FIG. 1.--Dissection of the Mammary Gland.]

_Supernumerary nipples and glands_ are not uncommon, and, when they

occur, are usually situated in the mammary line which extends from the

anterior axillary fold to the spine of the pubis; hence, when an extra

nipple appears above the normal one, it is external to it, but, when

below, it is nearer the middle line. The condition of extra breasts is

known as _polymasty_, that of extra nipples as _polythely_, and it is

interesting to notice that the latter is commoner in males than in

females. O. Ammon (quoted by Wiedersheim) records the case of a German

soldier who had four nipples on each side. These nipples in the human

subject are seldom found below the costal margin. In normal males the

breast structure is present, but rudimentary, though it is not very

rare to find instances of boys about puberty in whom a small amount of

milk is secreted, and one case at least is recorded of a man who

suckled a child. A functional condition of the mammary glands in men

is known as _gynaekomasty_. (For further details see _The Structure of

Man_, by R. Wiedersheim, translated by H. and M. Bernard, and edited

by G. B. Howes, London, 1895.)

_Embryology._--There is every probability that the mammary glands are

modified and hypertrophied sebaceous glands, and transitional stages

are seen in the areolar glands, which sometimes secrete milk. At an

early stage of foetal life a raised patch of ectoderm is seen, which

later on becomes a saucer-like depression; from the bottom of this

fifteen or twenty solid processes of cells, each presumably

representing a sebaceous gland, grow into the mesoderm which forms the

connective-tissue stroma of the mamma. Later on these processes

branch. The last stage is that the centre of the _mammary pit_ or

saucer-like depression once more grows up to form the nipple, and at

birth the processes become tubular, thus forming lactiferous ducts.

The glands grow little until the age of puberty, but their full

development is not reached until the birth of the first child.

_Comparative Anatomy._--In the lower Mammals the mammary line, already

mentioned, appears in the embryo as a ridge, and in those which have

many young at a birth patches of this develop in the thoracic and

abdominal regions to form the mammae, while the intervening parts of

the ridge disappear. The number of mammae is not constant in animals

of the same species; as an instance of this it will be found that in

the dog the number of nipples varies from seven to ten, though animals

with many nipples are more liable to variation than those with few.

When only a few young are produced at a time the mammae are few, and

it seems to depend on the convenience of suckling in which part of the

mammary line the glands are developed. In the pouched Mammals

(Monotremes and Marsupials) inguinal mammae are found, and so they are

in most Ungulates as well as in the Cetacea. In the elephants,

Sirenia, Chiroptera and most of the Primates, on the other hand, they

are confined to the pectoral region, and this is also the case in some

Rodents, e.g. the jumping hare (_Pedetes caffer_). In the monotremes

the mammary pit remains throughout life, and the milk is conducted

along the hairs to the young, but in other Mammals nipples are formed

in one of two ways. One is that already described in Man, which is

common to the Marsupials and Primates, while in the other the margin

or _vallum_ of the mammary pit grows up, and so forms a nipple with a

very deep pit, into the bottom of which the lactiferous ducts open.

The latter is regarded as the primary arrangement. In the monotremes

the mammae are looked upon, not as modified sebaceous glands, as in

other Mammals, but as altered sweat glands. It is further of interest

to notice that in these primitive Mammals the glands are equally

developed in both sexes, and it is thought that among the bats the

male often assists in suckling the young (see G. Dobson, _Brit. Museum

Cat. of the Chiroptera_, London, 1878). These facts, together with the

occasional occurrence of gynaekomasty in man, make it probable that

the ancestral Mammal was an animal in which both sexes helped in the

process of lactation.

For further details and literature up to 1906 see _Comparative Anatomy

of Vertebrates_, by R. Wiedersheim, adapted by W. N. Parker (1907),

and Bronn's _Classen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs_. (F. G. P.)

_Diseases of the Mammary Gland._--Inflammation of the breast

(_mastitis_) is apt to occur in a woman who is suckling, and is due to

the presence of septic micro-organisms, which, as a rule, have found

their way into the milk-ducts, the lymphatics or the veins, through a

crack, or other wound, in a nipple which has been made sore by the

infant's vigorous attempts to obtain food. Especially is this septic

inflammation apt to occur if the nipple is depressed, or so badly

formed that the infant has difficulty in feeding from it. The inflamed

breast is enlarged, tender and painful, and the skin over it is hot,

and perhaps too reddened. The woman feels ill and feverish, and she

may shiver, or have a definite rigor--which suggests that the

inflammation is running on to the formation of an abscess. The abscess

may be superficial to, or beneath, the breast, but it is usually

within the breast itself. The infant should at once be weaned, the

milk-tension being relieved by the breast-pump. Fomentations should be

applied under waterproof jaconette, and the breast should be evenly

supported by a bandage or by the corsets. Belladonna and glycerine

should be smeared over the breast, with the view of checking the

secretion of milk, as well as of easing pain. But before this is done

six or eight leeches may be applied. On the first indication that

matter is collecting, an incision should be made, for if the matter is

allowed to remain locked up in the breast tissue the abscess will

rapidly increase in size, and the whole of the breast may become

infected and destroyed. Supposing that, in making the incision, no pus

is discovered, the relief to the vascular tension thus afforded will

be nevertheless highly beneficial. The operation had better be done

under a general anaesthetic, so that the surgeon can introduce a

probe, or his finger, into the wound, breaking down the partitions

which are likely to exist between separate abscesses, and thus enable

them to be drained through the one opening. As the discharge begins to

cease, the tenderness subsides, and gentle massage, or firm strapping

of the breast, will prove useful. The general treatment will consist

in the administration of an aperient, and, the tongue being clean, in

prescribing such drugs as quinine, strychnia and iron. The diet should

be liberal, but not carried to such excess that the power of digestion

and absorption is overtaxed. During the early acute stage of the

disease small doses of morphia may be necessary. When the tongue has

cleaned, a little wine may be given with advantage.

_Chronic Eczema_ around the nipple of a woman late in life, with,

perhaps, localized ulceration, is known as _Paget's Disease_. The

importance of it is that cancerous infiltration is apt to pass from it

along the milk-ducts and to involve the breast in malignant disease.

Hence, when eczema about the nipple refuses to clear up under the

influence of soothing treatment, it is well to insist on the removal

of the entire breast. Sometimes this eczema is malignant from the

beginning, being associated with the active prolifization of the

epithelial cells of the milk-ducts, and with their escape into the

surrounding tissues. The nipple is retracted in most of these cases,

which, however, are not often met with.

_Chronic Mastitis_ is of frequent occurrence in women who are past

middle age. The part of the breast involved is enlarged, hard, and

more or less tender and painful. It is sometimes impossible clinically

to distinguish this disease from cancer. True, the tumour is not so

definite or so hard as a cancer, nor is it attached to the skin, nor

to the muscles of the chest wall, and if there are any glands

secondarily enlarged in the arm-pit they are not so hard as they may

be in cancer. But all these are questions of degree. It is, of course,

highly inadvisable to leave it to time to clear up the diagnosis, for

a chronic mastitis, innocent at first, may eventually become

cancerous. If in any case the difficulty of distinguishing a chronic

mastitis from a malignant tumour of the breast is insuperable, the

safest course is to remove the breast and have it examined by the

microscope. The suggestion, sometimes made, as to the preliminary

removal of a small piece of the tumour for examination is not to be

recommended.

A simple glandular tumour, _fibro-adenoma_, is apt to be found in the

breasts of youngish women, who may possibly give an account of some

blow or other injury; there may, however, be no history of injury. The

tumour is smooth, rounded or oval, and lies loose in the midst of the

breast; as a rule it is not tender. It is not associated with enlarged

glands in the arm-pit. The tumour had best be removed, though there is

no urgency about the operation, as the growth is absolutely innocent.

There is, however, no telling as to what course an innocent tumour of

the breast may take as middle age comes on.

_Cysts of the Breast._--A _galactocele_ is a tumour due to the locking

up of milk in a greatly dilated duct. Other forms of cystic disease

may be due to serous or hydatid fluid, or to thin pus, being

surrounded by fibrous walls. Such cysts are best treated by free

incision, and by passing a gauze dressing into their depths. If the

tissue is occupied by many cysts, the whole breast had better be

removed.

_Cancer of the Breast_ may be met with in men as well as in women; in

men, however, it is very rare. It is commonest in women between the

ages of forty and fifty. It is sometimes met with in women of twenty;

and the younger the individual the more malignant is the disease.

Married life seems to have no effect as regards the incidence of the

disease, but it often happens that a breast which gave trouble during

the period of suckling becomes later the subject of cancer; in other

cases there is a clear history of the attack having followed an

injury. It is, thus, as if inflammatory changes in the breast were the

direct cause of a later cancerous invasion. Though it is impossible to

affirm that heredity has a great influence in the incidence of cancer,

it is, nevertheless, remarkable that the members of certain families

are unusually prone to the disease.

The chief feature of a cancerous tumour of the breast is its great

hardness. The technical name for the growth is _scirrhus_ (Gr. [Greek:

skiros], or [Greek: skirros], any hard coat or covering, _stucco_),

from its stony hardness. The tumour consists of a dense framework of

fibrous tissue, with groups of cancer-cells in the spaces. The

malignancy of the disease depends upon the cells, not upon the fibrous

tissue. In young subjects the cells predominate, but in old ones the

contraction of the fibrous tissue throughout the breast compresses and

destroys the cells, and this sometimes to such an extent that there is

at last nothing left at the site but contracted fibrous tissue, all

trace of malignancy having disappeared. This variety of the disease is

found in old people, and is called _atrophic cancer_.

The cells of a cancerous breast are apt to be carried by the

lymphatics to the lymphatic glands in the arm-pit, and by the

bloodstream to the spinal column and to other parts of the skeleton,

and sometimes to the liver, which thus becomes large and hard, or to

the other breast.

