_Reciprocal_.
The dual and plural contain a reciprocal form of the verb, as where
two or more persons beat each other:
We, (dual excl.,) are beating each other _Ngulliguna bumullên_.
We, (pl. excl.,) are beating each other _Ngeaniguna bumullên_.
There is no passive. The sentence, A woman was bitten by a dog, is
expressed by, A dog bit a woman.
The prohibitive or negative in all the moods, tenses, and numbers is
obtained by using the word _Kurria_ with the verb, thus: _Kurria
buma_, beat not. _Kurria bumulgiridyu_, I will not beat. Another form
is used where there is uncertainty, as, _Wirraigurra bumulgiridyu_,
which expressed the meaning "I don't think I will beat," or, "Perhaps
I will not."
_Murrung nginyadhu_ has the meaning of "I am well," and may be called
a substitute for our verb "to be." By incorporating _yalu_ with this
expression, it makes it more emphatic, as, _Yalu murrung nginyadhu_,
"Really I am well." Any adjective describing a human attribute may be
taken as a predicate, as, good, bad, strong, sleepy, and employed with
the modifications of the word _nginya_.
_Prepositions_.
A number of prepositions are independent words, as: Behind,
_yabbungura_. In front, _willidya_. Across, _dargin_. Around,
_waiangadha_. Outside, or, on the other side, _ngunningura_. Inside,
_muguma_. This side, _nginnungaradha_. _Billaga ngunningura_, the
other side of the creek. On the right, _bumalgala_. On the left,
_mirrangur_. Ahead, _banganañ_. In the rear, _ngunnagangura_.
Frequently the verb includes the meaning of a preposition, as in the
following examples:
_Ngadhu ngadyên dyirramuddyi gullegiri_, I that hill go-up-will.
_Ngadhu dyila dyirramuddyi birrawagiri_, I that hill go-down-will.
_Ngadhu ngidyi gigulle waiangugiri_, I that tree go-round-will.
_Ngeani birgudyi wurungiri_, We (pl. incl.) the scrub through-will-go.
_Ngulliguna billadyi errugiri_, We (dual excl.,) the creek will-cross.
_Ngadhu dyirramudyi ngagungurgu gulleamurrigiri_, I will climb over
the hill.
_Adverbs_.
The following are a few of the adverbs, some of which are inflected
for number, case, and tense: _Wirrai_, no. _Ngaiin_, yes. _Yandhal_,
now. _Dhallan_, soon. _Yêre_, to-day. _Ngurrungal_, the morning.
_Yêregwala_, yesterday. _Ngunnigunala_, day before yesterday.
_Ngunnungalâgal_, day after to-morrow. _Murradhulbul_, long ago.
_Buruandhangga_, night-time.
Here (now), _nginna_. Here (was), _nginni_. This way, _dhain_. Farther
away, _ngunna_. Still farther, _ngunneng_. A good way off,
_ngunnagunalla_. There in the rear, _ngunnagangura_. These pronominal
adverbs, like the demonstrative pronouns, are very numerous and also
include the points of the compass.
How, _widdyallangalu?_ How thou, _widdyawandu?_ How you (dual),
_widdyawandubla?_ How you (plural), _widdyawandugir?_ How obtained,
_widdyunggurrunda burramai?_ _Widdyunggâwa has the meaning of "when?"
Where is it, _dhagawana?_ Where (having the meaning of "which one,")
_dhagala?_ Where are thou, _dhagawandu?_ Where are you (dual),
_dhagawandubla?_ Where are you (plural), _dhagawandugir?_ From where,
_dhadyindaburramai?_ Where art thou from, _dhadyigalliwandu?_ Where is
the camp, _dhagawa ngurung?_
_Interjections_.
_Yah!_ calling attention. _Wai!_ look out. _Wah! ngarrarbang! Ah!_
poor fellow! Listen, _winnangga!_ Any vocative can be inflexed for
number.
_Numerals_.
_Ngunbai_, one; _bulla_, two.
The Burreba-Burreba Language.
The Burreba-burreba is spoken from about Deniliquin to Moulamein, and
from the latter southerly towards the Murray river. The following is a
sketch of its grammatical structure. A dialect of this language,
called Burêba, is spoken on the Murray river, near Swan Hill.
_Number_.--There are the singular, dual, and plural numbers. _Wille_,
an opossum; _willebulet_, a pair of opossums; _willebarak_, or
_willeguli_, several opossums.
