriptions of the académie
(educational division) and appeal-court of Caen. Cherbourg (q.v.), with
its important port, arsenal and shipbuilding yards, is the chief centre
of population. St Lô (q.v.) is the capital; there are six
arrondissements (St Lô, Avranches, Cherbourg, Coutances, Mortain,
Valognes), with 48 cantons and 647 communes. Avranches, Mortain,
Coutances, Granville and Mont Saint Michel receive separate treatment.
At Lessay and St Sauveur-le-Vicomte there are the remains of ancient
Benedictine abbeys, and Torigni-sur-Vire and Tourlaville (close to
Cherbourg) have interesting châteaux of the 16th century. Valognes,
which in the 17th and 18th centuries posed as a provincial centre of
culture, has a church (15th, 16th and 17th centuries) remarkable for its
dome, the only one of Gothic architecture in France.
MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Manchester title, in the English
peerage, belongs to a branch of the family of Montagu (q.v.). The first
earl was SIR HENRY MONTAGU (c. 1563-1642), grandson of Sir Edward
Montagu, chief justice of the king's bench 1539-1545, who was named by
King Henry VIII. one of the executors of his will, and governor to his
son, Edward VI. Sir Henry Montagu, who was born at Boughton,
Northamptonshire, about 1563, was educated at Christ's College,
Cambridge, and, having been called to the bar, was elected recorder of
London in 1603, and in 1616 was made chief justice of the king's bench,
in which office it fell to him to pass sentence on Sir Walter Raleigh in
October 1618. In 1620 he was appointed lord high treasurer, being raised
to the peerage as Baron Montagu of Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire, and
Viscount Mandeville. He became president of the council in 1621, in
which office he was continued by Charles I., who created him earl of
Manchester[1] in 1626. In 1628 he became lord privy seal, and in 1635 a
commissioner of the treasury. Although from the beginning of his public
life in 1601, when he first entered parliament, Manchester had inclined
to the popular side in politics, he managed to retain to the end the
favour of the king. He was a judge of the Star Chamber, and one of the
most trusted councillors of Charles I. His loyalty, ability and honesty
were warmly praised by Clarendon. In conjunction with Coventry, the lord
keeper, he pronounced an opinion in favour of the legality of ship-money
in 1634. He died on the 7th of November 1642. Manchester was married
three times. One of his sons by his third wife was father of Charles
Montagu, created earl of Halifax in 1699.
EDWARD MONTAGU, 2nd earl of Manchester (1602-1671), eldest son of the
1st earl by his first wife, Catherine Spencer, granddaughter of Sir John
Spencer of Althorpe, was born in 1602, and was educated at Sidney Sussex
College, Cambridge. He was member of parliament for Huntingdonshire
1623-1626, and in the latter year was raised to the peerage in his
father's lifetime as Baron Montagu of Kimbolton, but was known generally
by his courtesy title of Viscount Mandeville. His first wife, who was
related to the duke of Buckingham, having died in 1625 after two years
of marriage, Mandeville married in 1626 Anne, daughter of the 2nd earl
of Warwick. The influence of his father-in-law, who was afterwards
admiral on the side of the parliament, drew Mandeville to the popular
side in the questions in dispute with the crown, and at the beginning of
the Long Parliament he was one of the recognized leaders of the popular
party in the upper House, his name being joined with those of the five
members of the House of Commons impeached by the king in 1642. At the
outbreak of the Civil War, having succeeded his father in the earldom in
November 1642, Manchester commanded a regiment in the army of the earl
of Essex, and in August 1643 he was appointed major-general of the
parliamentary forces in the eastern counties, with Cromwell as his
second in command. Having become a member of the "committee of both
kingdoms" in 1644, he was in supreme command at Marston Moor (July 1,
1644); but in the subsequent operations his lack of energy brought him
into disagreement with Cromwell, and in November 1644 he strongly
expressed his disapproval of continuing the war (see CROMWELL, OLIVER).
Cromwell brought the shortcomings of Manchester before parliament in the
autumn of 1644; and early in the following year, anticipating the
self-denying ordinance, Manchester resigned his command. He took a
leading part in the frequent negotiations for an arrangement with
Charles, was custodian with Lenthall of the great seal 1646-1648, and
frequently presided in the House of Lords. He opposed the trial of the
king, and retired from public life during the Commonwealth; but after
the Restoration, which he actively assisted, he was loaded with honours
by Charles II. In 1667 he was made a general, and he died on the 5th of
May 1671. Manchester was made a K.G. in 1661, and became F.R.S. in 1667.
Men of such divergent sympathies as Baxter, Burnet and Clarendon agreed
in describing Manchester as a lovable and virtuous man, who loved peace
and moderation both in politics and religion. He was five times married,
leaving children by two of his wives, and was succeeded in the title by
his eldest son, Robert, 3rd earl of Manchester (1634-1683).
See Lord Clarendon, _History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in
England_ (7 vols., Oxford, 1839) and _Life of Clarendon_ (Oxford,
1827); S. R. Gardiner, _History of the Great Civil War_, 1642-1649. (4
vols., London, 1886-1891); _The Quarrel between Manchester and
Cromwell_, Camden Soc., N.S. 12 (London, 1875); Sir Philip Warwick,
_Memoirs of the Reign of Charles I._ (London, 1701).
CHARLES MONTAGU, 1st duke of Manchester (c. 1656-1722), son of Robert,
3rd earl of Manchester, was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and
succeeded to his father's earldom in 1683. Warmly sympathizing with the
Whig revolution of 1688, he attended William and Mary at their
coronation, fought under William at the Boyne, became a privy councillor
in 1698, and held various important diplomatic posts between that date
and 1714, when he received an appointment in the household of George I.,
by whom on the 28th of April 1719 he was created duke of Manchester. He
died on the 20th of January 1722, and was succeeded successively in the
dukedom by his two sons, William 2nd duke of Manchester (1700-1739), and
Robert 3rd duke (c. 1710-1762), who was vice-chamberlain to Queen
Caroline, wife of George II.
GEORGE MONTAGU, 4th duke of Manchester (1737-1788), was the son of
Robert, the 3rd duke. He was a supporter of Lord Rockingham, and an
active opponent in the House of Lords of Lord North's American policy.
In the Rockingham ministry of 1782 Manchester became lord chamberlain.
He died in September 1788.
WILLIAM MONTAGU, 5th duke of Manchester (1768-1843), second son of the
preceding, was educated at Harrow, and having become a colonel in the
army in 1794, was appointed governor of Jamaica in 1808. Here he
remained, except for a visit to England (1811-1813) till 1827,
administering the colony with ability in a period of considerable
difficulty, and doing much to prepare the way for emancipation of the
slaves. From 1827 to 1830 he was postmaster-general in the cabinet of
the duke of Wellington, and died in Rome on the 18th of March 1843. His
wife was Susan, daughter of the 4th duke of Gordon. He was succeeded by
his son George, 6th duke (1799-1855), a captain in the navy; whose son
William Drogo, 7th duke (1823-1890), married Louise, daughter of the
Comte d'Alten of Hanover, who after his death married Spencer Cavendish,
8th duke of Devonshire. William was succeeded by his son George Victor
Drogo, 8th duke of Manchester (1853-1892), on whose death the title
devolved on his son, William Angus Drogo, 9th duke of Manchester (b.
1877). (R. J. M.)