As the fibrous tissue around the tumour becomes invaded by the new

growth it undergoes contraction (much as a string becomes shorter when

it is wetted), and as this shortening of the fibrous bands increases

the nipple may be retracted, and the breast may be closely bound down

to the chest-wall; and, further, the skin overlying the tumour may be

drawn in towards the tumour so as to form a conspicuous dimple. Later,

the nutrition of this patch of skin may be so interfered with that it

mortifies or breaks down, and thus a cancerous ulcer is produced. This

ulcer slowly spreads, and its floor is covered with a discharge in

which septic micro-organisms undergo cultivation; in this way the

ulcer becomes highly offensive. By the use of antiseptic lotions and a

frequent change of dressings, however, all unpleasant smell can be

checked or prevented. As the ulcer extends it is apt to implicate

large blood-vessels, so that serious, and sometimes alarming,

haemorrhages take place. And if the breast had previously been in

pain, the bleeding is likely to give great relief. But repeated

haemorrhages bring on increasing exhaustion, and thus materially

hasten the end.

There is at present only one trustworthy treatment for cancer, and

that is its free removal by operation. The entire breast and the

nipple must be sacrificed. At the present day the operation itself is

not a "dreadful" one. To be successful it must be very thorough, and

it must be done _early_. The patient, being under an anaesthetic,

feels nothing, and the subsequent dressings of the wound are attended

with scarcely any pain. There need be but a couple of days of

confinement to bed, and when the wound has soundly healed the patient

may be encouraged to use her arm. Should there be recurrence of

cancerous nodules in or about the wound, their removal should be

promptly and widely effected. The writer has records of one case in

which between the first operation and the last report there was a

space of over twenty-nine years, and another of fifteen years. Each of

these patients had one extensive operation, and four or five smaller

operations for dealing with recurrences. Each of them, however, might

be considered unlikely subjects for further return.

For a _superficial cancer_ the X-rays may be of service, but many

applications of the rays are likely to be needed, and the case may

possibly refuse to yield to their influence, and, after loss of

valuable time, the disease may have eventually to be removed by the

knife. The great advantage which the treatment by the knife offers

over every other method is that the growth can be cleanly, efficiently

and promptly removed, and, with it, all the affected lymph-spaces, and

the lymphatic glands which are secondarily implicated.

As regards the value of radium in the treatment of cancer of the

breast, the high expectations which were somewhat widely associated

with this newly-found element early in 1909 must be said to have been

unjustified by any precise results. Injections of radium salts have

been made into the substance of a cancer, and tubes of aluminium

containing the salt have been introduced into the growth, but no deep

cancer has thereby been cured. Radium has also been exposed again and

again on the surface of the affected breast, but similarly with no

great result. Unfortunately, whilst one is experimenting in the

treatment of an operable cancer, the epithelial cells of the growth

may be making their way towards distant parts, where no rays or

emanations could possibly reach them. Whatever may be the future of

radium as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of cancer of the

breast, it is certain that, on the facts as known at the beginning of

1910, the only safe course is to remove the breast by direct

operation, together with the associated lymph-spaces and lymphatic

glands. And if this is done promptly and thoroughly cancer of the

breast will come more and more into the class of curable diseases.

(E. O.*)

MAMMEE APPLE, SOUTH AMERICAN OR ST DOMINGO APRICOT, the fruit of _Mammea

americana_ (natural order Clusiaceae), a large tree with opposite

leathery gland-dotted leaves, white, sweet-scented, short-stalked,

solitary or clustered axillary flowers and yellow fruit 3 to 6 in. in

diameter. The bitter rind encloses a sweet aromatic flesh, which is

eaten raw or steeped in wine or with sugar, and is also used for

preserves. There are one to four large rough seeds, which are bitter and

resinous, and used as anthelmintics. An aromatic liqueur distilled from

the flowers is known as _eau de créole_ in the West Indies, and the

acrid resinous gum is used to destroy the chigoes which attack the naked

feet of the negroes. The wood is durable and well adapted for building

purposes; it is beautifully grained and used for fancy work.

MAMMON, a word of Aramaic origin meaning "riches." The etymology is

doubtful; connexions with a word meaning "entrusted," or with the Hebrew

_matmon_, treasure, have been suggested. "Mammon," Gr. [Greek: mamônâs]

(see Professor Eb. Nestle in _Ency. Bib._ s.v.), occurs in the Sermon on

the Mount (Matt. vi. 24) and the parable of the Unjust Steward (Luke

xvi. 9-13). The Authorized Version keeps the Syriac word. Wycliffe uses

"richessis." The _New English Dictionary_ quotes _Piers Plowman_ as

containing the earliest personification of the name. Nicholaus de Lyra

(commenting on the passage in Luke) says that _Mammon est nomen

daemonis_. There is no trace, however, of any Syriac god of such a name,

and the common identification of the name with a god of covetousness or

avarice is chiefly due to Milton (_Paradise Lost_, i. 678).

MAMMOTH (O. Russ. _mammot_, mod. _mamant_; the Tatar word _mama_, earth,

from which it is supposed to be derived, is not known to exist), a name

given to an extinct elephant, _Elephas primigenius_ of Blumenbach.

Probably no extinct animal has left such abundant evidence of its former

existence; immense numbers of bones, teeth, and more or less entire

carcases, or "mummies," as they may be called, having been discovered,

with the flesh, skin and hair _in situ_, in the frozen soil of the

tundra of northern Siberia.

The general characteristics of the order PROBOSCIDEA, to which the

mammoth belongs, are given under that heading. The mammoth pertains to

the most highly specialized section of the group of elephants, which

also contains the modern Asiatic species. Of the whole group it is in

many respects, as in the size and form of the tusks and the characters

of the molar teeth, the farthest removed from the mastodon type, while

its nearest surviving relative, the Asiatic elephant (_E. maximus_), has

retained the slightly more generalized characters of the mammoth's

contemporaries of more southern climes, _E. columbi_ of America and _E.

armeniacus_ of the Old World. The tusks, or upper incisor teeth, which

were probably smaller in the female, in the adult males attained the

length of from 9 to 10 ft. measured along the outer curve. Upon leaving

the head they were directed at first downwards, and outwards, then

upwards and finally inwards at the tips, and generally with a tendency

to a spiral form not seen in other elephants.

It is chiefly by the characters of the molar teeth that the various

extinct modifications of the elephant type are distinguished. Those of

the mammoth (fig. 2) differ from the corresponding organs of allied

species in great breadth of the crown as compared with the length, the

narrowness and crowding or close approximation of the ridges, the

thinness of the enamel, and its straightness, parallelism and absence

of "crimping," as seen on the worn surface or in a horizontal section

of the tooth. The molars, as in other elephants, are six in number on

each side above and below, succeeding each other from before

backwards. Of these Dr Falconer gave the prevailing "ridge-formula"

(or number of complete ridges in each tooth) as 4, 8, 12, 12, 16, 24,

as in _E. maximus_. Dr Leith-Adams, working from more abundant

materials, has shown that the number of ridges of each tooth,

especially those at the posterior end of the series, is subject to

individual variation, ranging in each tooth of the series within the

following limits: 3 to 4, 6 to 9, 9 to 12, 9 to 15, 14 to 16, 18 to

27--excluding the small plates, called "talons," at each end. Besides

these variations in the number of ridges or plates of which each tooth

is composed, the thickness of the enamel varies so much as to have

given rise to a distinction between a "thick-plated" and a

"thin-plated" variety--the latter being most prevalent among specimens

from the Arctic regions. From the specimens with thick enamel plates

the transition to the other species mentioned above, including _E.

maximus_, is almost imperceptible.

The bones of the skeleton generally more resemble those of the Indian

elephant than of any other species, but the skull differs in the

narrower summit, narrower temporal fossae, and more prolonged incisive

sheaths, supporting the roots of the enormous tusks. Among the

external characters by which the mammoth was distinguished from either

of the existing species of elephant was the dense clothing, not only

of long, coarse outer hair, but also of close under woolly hair of a

reddish-brown colour, evidently in adaptation to the cold climate it

inhabited. This character is represented in rude but graphic drawings

of prehistoric age found in caverns in the south of France. It should

be added that young Asiatic elephants often show considerable traces

of the woolly coat of the mammoth. The average height does not appear

to have exceeded that of either of the existing species of elephant.

The geographical range of the mammoth was very extensive. There is

scarcely a county in England in which its remains have not been found in

alluvial gravel or in caverns, and numbers of its teeth are dredged in

the North Sea. In Scotland and Ireland its remains are less abundant,

and in Scandinavia and Finland they appear to be unknown; but they have

been found in vast numbers at various localities throughout the greater

part of central Europe (as far south as Santander and Rome), northern

Asia, and the northern part of the American continent.

[Illustration: (From Tilesius.)

Fig. 1.--Skeleton of Mammoth (_Elephas primigenius_), with portions of

the skin.]

The mammoth belongs to the post-Tertiary or Pleistocene epoch and was

contemporaneous with man. There is evidence to show that it existed in

Britain before, during and after the glacial period. It is in northern

Siberia that its remains have been found in the greatest abundance and

in exceptional preservation. For a long period there has been from that

region an export of mammoth-ivory, fit for commercial purposes, to China

and to Europe. In the middle of the 10th century trade was carried on at

Khiva in fossil ivory. Middendorff estimated the number of tusks which

have yearly come into the market during the last two centuries at at

least a hundred pairs, but Nordenskiöld considers this estimate too low.

Tusks are found along the whole shore-line between the mouth of the Obi

and Bering Strait, and the farther north the more numerous they become,

the islands of New Siberia being one of the favourite collecting

localities. The remains are found not only round the mouths of the great

rivers, but embedded in the frozen soil in such circumstances as to

indicate that the animals lived not far from the localities in which

they are found; and they are exposed either by the melting of the ice in

warm summers or the washing away of the sea-cliffs or river-banks. In

this way the bodies of more or less nearly perfect animals, often

standing in the erect position, with the soft parts and hairy covering

entire, have been brought to light.

[Illustration: (From Owen.)

FIG. 2.--Grinding surface of Upper Molar Tooth of the Mammoth (_Elephas

primigenius_). c, cement; d, dentine; e, enamel.]

For geographical distribution and anatomical characters see Falconer's

_Paleontological Memoirs_, vol. ii (1868); B. Dawkins, "_Elephas

Primigenius_, its Range in Space and Time," _Quart. Journ. Geol.