_Gender_.--_Wuthu_, a man; _lêurk_, a woman; _bangga_, a boy;
_kurregûrk_, a girl; _buban_, a child of either sex; _wuthuginbal_,
means a man and his wife. The gender of mammals and birds is marked by
adding _mamuk_ for male, and _babuk_ for female; thus, _gurê mamuk_, a
buck kangaroo; _gurê babuk_, a doe kangaroo.
_Case_.--The language has the nominative, nominative-agent, genitive,
accusative, instrumental, dative and ablative cases. In the
nominative, there is no change in the noun, except when it is the
subject of a transitive verb, and then it requires the agent-suffix;
as, _Wuthung wirrungan burdumin_, a man a dog beat; _lêuru wirringal
kurgin_, a woman a perch caught; _wirrunganu gurê bundin_, a dog a
kangaroo bit.
In the possessive case, the name of the proprietor and of the property
each take a suffix, as, _Wuthunggety wanuk_, a man's boomerang;
_lêurgety lârnuk_, a woman's camp; _wirrungangety birkuk_, a dog's
tail.
_Instrumental_.--This is the same as the nominative-agent, thus, _Ngaty
gurê duggin wanu_, I a kangaroo hit with a boomerang.
_Dative_.--_lârngak_, to a camp. _Ablative_.--_wuthunyu_, from a man.
The accusative is the same as the nominative.
_Adjectives_.
Adjectives follow the nouns and take similar declensions.
_Number_.--_Wuthu kurumbirt_, a man large. _Wuthubulet kurumbirtbulet_,
a couple of big men. _Wuthubarak kurumbirtbarak_, several big men.
_Nominative-agent_.--_Wuthung kurumbirru wille burdumin_, a large man
an opossum killed.
_Possessive_.--_Wuthunggety kurumbirungety wanuk_, a big man's
boomerang.
_Ablative_.--Wuthunyung kurumbirung_, from a big man.
The comparison of adjectives follows rule similar to those explained
in my article on "The Gundungurra Language."[9]
It will be observed that there are modifications in the case-endings
of nouns and adjectives, depending upon the termination of the word
declined. Moreover, these suffixes for number and case are applied to
the simple nominative--not the nominative-agent.
_Pronouns_.
Pronouns take inflexion for number, person and case. There are two
forms in the first person of the dual and plural--one in which the
person or persons addressed are included with the speaker, and another
in which they are exclusive of the speaker; these are marked "incl."
and "excl." in the following table:
_Singular_.
1st Person I _Ngaty_ Mine _yekaiuk_.
2nd " Thou _Ngin_ Thine _Ngindaiuk_.
3rd " He _Malu_ His _Maigungety_.
_Dual_.
1st Person We, incl. _Ngal_ Ours, incl. _Ngallaiuk_.
We, excl. _Ngalung_ Ours, excl. _Ngallunguk_.
2nd " You _Ngluen_ Yours _Ngulaiuk_.
3rd " They _Malubulak_ Theirs _Magaty-bulagaty_.
_Plural_.
1st Person We, incl. _Yangur_ Ours, incl. _Yangurêuk_.
We, excl. _Yandang_ Ours, excl. _Yandêuk_.
2nd " You _Ngût_ Yours _Ngûteûk_.
3rd " They _Malugulik_ THeirs _Ngugaty-guligaty_.
_Interrogatives_.--Who, _winyar?_ (singular)--_winyarbula_ (dual) and
_winyartukuli_ (plural). What, _nganyu?_ which also has a dual and
plural form.
_Demonstratives_.--This, _ginga_, which has a dual and plural suffix.
_Malu_, that; _kila_, that near you. _Munya_, that farther away.
_Kigety_, belonging to that. _Kigety-bulugety_, belonging to those
two. _Kigety-guligety_, belonging to all those.
_Verbs_.
Verbs have the same tenses and moods as those of the Wiradyuri, as
will be demonstrated in the conjugation of the verb "to beat." In the
Burreba-burreba verb there are, however, no regular modifications of
the past and future tenses, such meanings being expressed by separate
words.
_Active Voice_--_Indicative Mood_.
_Present Tense_.
1st Person I beat _Ngaty tyilba_.
2nd " Thou beatest _Ngin tyilba_.
3rd " He beats _Malu tyilba_.
_Past Tense_.
1st Person I beat _Ngaty tyilbin_.
_Future Tense_.
1st Person I will beat _Ngaty tyilbên_.
_Imperative Mood_.
Beat, _tyilbak_. Beat not, _burreba tyilbak_.
_Conditional Mood_.
Perhaps I will beat, _Ngaty tyilbên mumbun_.
In all the foregoing examples, the remaining persons and numbers of
the verb can be supplied by the table of pronouns.
_Middle Voice_--_Indicative Mood_.
_Present Tense_.
Singular. I am beating myself. _Tyilbanyungbenggat_.
The conjugation can be continued through all the moods, tenses, etc.,
the same as in the indicative mood.
_Reciprocal_.
We two (incl.) are beating each other, _Tyilptyerrungal_.
We all (incl.) are beating each other, _Tyilptyerrungungur_.
There are forms for all the persons and tenses.
_Adverbs_.
Yes, _ngungui_. No, _burreba_. To-day, _gillaty_. To-morrow, _perbur_.
Yesterday, _dyelli-dyellik_. By and bye, _gillandam_. Some time ago,
_gillenadya_. Long ago, _yagaluk-wanda_. Where, _windyella_?
(singular); _windyellaubul?_ (dual); _windyellat?_ (plural). How many,
_nyabur?_ Here, _kingga_. There, _nyua_.
_Numerals_.
One, _kaiapmin_. Two, _buletya_.
Initiation Ceremonies and Marriage Laws.
The initiation ceremonies of the Burreba-burreba are the same in all
essential respects as those of the Wiradyuri tribes, which I have
described in detail elsewhere.[10] The social organisation is also
similar to the Wiradyuri, comprising two phratries, each of which is
subdivided into two sections, as exemplified in the following
synopsis:--
Phratry. A man. Marries Sons and Daughters.
A _Murri_ _Ippatha_ _Umbi_ and _Butha_.
_Kubbi_ _Butha_ _Ippai_ and _Ippatha_.
B _Ippai_ _Matha_ _Kubbi_ and _Kubbitha_.
_Umbi_ _Kubbitha_ _Murri_ and _Matha_.
Although marriages generally follow the above rules, yet in certain
cases Murri can marry Butha, and Kubbi may take Ippatha as his spouse--
a similar liberty being allowed the men of phratry B. Again, where
there is no objection arising from nearness of kin, a Murri man may
marry a Matha woman, but her totem must be different from his, and she
must belong to a distant family. This applies to the men of every
section. By the strict letters of the foregoing table, it would appear
that the child of a brother can marry the child of a sister, but this
is rigorously forbidden--the table being construed to mean that a
brother's child's child marries a sister's child's child.
Each phratry has attached to it a group of _totems_, consisting of
animals and inanimate objects. Every man, woman, and child in the
community has his particular totem, which is inherited from birth. For
further information on this subject the reader is referred to numerous
papers contributed by me to different scientific societies.
The Ngunawal Language.
The native tribes speaking the Ngunawal tongue occupy the country from
Goulburn to Yass and Burrowa, extending southerly to Lake George and
Goodradigbee.
In a contribution to the Anthropological Society at Washington in
1896, described the Bunan ceremony,[11] an elaborate type of
initiation practised by the Ngunawal in common with other communities.
In 1900 I published an account of the Kudsha[12] or Kuddya, an
abridged form of inaugural ceremony which is likewise in force among
the same people. The social organisation regulating marriage and
descent, which I described in the last mentioned article,[13] also
applies to the Ngunawal.
The Ngunawal is one of an aggregate of tribes whose sacred songs I
have learnt and published, with the accompanying music, in an article
I communicated to the Royal Geographical Society of Queensland in
1901.[14] These are the first sacred songs of the Australian
Aborigines which have ever been set to music.
_Nouns_.
_Number_.--Nouns have three numbers. _Mirri_, a dog; _mirribula_, a
couple of dogs; _mirridyimma_, several dogs.
_Gender_.--_Baual_, a man; _bullan_, a woman. Words for "male" and
"female" distinguish the gender of animals, as, _gurabun muddun_, a
bear, male; _gurabun dhuruk_, a bear, female.
_Case_.--The principal cases are the nominative, causative,
instrumental, genitive, accusative, dative and ablative.
The nominative is the name of the sbuject at rest, and is without
flexion.
The causative, or nominative-agent, represents the subject in action,
as, _bullanga gudha ngubumuiñ_, a woman a child beat.
_Instrumental_.--_Baualga burraingu nguburiñ dyuiñga_, a man a wallaby
killed with a spear. Here the instrument, a spear, takes the same
suffix as the causative. The wallaby, _burrai_, takes the genitive
affix, as being the possessor or recipient of the killing.