Soc._, xxxv. 138 (1879); and A. Leith Adams, "Monograph of British

Fossil Elephants," part ii., _Palaeontographical Society_ (1879).

(W. H. F.; R. L.*)

MAMMOTH CAVE, a cave in Edmondson county, Kentucky, U.S.A., 37° 14´ N.

lat. and 86° 12´ W. long., by rail 85 m. S.S.W. of Louisville.

Steamboats run from the mouth of the Green river, near Evansville,

Indiana, to the Mammoth Cave landing. The cave is usually said to have

been discovered, in 1809, by a hunter named Hutchins; but the county

records, as early as 1797, fixed its entrance as the landmark for a

piece of real estate. Its mouth is in a forest ravine, 194 ft. above

Green river and 600 ft. above the sea. This aperture is not the original

mouth, the latter being a chasm a quarter of a mile north of it, and

leading into what is known as Dixon's cave. The two portions are not now

connected, though persons in one can make themselves heard by those in

the other.

The cavernous limestone of Kentucky covers an area of 8000 sq. m., is

massive and homogeneous, and belongs to the Subcarboniferous period. It

shows few traces of dynamic disturbance, but has been carved, mainly by

erosion since the Miocene epoch, into many caverns, of which the Mammoth

Cave is the largest.

The natural arch that admits one to Mammoth Cave has a span of 70 ft.,

and from a ledge above it a cascade leaps 59 ft. to the rocks below,

where it disappears. A flight of stone steps leads the way down to a

narrow passage, through which the air rushes with violence, outward in

summer and inward in winter. The temperature of the cave is uniformly

54° F. throughout the year, and the atmosphere is both chemically and

optically of singular purity. While the lower levels are moist from the

large pools and rivers that have secret connexion with Green river, the

upper galleries are extremely dry. These conditions led at one time to

the erection of thirteen cottages at a point about 1 m. underground, for

the use of invalids, especially consumptives. The experiment failed, and

only two cottages now remain as curiosities.

The Main Cave, from 40 to 300 ft. wide and from 35 to 125 ft. high, has

several vast rooms, e.g. the Rotunda, where are the ruins of the old

saltpetre works; the Star Chamber, where the protrusion of white

crystals through a coating of the black oxide of manganese creates an

optical illusion of great beauty; the Chief City, where an area of 2

acres is covered by a vault 125 ft. high, and the floor is strewn with

rocky fragments, among which are found numerous half-burnt torches made

of canes, and other signs of prehistoric occupancy. Two skeletons were

exhumed near the Rotunda; but few other bones of any description have

been found. The so-called Mammoth Cave "mummies" (i.e. bodies kept by

being inhumed in nitrous earth), with accompanying utensils, ornaments,

braided sandals and other relics, were found in Short and Salt Caves

near by, and removed to Mammoth Cave for exhibition. The Main Cave,

which abruptly ends 4 m. from the entrance, is joined by winding

passages, with spacious galleries on different levels; and, although the

diameter of the area of the whole cavern is less than 10 m., the

combined length of all accessible avenues is supposed to be about 150 m.

[Illustration: Map of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.]

The chief points of interest are arranged along two lines of

exploration, besides which there are certain side excursions. The "short

route" requires about four hours, and the "long route" nine. Audubon's

Avenue, the one nearest the entrance, is occupied in winter by myriads

of bats, that hang from the walls in clusters like swarms of bees. The

Gothic Avenue contains numerous large stalactites and stalagmites, and

an interesting place called the Chapel, and ends in a double dome and

cascade. Among the most surprising features of cave scenery are the

vertical shafts that pierce through all levels, from the uppermost

galleries, or even from the sink-holes, down to the lowest floor. These

are styled pits or domes, according to the position occupied by the

observer. A crevice behind a block of stone, 40 ft. long by 20 ft. wide,

called the Giant's Coffin, admits the explorer to a place where six

pits, varying in depth from 65 ft. to 200 ft., exist in an area of 600

yds. This includes Gorin's Dome, which is viewed from a point midway in

its side, and also from its top, and was formerly regarded as the finest

room in the cavern. Others admire more the Mammoth Dome, at the

termination of Spark's Avenue, where a cataract falls from a height of

150 ft. amid walls wonderfully draped with stalactitic tapestry. The

Egyptian Temple, which is a continuation of the Mammoth Dome, contains

six massive columns, two of them quite perfect and 80 ft. high and 25

ft. in diameter. The combined length of these contiguous chambers is 400

ft. By a crevice above they are connected with an arm of Audubon's

Avenue. Lucy's Dome, one of the group of Jessup Domes, is supposed to be

the loftiest of all these vertical shafts. A pit called the "Maelstrom,"

in Croghan's Hall, is the spot most remote from the mouth of the cave.

There are some fine stalactites near this pit, and others in the Fairy

Grotto and in Pensico Avenue; but, considering the magnitude of Mammoth

Cave, its poverty of stalactitic ornamentation is remarkable. The wealth

of crystals is, however, surprising, and these are of endless variety

and fantastic beauty.

Cleveland's Cabinet and Marion's Avenue, each a mile long, are adorned

by myriads of gypsum rosettes and curiously twisted crystals, called

"oulopholites." These cave flowers are unfolded by pressure, as if a

sheaf were forced through a tight binding, or the crystal fibres curl

outward from the centre of the group. Thus spotless arches of 50 ft.

span are embellished by floral clusters and garlands, hiding nearly

every foot of the grey limestone. The botryoidal formations hanging by

thousands in Mary's Vineyard resemble mimic clusters of grapes, as the

oulopholites resemble roses. Again, there are chambers with drifts of

snowy crystals of the sulphate of magnesia, the ceilings so thickly

covered with their efflorescence that a loud concussion will cause them

to fall like flakes of snow.

Many small rooms and tortuous paths, where nothing of special interest

can be found, are avoided as much as possible on the regular routes; but

certain disagreeable experiences are inevitable. There is peril also in

the vicinity of the deep pits. The one known as the Bottomless Pit was

for many years a barrier to all further exploration, but it is now

crossed by a wooden bridge. Long before the shaft had been cut as deep

as now the water flowed away by a channel gradually contracting to a

serpentine way, so extremely narrow as to be called the Fat Man's

Misery. The walls, only 18 in. apart, change direction eight times in

105 yds., while the distance from the sandy path to the ledge overhead

is but 5 ft. The rocky sides are finely marked with waves and ripples,

as if running water had suddenly been petrified. This winding way

conducts one to River Hall, beyond which lie the crystalline gardens

that have been described. It used to be said that, if this narrow

passage were blocked up, escape would be impossible; but an intricate

web of fissures, called the Corkscrew, has been discovered, by means of

which a good climber, ascending only a few hundred feet, lands 1000 yds.

from the mouth of the cave, and cuts off one or two miles.

The waters, entering through numerous domes and pits, and falling,

during the rainy season, in cascades of great volume, are finally

collected in River Hall, where they form several extensive lakes, or

rivers, whose connexion with Green River is known to be in deep springs

appearing under arches on its margin. Whenever there is a freshet in

Green River the streams in the cave are joined in a continuous body of

water, the rise sometimes being 60 ft. above the low-water mark. The

subsidence within is less rapid than the rise; and the streams are

impassable for about seven months in each year. They are navigable from

May to October, and furnish interesting features of cave scenery. The

first approach is called the Dead Sea, embraced by cliffs 60 ft. high

and 100 ft. long, above which a path has been made, whence a stairway

leads down to the banks of the river Styx, a body of water 40 ft. long,

crossed by a natural bridge. Lake Lethe comes next--a broad basin

enclosed by walls 90 ft. high, below which a narrow path leads to a

pontoon at the neck of the lake. A beach of the finest yellow sand

extends for 500 yds. to Echo River, the largest of all being from 20 to

200 ft. wide, 10 to 40 ft. deep and about three-quarters of a mile long.

It is crossed by boats. The arched passage-way is very symmetrical,

varying in height from 19 to 35 ft., and famous for its musical

reverberations--not a distinct echo, but an harmonious prolongation of

sound for from 10 to 30 seconds after the original tone is produced. The

long vault has a certain keynote of its own, which, when firmly struck,

excites harmonics, including tones of incredible depth and sweetness.

There are several other streams here besides those in River Hall. On one

of them F. J. Stevenson of London is said to have floated for seven

hours without finding its end. A glance at the accompanying map will

show that there is a labyrinth of avenues and chasms seldom visited and

never fully explored. New discoveries are frequently made. An exploring

party in 1904 found a curious complex of upper and lower galleries

accessible from the most eastern portion of the cave; beyond which

another party, in 1905, discovered several large domes previously

unknown. H. C. Hovey, in 1907, was led by expert guides into still

wilder recesses, where a series of five domes were found, that opened

into each other by tall gateways; each dome being 60 ft. in diameter and

175 ft. high. This magnificent group has since been named "Hovey's

Cathedral Domes." No instrumental survey of the Mammoth Cave has ever

been allowed by the management. The best map possible is therefore only

the result of estimates and partial measurements. The depths of the most

noted pits have easily been ascertained by line and plummet and the

height of several large domes has been found by the use of small

balloons. While making a survey exclusively for the cave-owners in 1908,

Max Kaemper of Berlin, Germany, forced an opening from the main cave

into a remarkable region to which the general name of "Violet City" was

given, in honour of Mrs Violet Blair Janin, who owned a third of the

Mammoth Cave estate. Special features are Kaemper Hall, Blair Castle,

the Marble Temple and Walhalla. There are eleven enormous pits, many

large fine stalactites and stalagmites and surprisingly beautiful mural

decorations. Dr Hovey made and published (1909) a new handbook embodying

all known discoveries of importance, with four sketch-maps of the routes

of usual exhibition.

The fauna of Mammoth Cave has been classified by F. W. Putnam, A. S.

Packard and E. D. Cope, who have catalogued twenty-eight species truly

subterraneous, besides those that may be regarded as stragglers from the

surface. They are distributed thus: _Vertebrata_, 8 species; _Insecta_,

17; _Arachnida_, 12; _Myriapoda_, 2; _Crustacea_, 5; _Vermes_, 3;

_Mollusca_, 1. Ehrenberg adds a list of 8 Polygastric _Infusoria_, 1

fossil infusorian, 5 _Phytolitharia_ and several microscopic fungi. A

bed of _Agaricus_ was found by the writer near the river Styx; and upon

this hint an attempt has been made to propagate edible fungi in this

locality. All the known forms of plant-life are either fungi or allied

to them, and many are only microscopic. The most interesting inhabitants

of Mammoth Cave are the blind, wingless grasshoppers, with extremely

long antennae; blind, colourless crayfish (_Cambarus pellucidus_,

Telk.); and the blind fish, _Amblyopsis spelaeus_, colourless and

viviparous, from 1 in. to 6 in. long. The _Cambarus_ and _Amblyopsis_

have wide distribution, being found in many other caves, and also in

deep wells, in Kentucky and Indiana. Fish not blind are occasionally

caught, which are apparently identical with species existing in streams

outside. The true subterranean fauna may be regarded as chiefly of

Pleistocene origin; yet certain forms are possibly remnants of Tertiary

life.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Plan and Description of the Great and Wonderful Cave

in Kentucky_, by Dr Nahum Ward (1816); _Notes on the Mammoth Cave,

with a Map_, by Edmund F. Lee, C. E. (1835); _Rambles in the Mammoth

Cave in 1844_, by Alexander Bullitt, with map by Stephen Bishop;

guide-books by Wright (1858), Binkerd (1869), Forwood (1875), Proctor

(1878), Hovey (1882), &c., and Hovey and Call (1897); Hovey's

_Celebrated American Caverns_ (1882, &c.); and _The Mammoth Cave and

its Inhabitants_, by Packard and F. W. Putnam (1879). (H. C. H.)

MAMORÉ, a large river of Bolivia which unites with the Beni in 10° 20´

S. to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It

rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba east of the city

of Cochabamba, and is known as the Chimoré down to its junction with the

Chapare, or Chapari. Its larger tributaries are the Chapare, Sécure,

Apere and Yacuma from the west, and the Ichila, Guapay or Grande, Ivari

and Guaporé from the east. Taking into account its length only, the

Guapay should be considered the upper part of the Mamoré; but it is

shallow and obstructed, and carries a much smaller volume of water. The

Guaporé, or Itenez, also rivals the Mamoré in length and volume, having

its source in the Serra dos Parecis, Matto Grosso, Brazil, a few miles

from streams flowing northward to the Tapajos and Amazon, and southward

to the Paraguay and Paraná. The Mamoré is interrupted by rapids a few

miles above its junction with the Beni, but a railway 180 m. long has

been undertaken from below the rapids of the Madeira. Above the rapids

the river is navigable to Chimoré, at the foot of the _sierra_, and most

of its tributaries are navigable for long distances. Franz Keller (in

_The Amazon and Madeira Rivers_; New York, 1874) gives the outflow of

the Mamoré at mean water level, and not including the Guaporé, as 2530

cub. in. per second, and the area of its drainage basin, also not

including the Guaporé, as 9382 sq. m.

See Edward D. Mathews, _Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers_ (London,

1879).

MAMUN (c. 786-833), originally ABDALLAH, surnamed AL-MA'MUN ("in whom

men trust"), the seventh of the Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad, was born

about A.D. 786, and was the second son of Harun al-Rashid. By Harun's

will he was successor-designate to his brother Amin, during whose reign

he was to be governor of the eastern part of the empire. On Harun's

death (809) Amin succeeded and Mamun acquiesced. Irritated, however, by

the treatment he received from Amin, and supported by a portion of the

army, Mamun speedily rebelled. A five years' struggle between the two

brothers ended in the death of Amin and the proclamation of Mamun as

caliph at Bagdad (Sept. 813). Various factions and revolts, which

disturbed the first years of his reign, were readily quelled by his

prudent and energetic measures. But a much more serious rebellion,

stirred up by his countenancing the heretical sect of Ali and adopting

their colours, soon after threatened his throne. His crown was actually

on the head of his uncle Ibrahim b. Mahdi (surnamed Mobarek) for a short

time (Barbier de Meynard, in _Journal Asiatique_, March-April 1869).

This inaugurated a period of tranquillity, which Mamun employed in

fostering literature and science. He had already, while governor of

Khorasan, founded a college there, and attracted to it the most eminent

men of the day, and Bagdad became the seat of academical instruction. At

his own expense he caused to be translated into Arabic many valuable

books from the Greek, Persian, Chaldean and Coptic languages; and he was

himself an ardent student of mathematics and astronomy. The first Arabic

translation of Euclid was dedicated to him in 813. Mamun founded

observatories at Bagdad and Kassiun (near Damascus), and succeeded in

determining the inclination of the ecliptic. He also caused a degree of

the meridian to be measured on the plain of Shinar; and he constructed

astronomical tables, which are said to be wonderfully accurate.

In 827 he was converted to the heterodox faith of the Mo'tazilites, who

asserted the free-will of man and denied the eternity of the Koran. The

later years (829-830) of his reign were distracted by hostilities with

the Greek emperor Theophilus, while a series of revolts in different

parts of the Arabian empire betokened the decline of the military glory

of the caliphs. Spain and part of Africa had already asserted their

independence, and Egypt and Syria were now inclined to follow. In 833,

after quelling Egypt, at least nominally, Mamun marched into Cilicia to

prosecute the war with the Greeks, but died near Tarsus, leaving his

crown to a younger brother, Motasim. The death of Mamun ended an

important epoch in the history of science and letters and the period of

Arabian prosperity which his father's reign had begun.

See further under CALIPHATE, sect. C., §§ 5, 6, 7.

MAMUND, a Pathan tribe and valley on the Peshawar border of the

North-West Frontier Province of India. The Mamunds live partly in Bajour

and partly in Afghan territory, due north of the Mohmands, a much larger

tribe, with whom they must not be confounded. They are one of the clans

of the Tarkanis (q.v.), and number 6000 fighting men; they gave much

trouble during the Chitral Campaign in 1895, and again during the

Mohmand Expedition in 1897 they inflicted severe losses upon General

Jeffrey's brigade. (See MOHMAND.)

MAN, the word common to Teutonic languages for a single person of the

human race, of either sex, the Lat. _homo_, and Gr. [Greek: anthrôpos];

also for the human race collectively, and for a full-grown adult male

human being. Teutonic languages, other than English, have usually

adopted a derivative in the first sense, e.g. German _Mensch_.

Philologists are not in agreement as to whether the Sanskrit _manu_ is

the direct source, or whether both are to be traced to a common root.

Doubt also is thrown on the theory that the word is to be referred to

the Indo-Germanic root, _men_, meaning "to think," seen in "mind," man

being essentially the thinking or intelligent animal. (See

ANTHROPOLOGY.)

MAN, ISLE OF (anc. _Mona_), a dominion of the crown of England, in the

Irish Sea. (For map, see ENGLAND, section I.) It is about 33 m. long by

about 12 broad in the broadest part. Its general form resembles that of

an heraldic lozenge, though its outline is very irregular, being

indented with numerous bays and narrow creeks. Its chief physical

characteristic is the close juxtaposition of mountain, glen and sea,

which has produced a variety and beauty of scenery unsurpassed in any

area of equal size elsewhere.

The greater part of its surface is hilly. The hills, which reach their

culminating point in Snaefell (2034 ft.), have a definite tendency to

trend in the direction of the longer axis, but throw out many radiating

spurs, which frequently extend to the coast-line. They are, for the most

part, smooth and rounded in outline, the rocks being such as do not

favour the formation of crags, though, owing to the rapidity of their

descent, streams have frequently rent steep-walled craggy gulleys in

their sides. The strength of the prevalent westerly winds has caused

them to be treeless, except in some of the lower slopes, but they are

clad with verdure to their summits. Rising almost directly from the sea,

they appear higher than they really are, and therefore present a much

more imposing appearance than many hills of greater altitude. On the

south-west, where they descend precipitously into the sea, they unite

with the cliffs to the north and south of them to produce the most

striking part of the coast scenery for which the isle is remarkable.

But, indeed, the whole coast from Peel round by the Calf, past

Castletown and Douglas to Maughold Head, near Ramsey, is distinguished

by rugged grandeur. From Ramsey round by the Point of Ayre to within a

few miles of Peel extend low sandy cliffs, bordered by flat sandy

shores, which surround the northern plain. This plain is relieved only

by a low range of hills, the highest of which attains an elevation of

270 ft. The drainage of the island radiates from the neighbourhood of

Snaefell, from which mountain and its spurs streams have on all sides

found their way to the sea. The most important of these are the Sulby,

falling into the sea at Ramsey; the _Awin-glass_ (bright river) and the

_Awin-dhoo_ (dark river), which unite their waters near Douglas; the

_Neb_, at the mouth of which Peel is situated; and the _Awin-argid_

(silver river, now called the Silverburn), which joins the sea at

Castletown. There are no lakes. The narrow, winding glens thus formed,

which are studded with clumps of fir, sycamore and mountain ash,

interspersed with patches of gorse, heather and fern, afford a striking

and beautiful contrast to the bare mountain tops. Traces of an older

system of drainage than that which now exists are noticeable in many

places, the most remarkable being the central depression between Douglas

and Peel. The chief bays are, on the east coast, Ramsey, with an

excellent anchorage, Laxey, Douglas, Derbyhaven, Castletown and Port St

Mary; and, on the west coast, Port Erin and Peel.

_Geology._--The predominant feature in the stratigraphy of the Isle of

Man is, in the words of G. W. Lamplough,[1] "the central ridge of

slate and greywacke, which seems to have constituted an insulated

tract at as early a date as the beginning of the Carboniferous period.