_Accusative_.--Except in such instances as the wallaby in the last
example, the accusative is the same as the nominative.
The genitive case is represented by an affix to the name of the
property as well as to that of the owner, a peculiarity which I was
the first to report[15] in Australian languages. _Baualngu mirriwung_,
a man's dog.
Every object over which ownership may be exercised can be declined for
number and person, as under:--
Singular 1st Person My dog (dog my) _Mirridya_.
2nd " Thy dog _Mirridyi_.
3rd " His dog _MIrriwung_.
and so on through all the persons of the dual and plural.
If a couple or more articles be claimed, an infix is inserted between
the noun root and the possessive affix, thus: _Mirribuladya_, dogs
both mine; _mirridyimmadya_, dogs several mine.
_Dative_.--_Ngurani munnagai_, to the camp come.
_Ablative_.--_Ngurawurradyi yerribiwurri_, from the camp go away.
_Adjectives_.
Adjectives follow the qualified nouns, and are inflected in the same
manner for number and case. _Buru mununmang_, a kangaroo large;
_burubula mununbula_, a couple of large kangaroos; _burudyimma
munundyimma_, several large kangaroos.
_Casuative._--_Baualga mununga mirri ngubuningga_, a man large a dog
will beat. The other cases are also declined like the nouns.
Frequently one of the affixes, both in number and case, is omitted
sometimes the affix of the noun, and in other instances that of the
adjective, being thus eliminated, according to the euphony of the
expression.
A predicative adjective becomes an intransitive verb, and is
conjugated accordingly. An example in the singular will be sufficient:
Singular 1st Person I am large _Mununmangga_.
2nd " Thou art large _Mununmandyi_.
3rd " He is large _Mununmañ_.
Comparison of adjecitves is effected by such expressions as, _Gudba
ngunu, yeddhung nin_, bad this, good that. _Yeddhung madi ngunu_, this
is very good.
_Pronouns_.
These are declined for number, person and case, but are without
gender. They contain the inclusive and exclusive forms in the first
person of the dual and plural:
Singular 1st Person I _Gulangga_.
2nd " Thou _Gulandyi_.
3rd " He _Dhanu_.
Examples in the dual and plural are omitted, as their terminations
will appear in the conjugation of the verbs. The foregoing full forms
of the pronouns are used chiefly in answer to a question. In ordinary
conversation the pronominal suffixes to verbs, nouns and other parts
of speech, supply their place.
Towards, or with, me, _gulangguria_. Away from me, _gulangguridyia_.
Belonging to me, _gulangguia_. Myself, _mittimbaldya_, and so on. All
these can be inflected for number and person.
_Demonstratives_.--These may be classed under different heads, of which
the following are a few examples:
_Position_.--_Ngunu_, this, close. _Ngunubun_, this also. _Niñ_, that.
_Niñwulu_, that only. _Wurranaguddha_, that, a little way off.
_Warranandiwang_, that, farther still. _Mudhamaguwarri_, a long way
off.
_Direction_.--_Ngunaga_, that (in rear of speaker). _Barunggo_, that
(in front of speaker). _Ngunainbil_, that this side (of something).
_Nguna-au_, that on other side (of something). _Gagurwarru_, that in
the hollow. _Warrugunnawang_, that on the rising ground, or hill.
_Size_.--_Warranalang_, that large one. _Warranuggada_, that small one.
_Possessive_.--_Ningulangu_, belonging to that. _Warranalangu_,
belonging to that large one. _Nidyulangu_, belonging to those two
persons.
_Number_.--_Warranungulu_, those two. _Warradyimmilañ_, those several
animals or things.
_Person_.--_Ngunadya_, this mine. _Ngunadyi_, this thine. _Ngunawung_,
this his.
"This" and "that" in all the foregoing examples can also
mean "here" and "there" according to the context.
_Interrogatives_.--Who, _ngunnaga?_ Whose, _ngunnagangu?_ Who from,
_ngunnaganguridyi?_ What, _minya?_ What (did something), _minyaga?_
_Verbs_.
The verb has the usual moods and tenses, and is inflected throughout
for number and person. In the first person of the dual and plural
there is a variation in the affix to the verb to indicate the
inclusion or exclusion of the person spoken to.
_Indicative Mood_--_Present Tense_.
Singular 1st Person I beat _Ngubumangga_.
2nd " Thou beatest _Ngubumandyi_.
3rd " He beats _Ngubumañ_.
Dual 1st Person We, incl., beat _Ngubumanga_.
We, excl., beat _Ngubumangalu_.