This prototype of the present island appears afterwards to have been

enfolded and obliterated by the sediments of later times; but with the

progress of denudation the old ridge has once more emerged from

beneath this mantle." This mass of ancient rocks, the Manx Slate

Series, has been divided locally into the Barrule slates, the Agneesh

and other grit beds; and the Lonan and Niarbyl Flags. The whole series

strikes N.E.-S.W., while structurally the strata form part of a

synclinorium, the higher beds being on the N.W. and S.E. sides of the

islands, the lower beds in the interior; although the subordinate dips

appear to indicate an anticlinal structure. These rocks have been

greatly crumpled; and in places, notably in Sully Glen, thrusting has

developed a well-marked crush-breccia. So much has this folding and

compression toughened the soft argillaceous rocks that the Barrule

Slate, for example, is almost everywhere found occupying the highest

points while the hard but more joined grits and flags occupy the lower

ground on the mountain flanks. The Manx Series is penetrated and

altered by large masses of granite at Dhoon, Foxdale and one or two

other spots; and dykes, more or less directly associated with these

masses, are numerous. No satisfactory fossils have yet been obtained

from these rocks, but they are regarded, provisionally, as of Upper

Cambrian age. Carboniferous rocks, including a basal conglomerate,

white limestone with abundant fossils, and the black "Posidonomya

Beds" (some of which are polished as a black marble) occur about

Castletown, Poolvash Bay and Langness; and the basement beds appear

again on the west coast at Peel. The cliffs and foreshore at Scarlet

Point exhibit contemporaneous Carboniferous tuffs, agglomerates and

basalts, as well as later dolerite dykes, in a most striking manner.

Here too may be seen some curious effects of thrusting in the

limestones. At the northern end of the island the Manx Slates end

abruptly in an ancient sea-cliff which crosses between Ramsey and

Ballaugh. The low-lying country beyond is formed of a thick mass of

glacial sands, gravels and boulder clay. In the Bride Hills are to be

seen glacial mounds rising 150 ft. above the level of the plain. The

depressions known as the Curragh, now drained but still peaty in

places, probably represent the sites of late glacial lakes. Glacial

deposits are found also in all parts of the island. Beneath the thick

drift of the plain, Carboniferous, Permian and Trassic rocks have been

proved to lie at some depth below the present sea-level. On the coast

near the Point of Ayr is a raised beach. Silver-bearing lead ore, zinc

and copper are the principal minerals found in the Isle of Man; the

most important mining centres being at Foxdale and Laxey.

_Climate._--The island is liable to heavy gales from the south-west.

Of this the trend of the branches of the trees to the north-east is a

striking testimony. But it is equally subject to the influence of the

warm drift from the Atlantic, so that its winters are mild, and,

influenced by the less changeable temperature of the sea, its summers

cool. The mean annual temperature is 49°.0 F., the temperature of the

coldest month (January) being 41°.5, and the warmest (August) 58°.5,

giving an extreme annual range of temperature of 17°.1 only, while the

average temperature in spring is 46°.0, in summer 57°.2, in autumn

50°.9 and in winter 42°.0. Further evidence of the mildness of the

climate is afforded by the fact that fuchsias, hydrangeas, myrtles and

escallonias grow luxuriantly in the open air. Its rainfall, placed as

it is between mountain districts in England, Ireland, Scotland and

Wales, is naturally rather wet than dry. Statistics, however, reveal

remarkable divergencies in the amounts of rain in the different parts

of the island, varying from 61 in. at Snaefell to 25 in. at the Calf

of Man. In the more populous districts it varies from 46 in. at

Ramsey, and 45 in. at Douglas, to 38 in. at Peel and 34 in. at

Castletown. Of sunshine the Isle of Man has a larger share than any

portion of the United Kingdom except the south and south-east coasts

and the Channel Islands. Briefly, then, the climate of the island may

be pronounced to be equable and sunny, and, though humid, decidedly

invigorating; its rainfall, though it varies greatly, is excessive in

the populous districts; and its winds are strong and frequent, and

usually mild and damp.

_Fauna._--Like Ireland, the Isle of Man is exempt from snakes and

toads, a circumstance traditionally attributed to the agency of St

Patrick, the patron saint of both islands. Frogs, however, have been

introduced from Ireland, and both the sand lizard and the common

lizard are found. Badgers, moles, squirrels and voles are absent and

foxes are extinct. Fossil bones of the Irish elk are frequently found,

and a complete skeleton of this animal is to be seen at Castle Rushen.

The red deer, which is referred to in the ancient laws and pictured on

the runic crosses, became extinct by the beginning of the 18th

century. Hares are less plentiful than formerly, and rabbits are not

very numerous. Snipe are fairly common, and there are a few partridges

and grouse. The latter, which had become extinct, were reintroduced in

1880. Woodcock, wild geese, wild ducks, plover, widgeon, teal, heron,

bittern, kingfishers and the Manx shearwater (_Puffinus anglorum_)

visit the island, but do not breed there. The puffin (_Fratercula

artica_) is still numerous on the Calf islet in the summer time. The

peregrine falcon, which breeds on the rocky coast, and the chough have

become very scarce. The legal protection of sea-birds (local act of

1867) has led to an enormous increase in the number of gulls. A

variety of the domestic cat, remarkable for the absence or stunted

condition of the tail, is peculiar to the island.

_Flora._--Like the fauna, the flora is chiefly remarkable for its

meagreness. It contains at most 450 species as compared with 690 in

Jersey. Alpine forms are absent. But what it lacks in variety it makes

up in beauty and quantity. For the profusion of the gorse-bloom and

the abundance of spring flowers, especially of primroses, and of

ferns, the Isle of Man is probably unrivalled.

_People._--The Manx people of the present day are mainly of

Scandio-Celtic origin, with some slight traces of earlier races. They

have large and broad heads, usually broader than those of their brother

Celts (_Goidels_) in Ireland and Scotland, with very broad, but not

specially prominent cheek-bones. Their faces are usually either

scutiform, like those of the Northmen, or oval, which is the usual

Celtic type, and their noses are almost always of good length, and

straighter than is general among Celtic races. Light eyes and fair

complexion, with rather dark hair, are the more usual combinations. They

are usually rather tall and heavily built, their average height (males)

being 5 ft. 7½ in., and average weight (naked) 155 lb. The tendency of

the population to increase is balanced by emigration. It reached its

maximum in 1891. Since then it has slightly declined. A noticeable

feature is its greater proportionate growth in the towns, especially in

Douglas, than in the country. The country population reached its maximum

in 1851. Since then it has been shrinking rapidly, especially in the

northern district.

+---------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

| Sheadings, Parishes | | | | |

| and Towns. | 1726. | 1821. | 1871. | 1901. |

+---------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

| Rushen. | | | | |

| Malew (P.) | 890 | 2,649 | 2,466 | 2,113 |

| Castletown (T.) | 785 | 2,036 | 2,318 | 1,963 |

| Arbory (P.) | 661 | 1,455 | 1,350 | 802 |

| Rushen (P.) | 813 | 2,568 | 3,665 | 3,277 |

| Middle. | | | | |

| Santon (P.) | 376 | 800 | 628 | 468 |

| Braddan (P.) | 780 | 1,754 | 2,215 | 2,177 |

| Douglas (T.) | 810 | 6,054 | 13,846 | 19,149 |

| Onchan (P.) | 370 | 1,457 | 1,620 | 3,942 |

| Glenfalca. | | | | |

| Marown (P.) | 499 | 1,201 | 1,121 | 973 |

| German (P.) | 510 | 1,849 | 1,762 | 1,230 |

| Peel (T.) | 475 | 1,909 | 3,496 | 3,306 |

| Patrick (P.) | 745 | 2,031 | 2,888 | 1,925 |

| Garff. | | | | |

| Lonan (P.) | 547 | 1,846 | 3,741 | 2,513 |

| Maughold (P.) | 529 | 1,514 | 1,433 | 887 |

| Ramsey (T.) | 460 | 1,523 | 3,861 | 4,672 |

| Ayre. | | | | |

| Lezayre (P.) | 1,309 | 2,209 | 1,620 | 1,389 |

| Bride (P.) | 612 | 1,001 | 880 | 539 |

| Andreas (P.) | 967 | 2,229 | 1,757 | 1,144 |

| Michael. | | | | |

| Jurby (P.) | 483 | 1,108 | 788 | 504 |

| Ballaugh (P.) | 806 | 1,467 | 1,077 | 712 |

| Michael (P.) | 643 | 1,427 | 1,231 | 928 |

+---------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

| Total | 14,070 | 40,087 | 53,763 | 54,613 |

+---------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Chief Political Divisions and Towns._--The island is divided into six

sheadings (so named from the Scandinavian _skeða-Þing_, or

ship-district), called Glenfaba, Middle, Rushen, Garff, Ayre and

Michael, each of which has its officer, the coroner, whose functions

are similar to those of a sheriff; and there are seventeen parishes.

For the towns see CASTLETOWN, DOUGLAS, PEEL and RAMSEY. The principal

villages are Ballasalla, Ballaugh, Foxdale, Laxey, Michael, Onchan,

Port Erin and Port St Mary.

_Communications._--There is communication by steamer with Liverpool,

Glasgow, Greenock, Belfast, Silloth, Whitehaven, Belfast and Dublin

throughout the year and, during the summer season, there are also

steamers plying to Androssan, Heysham, Fleetwood and Blackpool. A

daily mail was established in 1879. The internal communications are

excellent. The roads are under the management of a board appointed by

the Tynwald Court, a surveyor-general, and parochial surveyors. They

are maintained by a system of licences on public-houses, carriages,

carts and dogs, and a rate on real property. There are railways

between Douglas, Ramsey, Peel, Castletown, Port Erin and Port St Mary,

the line between Douglas and Ramsey being via St John's and Michael.

Electric tramways run from Douglas to Ramsey via Laxey, from Douglas

to Port Soderick, and from Laxey to the summit of Snaefell.

_Industries. (a) Agriculture._--The position of the Manx farmers,

though they generally pay higher rents than their compeers in those

countries do, is, except in the remote parts of the island, more

favourable than that of the English or Scottish farmers. The best land

is in the north and south. The farms are principally held on lease and

small holdings have almost entirely disappeared. The cultivated area

is about 93,000 acres, or 65% of the whole. The commons and

uncultivated lands on the mountains are also utilized for pasturage.