2nd " You beat _Ngubumanbu_.
3rd " They beat _Ngubumanbula_.
Plural 1st Person We, incl. beat, _Ngubumanyin_.
We, excl. beat, _Ngubumanyilla_.
2nd " You beat _Ngubumanhu_.
3rd " They beat _Ngubumandyula_.
_Past Tense_.
1st Person I beat, indefinite _Nguburingga_.
Singular, I beat recently _Ngubumuingga_.
I beat going along _Ngubunyirringga_.
I beat long ago _Nguburiangga_.
_Future_.
I will beat, indefinite _Ngubuningga_.
I will beat soon _Ngubumunningga_.
The inflections extend through all the persons and numbers of the past
and future tenses by means of the suffixed particles shown in the
present tense.
_Imperative_.
Singular Beat thou _Ngubi_.
Dual Beat you _Ngubidyaiau_.
Plural Beat you _Ngubidyaianhu_.
Negative or prohibitive Beat not _Ngubimuga_.
_Conditional Mood_.
Perhaps I will beat _Ngubuninggawundu_.
_Reflexive_.
I am beating myself _Ngubuwillimangga_.
I was beating myself _Ngubuwilliringga_.
I will beat myself _Ngubuwilliningga_.
and so on for the other persons and numbers.
Imperative.--Beat thyself _Ngubuwilli_.
_Reciprocal_.
Dual We, excl., beat each other _Ngubuwillaringalung_.
Plural We, excl., beat each other _Ngubuwillarinyilla_.
_Imperative reciprocal_.
Dual Beat each other _Ngubilliau_.
Plural Beat each other _Ngubillianhu_.
An infix, _muga_, between the stem of the verb and the termination,
gives a negative meaning, as, _Ngubumugamangalu_, we, dual exclusive,
did not beat.
There is no passive form of the verb, all sentences being in the
active voice, thus, instead of saying, "A boomerang was thrown by the
man," the phrase would be, "The man threw a boomerang."
The verb is inflected for the same number as the noun.
A kangaroo saw I, _buru nangurringga_.
A pair of kangaroos saw I, _burumbla nangurringbla_.
Several kangaroos saw I, _burulula nangurringdyula_.
Different shades of meaning are imparted to verbs by additions to the
affixes:
I was eating going along, _dhaimballinyirrimuingga_.
I beat before (some event), _ngubururingawung_.
I beat after (some event), _ngubullaringawung_.
I threw frequently, _yerrimbillidyingga_.
I was throwing alone, _yerrilimuingga_.
I am always beating, _ngubadyingga_.
_Adverbs_.
Yes, _ngi_. No, _gurragañ_. Now, _yanggu_. Yesterday, _burranda_. By
and by, _gaugau_. Long ago, _nudyina_. Always, _bulu_.
How, _ngindyin_. How many, or what number, _wunnamalañ_. Where,
_wunda_. Certainly, _ganni_. Then, _yanbi_. Very or really, _madi_.
Perhaps, _wundu_. Not, _muga_. When, _wundiñ_.
Certain adverbs can be inflected for person and number, thus:
Where shall I go? _Wundayerrabunningga?_
Where shalt thou go? _Wundayerrabunnindyi?_
Where shall he go? _Wundayerrabunniñ?_
and so on for all persons and numbers.
_Prepositions_.
On top, _gunna_. Down, _dhugga_. Between, _dhuri_. Behind me,
_bengalwarria_. Outside, _bunnungga_. Out of that, _barridyi_. In rear
of me, _wullingaia_. In here, _ngunnâ_. In or under there, _ngunniñ_.
Words meaning "is here," "was here," "will be here," also exist in
this language.
Many prepositions can be inflected for number and person:
Singular 1st Person In front of me _Ngunalundya_.
2nd " In front of thee _Ngunalundyi_.
3rd " In front of him _Ngunalung_.
and so on through the dual and plural.
_Exclamations_.
_Ya!_ calling attention.--_Bungamugi_, cease!
_Numerals_.
One, _meddhung_. Two, _bullâla_.
Vocabulary of Wiradyuri Words.
This vocabulary contains about 430 words collected personally among
the Wiradyuri natives on the Lachlan, Macquarie, and Murrumbidgee
rivers. Instead of arranging the words alphabetically they are placed
together under separate headings:--Family terms--Parts of the body--
Natural objects--Animals--Trees--Weapons--Adjectives--Verbs. As the
equivalents of English terms will most frequently be required they are
put first.[16]