Oats occupy about three-fourths of the area under corn crops, barley

about one-sixth. The amount of wheat and other corn crops is very

trifling. Neither Manx wheat nor barley is as good on an average as

English; but oats is, on the whole, fully equal to what is grown on

the mainland. Turnips, which are an excellent crop, are largely

exported, and the dry and sandy soil of the north of the island is

very favourable for the growth of potatoes. The white and red clover

and the common grasses grow luxuriantly, and the pasturage is,

generally speaking, good. Some of the low-lying land, especially in

the north, is much in need of systematic drainage. The livestock,

largely in consequence of the premiums given by the insular government

and the local agricultural society to bulls, heavy and light stallions

and cart mares, now approximates very closely in quality to the stock

in the north of England. Dairying, owing to the large number of summer

visitors, is the most profitable department of agricultural industry.

Apples, pears and wall fruit do not succeed very well, but the soil is

favourable for the cultivation of strawberries, raspberries,

gooseberries, currants and vegetables. Both agricultural and

market-garden produce are quite insufficient to supply the demand in

the summer.

_(b) Fishing._--The important place which the fishing industry

anciently held in the social organization of the Isle of Man is

quaintly reflected in the wording of the oath formerly taken by the

deemsters, who promised to execute the laws between the sovereign and

his subjects, and "betwixt party and party, as indifferently as the

herring backbone doth lie in the midst of the fish." The statutes and

records abound in evidence of the great extent to which both the

people and their rulers were dependent on the produce of the sea. The

most numerous fish are herrings, cod, mackerel, ling, haddock, plaice,

sole, fluke, turbot and brett. The industry is, however, in a decaying

condition, especially the herring fishery, which, for reasons which

have not been satisfactorily ascertained, fails periodically. The

amount of fish caught, except herrings, is not sufficient to supply

the local demand in the summer, though some of the fish named are

exported during the rest of the year. About 250 vessels, aggregating

4260 tons, with crews numbering 4250, are employed in this industry. A

fish hatchery has been established at Port Erin by the insular

government.

(c) _Mining._--There is no doubt that, in proportion to its area, the

metalliferous wealth of the Isle of Man has been very considerable.

Two of its mines, Laxey and Foxdale, have stood for a long series of

years in the first rank in the British Islands for productiveness of

zinc and silver lead respectively. These metals have constituted its

principal riches, but copper pyrites and hematite iron have also been

raised in marketable quantities, while only very small amounts of the

ores of nickel and antimony have been found. The mines are rented from

the Crown as lord of the manor. The value of the ore produced is about

£40,000 annually. Other economic products are clay, granite,

limestone, sandstone, slate (of an inferior quality) and salt, which

has been discovered near the Point of Ayre.

(d) _Textiles, &c._--Since labour has become scarcer and dearer

textile industries have been declining, being unable to compete with

larger and more completely organized manufactories elsewhere. The

principal manufactured articles are woollen cloths and blankets, hemp

ropes and cotton, and herring nets. A few fishing vessels are built,

and brewing is a prosperous industry. But, apart from agriculture, the

most important industry (for so it may be called) is that of the

provision for summer visitors, nearly half a million of whom come to

the island annually.

_Commerce._--The chief exports are lead, zinc, turnips, ropes, cotton

nets and salt. The imports consist chiefly of timber, provisions,

livestock, poultry, flour, fruit, vegetables and eggs. In 1906 the

tonnage of vessels (other than fishing or wind-bound vessels) cleared

for traffic was 720,790. The number of vessels (other than fishing

vessels) registered as belonging to the island in 1906 was 79.

_Government._--The government of the island is vested in a

lieutenant-governor, appointed by the Crown; in a Council, which is the

upper branch of the legislature; in the House of Keys, which is the

lower branch; and in the Tynwald Court. The Council and Keys sit

separately as legislative bodies, but they sit in the Tynwald Court as

distinct bodies with co-ordinate powers to transact executive business

and to sign Bills. The Tynwald Court controls the surplus revenue, after

the payment of the cost of government and of a fixed contribution of

£10,000 to the imperial exchequer, subject to the supervision of the

Treasury and the veto of the lieutenant-governor, and it appoints boards

to manage the harbours, highways, education, local government, and

lunatic and poor asylums. The Imperial government, after intimating its

intention to Tynwald, fixes the rates of the customs duties, but Tynwald

can by resolution "impose, abolish or vary" the customs duties subject

to the approval of parliament or the Treasury, such change to take

effect immediately and to continue for six months, and, if parliament be

then sitting, to the end of the session, provided that the same be not

in the meantime annulled by the passing of an act of parliament, or a

Treasury minute. The approval of the sovereign of the United Kingdom in

Council is essential to every legislative enactment. Acts of the

imperial parliament do not affect the island except it be specially

named in them. The lieutenant-governor, who is the representative of the

sovereign, presides in the Council, in the Tynwald Court, in the High

Court of Justice (Staff of Government division) and in the Court of

General Gaol Delivery. He is the supreme executive authority, and he

shares the control of the legislative and administrative functions,

including the management of the revenue and the control of its surplus,

with the Tynwald Court; he has also the power of veto as regards the

disposal of surplus revenue and the nature of proposed harbour works,

and his signature is necessary to the validity of all acts. It has been

the practice for him to act as chancellor of the exchequer and to

initiate all questions concerning the raising or expenditure of public

funds. The Council consists of the lieutenant-governor, the lord-bishop

of the diocese, the clerk of the rolls, the two deemsters, the

attorney-general, the archdeacon (all of whom are appointed by the

Crown) and the vicar-general, who is appointed by the bishop. No act of

the governor and Council is valid unless it is the act of the governor

and at least two members of the Council. The House of Keys (for origin

of the name see KEY) is one of the most ancient legislative assemblies

in the world. It consists of twenty-four members, elected by male and

female owners or occupiers of property. Each of the six sheadings

elects three members; the towns of Castletown, Peel and Ramsey one each,

and Douglas five. There is no property qualification required of the

members, and the house sits for five years unless previously dissolved

by the lieutenant-governor.

_Law._--The High Court of Justice, of which the lieutenant-governor is

president, contains three divisions: viz. the Chancery Division, in

which the clerk of the rolls sits as judge, the Common Law Division,

of which the deemsters are the judges, the Staff of Government

Division, in which the governor and three judges sit together. The

jurisdiction of the Chancery and Common Law Division is in the main

similar to that of the corresponding divisions in the English Courts.

The Staff of Government exercises appellate jurisdiction, similar to

that of the Appeal Courts in England. The Common Law Courts for the

southern division of the island are held at Douglas and Castletown

alternately and those for the northern division at Ramsey, once in

three months. Actions in these courts are heard by a deemster and a

special or common jury. The Chancery Court sits once a fortnight at

Douglas. The deemsters also have summary jurisdiction in matters of

debt, actions for liquidated damages under £50, suits for possession

of real or personal property, petitions for probate, &c. These courts,

called Deemsters' Courts, are held weekly, alternately at Douglas and

Castletown, by the deemster for the southern division of the island,

and at Ramsey and Peel by the deemster for the northern division.

Criminal cases are heard by the magistrates or a high-bailiff and are

(with the exception of minor cases which may be dealt with summarily)

sent on by them for trial by a deemster and a jury of six, who hear

the evidence and determine whether there is sufficient ground for

sending the case for trial before the Court of General Gaol Delivery,

thus discharging the functions of the Grand Jury in England. The Court

of General Gaol Delivery is the Supreme Criminal Court and is presided

over by the lieutenant-governor, who is assisted by the clerk of the

rolls and the two deemsters. The high-bailiffs hold weekly courts in

the four towns for the recovery of debts under forty shillings and for

the trial of cases usually brought before a stipendiary magistrate in

England. The magistrates (J.P.'s) also hold regular courts in the

towns for the trial of breaches of the peace and minor offences. There

is a coroner in each of the six sheadings. These officers are

appointed annually by the lieutenant-governor and perform duties

similar to those of a sheriff's officer in England. Inquests of death

are held by a high-bailiff and jury. The Manx Bar is distinct from

that of England. Its members, called "Advocates," combine the

functions of barrister and solicitor. The laws relating to real

property still retain much of their ancient peculiarity, but other

branches of law have of late years by various acts of Tynwald been

made practically identical with English law.

As regards real property the general tenure is a customary freehold

devolving from each possessor to his next heir-at-law. The descent of

land follows the same rules as the descent of the crown of England.

The right of primogeniture extends to females in default of males in

the direct line. The interest of a widow or widower, being the first

wife or husband of a person deceased, is a life estate in one-half of

the lands which have descended hereditarily, and is forfeited by a

second marriage; a second husband or second wife is only entitled to a

life interest in one-fourth, if there be issue of the first marriage.

Of the land purchased by the husband the wife surviving him is

entitled to a life interest in one moiety. By a statute of the year

1777 proprietors of land are empowered to grant leases for any term

not exceeding twenty-one years in possession without the consent of

the wife.

_Church._--It is not known by whom Christianity was introduced into

Man, but from the large proportion of names of Irish ecclesiastics

surviving in the appellations of the old Manx _keeills_, or cells,

which are of similar type to the Irish oratories of the 6th and 7th

centuries, and in the dedications of the parish churches, which are

usually on ancient sites, it may be reasonably conjectured that

Manxmen were, for the most part, Christianized by Irish missionaries.

During the incursions of the pagan Vikings Christianity was almost

certainly extirpated and it was probably not reintroduced before the

beginning of the 11th century. The two most important events in the

history of the medieval Manx Church were the formation of the diocese

of _Sodor_ (q.v.) and the foundation of the abbey of Rushen, a branch

of the Cistercian abbey of Furness, in 1134. This latter event was

important because the Cistercians were exempted from all episcopal

visitation and control, by charter granted by the pope, and were,

therefore, only subject to his rule and that of the abbots of their

own order. From this time till the Reformation we find that there was

an almost continuous struggle between the laity and the spiritual

barons and monks, who had obtained great power and much property in

the island. In 1458 the diocese was placed under York. The dissolution

of the religious houses in Man was not brought about by the English

Act of 1539, which did not apply to the island, but by the arbitrary

action of Henry VIII. From such evidence as is available it would seem

that the Reformation was a very slow process. When Isaac Barrow (uncle

of his well-known namesake) became bishop in 1663 the condition of the

Church was deplorable, but under him and his able and saintly

successors, Thomas Wilson (1698-1755) and Mark Hildesley (1755-1773).

it attained to a very much higher level than the English Church during

the same period. After Hildesley's time it was again neglected, and

successful missions by John Wesley and others resulted in the

establishment and rapid increase of Nonconformity. It was not till the

second decade of the 19th century that the condition of the Church

began to improve again, and this improvement has steadily continued.

In 1878 a Sodor and Man theological school was established for the

training of candidates for holy orders. This school has been

affiliated to Durham University. In 1880 four rural deaneries were

established, and commissioners were constituted as trustees of

endowments for Church purposes. In 1895 a cathedral chapter, with four

canons, was constituted under the name of the "Dean and Chapter of

Man," the bishop being the dean of the cathedral church. A Church

Sustentation Fund was established by Bishop Straton in 1894, with a

view to supplementing the incomes of the clergy, which had been

greatly reduced on account of the low price of corn. There have been

several acts giving Nonconformists equal rights with Churchmen. Among

these are the Burials Acts of 1881 and 1895, which permit burials to

take place in churchyards without the rites of the Church of England,

and allow any burial service, provided it be Christian, in mortuary

chapels. At the present day Nonconformists, chiefly Wesleyan

Methodists, probably outnumber Churchmen, and there is a small number

of Roman Catholics and Presbyterians. The bishop, who has a seat, but

not a vote, in the House of Lords, is assisted by an archdeacon, a

vicar-general, a registrar and a sumner-general. The jurisdiction of

the only remaining ecclesiastical court, which is presided over by the

vicar-general, as representing the bishop, is mainly in connexion with

affiliation questions, the swearing-in of churchwardens and the

granting of faculties. The power of the Manx Convocation to make

canons, though not exercised since 1704, has never been abrogated, and

so far affords a token that the Manx Church is a separate national

Church governed by its own laws, which, however, must be approved by

the insular Legislature.

_Education._--It was not till 1872, when the insular Legislature

passed the Public Elementary Education Act, that the Manx State

undertook any direct responsibility for education. This act differed

from the English Act of 1870 in three important particulars: (1) it at

once constituted every town and parish a school district under a

school board; (2) the attendance of children was made compulsory; and

(3) every elementary school, those in connexion with the Church of

Rome excepted, was obliged to provide for non-sectarian instruction in

religious subjects, and for the reading of the Bible accompanied by

suitable explanation. Since the date of this act education has made

extraordinary strides. It became free in 1892, and a higher-grade

school was established in Douglas in 1894. The public elementary

schools, which are nearly all managed by School Boards, are subject to

the control of a local "Council of Education" appointed by the Tynwald

Court; but, as the Manx Act of 1872 requires that, in order to obtain

a government grant, the schools shall fulfil the conditions contained

in the minutes of the education department at Whitehall, they are

examined by English inspectors and compelled to attain the same

standard of efficiency as the English and Welsh schools. In 1907 an

act establishing a system of secondary education was passed by the

Legislature. The total number of public elementary schools in 1906 was

47, 42 being board and 5 denominational. Besides King William's

College, opened in 1833, which provided a similar education to that

obtainable at the English public schools, there are grammar schools in

Douglas, Ramsey and Castletown.

The Manx language (see CELT: _Language_) still lingers, the census of

1901 showing that there were about 4400 people who understood

something of it. There is now no one who does not speak English.

_Economics._--Municipal government was established in 1860, and in

1876 vaccination was made compulsory, as also was the registration of

births, marriages and deaths in 1878. It was not till 1884 that the

sanitation of the towns was seriously taken in hand; but ten years

more elapsed before the sanitary condition of the island was dealt

with by the passing of an act which constituted parish and village

districts, with commissioners elected by the people, who had, in

conjunction with a board elected by the Tynwald Court and an inspector

appointed by it, to attend to all questions relating to sanitation and

infectious diseases. As a result of these measures the death-rate has

been greatly reduced. In 1888 a permissive poor law was established;

it has been adopted by all the towns except Peel and by seven of the

seventeen country parishes. Before this date the poor had been

dependent on voluntary relief, which broke down owing to the growth of

a temporarily employed class occupied in administering to the wants of

the summer visitors. The total number of persons in receipt of poor

relief averages about 920, and that of lunatics about 212. The average

number of births during the five years 1902-1906 was 21.6, of

marriages 6.1, and of deaths 17.6 per thousand. The rateable annual

value of the parishes, towns and villages is about £400,000. The

revenue for the year ending the 31st of March 1907 was £86,365, and

the expenditure £75,728. The largest revenue raised was £91,193 in

1901, and the debt reached its maximum amount, £219,531, in 1894.

_History._--The history of the Isle of Man falls naturally into three

periods. In the first of these the island was inhabited by a Celtic

people. The next is marked by the Viking invasions and the establishment

of Scandinavian rule. The third period is that of the English dominion.

The secular history of the Isle of Man during the Celtic period is an

absolute blank, there being no trustworthy record of any event whatever

before the incursions of the Northmen, since the exploits attributed to

Baetan MacCairill, king of Ulster, at the end of the 6th century, which

were formally supposed to have been performed in the Isle of Man, really

occurred in the country between the Firths of Clyde and Forth. And it is

clear that, even if the supposed conquest of the Menavian islands--Man

and Anglesey--by Edwin of Northumbria, in 616, did take place, it could

not have led to any permanent results; for, when the English were driven

from the coasts of Cumberland and Lancashire soon afterwards, they could

not well have retained their hold on the island to the west of these

coasts. It is, however, possible that in 684, when Ecfrid laid Ireland

waste from Dublin to Drogheda, he temporarily occupied Man. During the

period of Scandinavian domination there are two main epochs--one before

the conquest of Man by Godred Crovan in 1079, and the other after it.

The earlier epoch is characterized by warfare and unsettled rule, the

later is comparatively peaceful. Between about A.D. 800 and 815 the

Vikings came to Man chiefly for plunder; between about 850 and 990, when

they settled in it, the island fell under the rule of the Scandinavian

kings of Dublin; and between 990 and 1079, it was subject to the

powerful earls of Orkney. The conqueror Godred Crovan was evidently a

remarkable man, though little information about him is attainable.

According to the _Chronicon Manniae_ he "subdued Dublin, and a great

part of Leinster, and held the Scots in such subjection that no one who

built a vessel dared to insert more than three bolts." The memory of

such a ruler would be likely to survive in tradition, and it seems

probable therefore that he is the person commemorated in Manx legend

under the name of King Gorse or Orry. The islands which were under his

rule were called the _Suðr-eyjar_ (Sudreys or the south isles), in

contradistinction to the _norðr-eyjar_, or the north isles, i.e. the

Orkneys and Shetlands, and they consisted of the Hebrides, and of all

the smaller western islands of Scotland, with Man. At a later date his

successors took the title of _Rex Manniae el Insularum_. Olaf, Godred's

son, was a powerful monarch, who, according to the Chronicle, maintained

"such close alliance with the kings of Ireland and Scotland that no one

ventured to disturb the Isles during his time" (1113-1152). His son,

Godred, who for a short period ruled over Dublin also, as a result of a

quarrel with Somerled, the ruler of Argyll, in 1156, lost the smaller

islands off the coast of Argyll. An independent sovereignty was thus

interposed between the two divisions of his kingdom. Early in the 13th

century, when Reginald of Man did homage to King John, we hear for the

first time of English intervention in the affairs of Man. But it was

into the hands of Scotland that the islands were ultimately to fall.

During the whole of the Scandinavian period the isles were nominally

under the suzerainty of the kings of Norway, but they only occasionally

asserted it with any vigour. The first to do so was Harold Haarfager

about 885, then came Magnus Barfod about 1100, both of whom conquered

the isles. From the middle of the 12th century till 1217 the suzerainty,

owing to the fact that Norway was a prey to civil dissensions, had been

of a very shadowy character. But after that date it became a reality and

Norway consequently came into collision with the growing power of

Scotland. Finally, in 1261, Alexander III. of Scotland sent envoys to

Norway to negotiate for the cession of the isles, but their efforts led

to no result. He therefore initiated hostilities which terminated in the

complete defeat of the Norwegian fleet at Largs in 1263. Magnus, king of

Man and the Isles, who had fought on the Norwegian side, was compelled

to surrender all the islands over which he had ruled, except Man, for

which he did homage. Two years later Magnus died and in 1266 the king of

Norway, in consideration of the sum of 4000 marks, ceded the islands,

including Man, to Scotland. But Scotland's rule over Man was not firmly

established till 1275, when the Manx were defeated in a decisive battle

at Ronaldsway, near Castletown. In 1290 we find Edward I. of England in

possession of Man, and it remained in English hands till 1313, when it

was taken by Robert Bruce after besieging Castle Rushen for five weeks.

Then, till 1346, when the battle of Neville's Cross decided the long

struggle between England and Scotland in England's favour, there

followed a confused period when Man was sometimes under English and

sometimes under Scottish rule. About 1333 it had been granted by King

Edward III. to William de Montacute, 1st earl of Salisbury, as his

absolute possession, without reserving any service to be rendered to

him. In 1392 his son sold the island "with the crowne" to Sir William Le

Scroope. In 1399 Henry IV. caused Le Scroope, who had taken Richard's

side, to be beheaded. The island then came into the possession of the

crown and was granted to Henry de Percy, earl of Northumberland, but, he

having been attainted, Henry IV., in 1406, made a grant of it, with the

patronage of the bishopric, to Sir John Stanley, his heirs and assigns,

on the service of rendering two falcons on paying homage and two falcons

to all future kings of England on their coronation.

With the accession of the Stanleys to the throne there begins a better

epoch in Manx history. Though the island's new rulers rarely visited its

shores, they placed it under responsible governors, who, in the main,

seem to have treated it with justice. Of the thirteen members of the

family who ruled in Man, the second Sir John Stanley (1414-1432), James,

the 7th earl (1627-1651), and the 10th earl of the same name (1702-1736)

had the most important influence on it. The first curbed the power of

the spiritual barons, introduced trial by jury, instead of trial by

battle, and ordered the laws to be written. The second, known as the

Great Stanley, and his wife, Charlotte de la Tremoille (or Tremouille),

are probably the most striking figures in Manx history. In 1643 Charles

I. ordered him to go to Man, where the people, who were no doubt

influenced by what was taking place in England, threatened to revolt.

But his arrival, with English soldiers, soon put a stop to anything of

this kind. He conciliated the people by his affability, brought in

Englishmen to teach various handicrafts and tried to help the farmers by

improving the breed of Manx horses, and, at the same time, he restricted

the exactions of the Church. But the Manx people never had less liberty

than under his rule. They were heavily taxed; troops were quartered upon

them; and they also had the more lasting grievance of being compelled to

accept leases for three lives instead of holding their land by the

"straw" tenure which they considered to be equivalent to a customary

inheritance. Six months after the death of the king Stanley received a

summons from General Ireton to surrender the island, which he haughtily

declined. In August 1651 he went to England with some of his troops,

among whom were 300 Manxmen, to join King Charles II., and he and they

shared in the decisive defeat of the Royalists at Worcester. He was

captured and confined in Chester Castle, and, after being tried by court

martial, was executed at Wigan. Soon after his death the Manx Militia,

under the command of William Christian, rose against the Countess and

captured all the insular forts except Rushen and Peel. They were then

joined by a parliamentary force under Colonel Duckenfield, to whom the

Countess surrendered after a brief resistance. Fairfax had been

appointed "Lord of Man and the Isles" in September, so that Man

continued under a monarchical government and remained in the same

relation to England as before. The restoration of Stanley government in

1660 therefore caused as little friction and alteration as its temporary

cessation had. One of the first acts of the new lord, Charles (the 8th

earl), was to order Christian to be tried. He was found guilty and

executed. Of the other persons implicated in the rebellion only three

were excepted from the general amnesty. But by order in Council they

were pardoned, and the judges responsible for the sentence on Christian

were punished. His next act was to dispute the permanency of the

tenants' holdings, which they had not at first regarded as being

affected by the acceptance of leases, a proceeding which led to an

almost open rebellion against his authority and to the neglect of

agriculture. In lieu of it the people devoted themselves to the

fisheries and to contraband trade. The agrarian question was not settled

till 1704, when James, Charles's brother and successor, largely through

the influence of Bishop Wilson, entered into a compact with his tenants,

which was embodied in an act, called the "Act of Settlement." Their

compact secured the tenants in the possession of their estates in

perpetuity on condition of a fixed rent, and a small fine on succession

or alienation. From the great importance of this act to the Manx people

it has been called their _Magna Carta_. As time went on, and the value

of the estates increased, the rent payable to the lord became so small

in proportion as to be almost nominal. James died in 1736 and the

sovereignty of the isle passed to James Murray, 2nd duke of Atholl. In

1764 he was succeeded by his only surviving child Charlotte, Baroness

Strange, and her husband, John Murray, who, in right of his wife, became

Lord of Man. About 1720 the contraband trade greatly increased. In 1726

it was, for a time, somewhat checked by the interposition of parliament,

but during the last ten years of the Atholl régime (1756-1765) it

assumed such proportions that, in the interests of the imperial revenue,

it became necessary to suppress it. With a view to so doing an Act of

Parliament, called the "Revesting Act," was passed in 1765, under which

the sovereign rights of the Atholls and the customs revenues of the

island were purchased for the sum of £70,000, and an annuity of £2000

was granted to the duke and duchess. The Atholls still retained their

manorial rights, the patronage of the See, and certain other

perquisites, which were finally purchased for the excessive sum of

£417,144 in 1828. Up to the time of the Revestment the Tynwald Court

passed laws concerning the government of the island in all respects and

had control over its finances, subject to the approval of the lord.

After the Revestment, or rather after the passage of the "Mischief Act"

in the same year, Imperial Parliament legislated with respect to

customs, harbours and merchant shipping, and, in measures of a general

character, it occasionally inserted clauses by which penalties in

contravention of the acts of which they formed part might be enforced in

the island. It also assumed the control of the insular customs duties.

Such were the changes which, rather than the transference of the

sovereignty from the lord to the king of Great Britain and Ireland,

modified the Constitution of the Isle of Man. Its ancient laws and

tenures were not interfered with, but in many ways the Revestment

adversely affected it. The hereditary lords were far from being model

rulers, but most of them had taken some personal share in its

government, and had interested themselves in the well-being of its

inhabitants. But now the whole direction of its affairs was handed over

to officials, who regarded the island as a pestilent nest of smugglers,

from which it was their duty to extract as much revenue as possible.

Some alleviation of this state of things was experienced between 1793

and 1826 when the 4th duke of Atholl was appointed governor, since,

though he quarrelled with the Keys and was unduly solicitous for his

pecuniary interests, he did occasionally exert himself to promote the

welfare of the island. After his departure the English officials resumed

their sway. But they were more considerate than before. Moreover, since

smuggling, which had only been checked, not suppressed, by the Revesting

Act, had by that time almost disappeared, and the Manx revenue was

producing a large and increasing surplus, the Isle of Man came to be

regarded more favourably, and, thanks to this fact and to the

representations of the Manx people to English ministers in 1837, 1844

and 1853, it obtained a somewhat less stringent customs tariff and an

occasional dole towards erecting its much neglected public works. Since

1866, when the Isle of Man obtained a measure of at least nominal "Home

Rule," the Manx people have made remarkable progress, and at the present

day form a prosperous community.

_Monuments._--The prehistoric monuments in Man are numerous. There are

earth entrenchments, seemingly of the earliest period; fragments of

stone circles and alignments; burial cairns with stone cists of several

successive periods; urn mounds and _crannoges_ or lake dwellings. The

monuments belonging to the historic period begin with the round tower on

Peel islet, the humble Celtic _keeills_ and the sculptured crosses in

which the island is especially rich. Of these crosses about one-fourth

have inscriptions in the old Norse language. The origin and history of

the early buildings remaining on the island are obscure. The castles of

Rushen and Peel are the only important buildings of a military character

which survive, but the remains of ecclesiastical buildings are numerous

and interesting, though, with the exception of St German's Cathedral on

Peel islet, now in ruins, they are only small and simple structures.

_Arms._--There has been much controversy about the origin of the arms of

the island--the "three-legs" found on a beautiful pillar cross near

Maughhold churchyard belonging to the latter part of the 14th century.

It was probably originally a sun symbol and was brought from Sicily by

the Vikings. The motto _quocunque jeceris slabit_ is of comparatively

recent origin.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--History and Law: _The Manx Society's publications_,

vols. i.-xxxii., notably the _Chronicon Manniae_ (vols. xxii. and

xxiii., edited by Munch); Sir Spencer Walpole, K.C.B., _The Land of

Home Rule_, an essay on the history and constitution of the Isle of

Man (London, Longmans, Green & Co., 1893); A. W. Moore, M.A., C.V.O.,

_The Diocese of Sodor and Man_, S.P.C.K.'s series of Diocesan

Histories (1893); and _A History of the Isle of Man_, (2 vols.,

London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1900); _The Statutes of the Isle of Man from

1817 to 1895_, Gill's edition, 6 vols. (vol. i. 1883 to vol. vi. 1897,

London, Eyre & Spottiswoode); Richard Sherward (Deemster), _Manx Law

Tenures_, a short treatise on the law relating to real estate in the

Isle of Man (Douglas Robinson Bros., 1899). Archaeology and Folklore:

P. M. C. Kermode, F. S. A. Scot., _Manx Crosses_ (London, Bemrose &

Sons, 1907); E. Alfred Jones, _The Old Church Plate of the Isle of

Man_ (Bemrose & Sons, 1907); A. W. Moore, C.V.O., M.A., _The Folklore

of the Isle of Man_ (London, D. Nutt, 1891). Language and Philology:

_A Dictionary of the Manx Language_ (Manx-English), by Archibald

Cregeen (1835); _A Practical Grammar of the Antient Gaelic, or

Language of the Isle of Man, usually called Manks_, by Rev. John

Kelly, LL.D.; _Manx Society's publications_, vol. ii. (1859, reprint

of edition of 1804); _The Manx Dictionary in two ports_ (Manx-English,

English-Manx), by Rev. John Kelly, William Gill and John Clarke; _Manx

Society's publications_, vol. xiii. (1866); _The Book of Common Prayer

in Manx Gaelic_, being translations made by Bishop Phillips in 1610

and by the Manx clergy in 1765, edited by A. W. Moore, C.V.O., M.A.,

and John Rhys, M.A., LL.D.; _Outlines of the Phonology of Manx

Gaelic_, by John Rhys (Oxford University Press, 2 vols., 1893-1894);

_First Lessons in Manx_, by Edmund Goodwin (Dublin, Celtic

Association, 1901); _Manx National Songs_, with English words, from

the MS. collection of the Deemster Gill, Dr J. Clague and W. H. Gill,

and arranged by W. H. Gill (London, Boosey & Co., 1896); _Manx Ballads

and Music_, edited by A. W. Moore (Douglas, G. and R. Johnson, 1896);

A. W. Moore's _The Surnames and Place Names of the Isle of Man_

(London, Elliot Stock, 1906, 3rd ed.). Natural History: P. G. Ralfe,

_The Birds of the Isle of Man_ (Edinburgh, David Douglas, 1905).

Hall Caine's novels, _The Deemster_, _The Manxman_, &c., have no doubt

tended to popularize the island. The most truthful description of the

social life of the people is to be found in a novel entitled _The

Captain of the Parish_, by John Quine. _Bibliotheca Monensis_ (_Manx

Society_, vol. xxiv.) contains a good list of MSS. and books relating

to the island up to 1876, and A. W. Moore's _History of the Isle of

Man_ has a list of the most important MSS. and books up to 1900.

(A. W. M.)