located.
There are many forms of moorings for small boats, among them large
stones, heavy pieces of iron or metal, such as old furnace-pots, old
car-wheels, old railroad-rails and discarded machinery, while large
anchors, and especially “mushroom” anchors, are widely used.
It doesn’t make the least difference what is used for a mooring as long
as it is heavy enough to hold the boat securely, but it must be borne in
mind that an object under water weighs far less than when out of water
and hence you should always use an object which you are sure is large
and heavy enough to hold your boat in any wind or weather. A mooring
should weigh at least three times as much as an anchor and six or eight
times as much is none too heavy.
From the mooring a heavy iron chain should lead to a buoy and the chain
should be long enough to allow for the rise and fall of tide and yet
have some slack at all times.
Galvanized chain should be used and the buoy at its upper end should be
large and buoyant enough to support the entire weight of the chain.
There are metal buoys, made for the purpose; a strong keg, such as a
beer keg, makes a good buoy; a spar buoy or a cork float may be used. If
a keg is used it should be provided with brass or galvanized hoops and
should be kept well painted and spars, metal buoys or cork floats should
also be taken up, dried and painted at frequent intervals to prevent
them from becoming overgrown with marine plants, waterlogged or
destroyed by teredos.
The buoy is intended to support the chain and to make the location of
the mooring plain. You are _not_ supposed to make your boat fast to it.
For fastening the boat a ring should be provided on the chain below the
buoy and the buoy left floating or it may be placed on the deck or
inside the boat when the mooring is in use. Have your mooring buoy
painted in bright colors so as to be easily visible and see that it is
always kept in such good shape that it floats high and plain above the
water. It’s a very easy matter to miss a buoy in a fog, at night, or
even with a sea running, and the higher it floats and the more brilliant
the colors, the more readily you can “pick it up.”
When you come to the mooring you may catch the buoy by hand or by a
boat-hook. To make this easier a large loop of rope or a ring should be
provided on the buoy and the buoy left floating or it may be and you use
a boat-hook, be very careful not to punch a hole in the buoy as you
reach for it with the hook.
While getting your boat ready for the water, while sailing her, and, in
fact, whenever you are handling or working about boats, you will find it
necessary to tie many knots.
Everyone can tie some sort of a knot, but comparatively few can tie
really good knots and as they are very important and useful, you should
learn how to tie all the common, and some of the fancy, knots and should
know how to splice. There is a good portion of the year when you cannot
use your boat and during this season you can employ a great deal of your
time to good advantage in studying the next chapter and following the
directions for making knots, ties and splices.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER VII
MARLINSPIKE SEAMANSHIP
To sailors the ability to tie knots, make splices and do other ropework
is known as marlinspike seamanship. The name “marlinspike” refers to a
metal instrument used in making knots and splices and this tool, or a
somewhat similar but smaller implement known as a _fid_, is the only
article except the ropes which is required in making any knot, tie or
splice.
There is a vast difference between tying a _knot_ and tying a _good
knot_, and while the one is an abomination, the other is a thing to
admire. To be a good knot a knot must combine a number of important
points. It must be of such a character that it can be quickly and easily
tied; it must hold securely without danger of slipping or loosening; it
must be free from the danger of “jamming”; it must be easy to untie or
cast off, and it must be perfectly adapted to the particular purpose for
which it is used.
The advent of wire rigging and steamships marked the decline of
marlinspike seamanship and today a great many so-called sailors are
woefully ignorant of any but the simplest knots and ropework. On the old
square-riggers and in the days when sailing vessels were supreme upon
the seas, the sailors prided themselves upon their knowledge of knots
and splices. Today one may now and then find an old deep-water tar who
can tie every knot and make every splice ever used aboard ship, but each
year these men are becoming fewer and marlinspike seamanship, unless
kept alive by those who sail boats for pleasure, will soon be a thing of
the past.
Before commencing to tie knots or to make splices one should learn about
the various kinds of rope and the names of the rope’s parts.
Ordinary rope is known as _three-stranded_ and is made of three pieces,
or strands, twisted together. These run from _left to right_ in a spiral
and each of these several strands is made up of smaller pieces known as
_yarns_, which are twisted together from right to left or _left-handed_.
Other ropes are made of four strands, while _bolt-rope_ has a central
strand around which the other strands are _laid_ or twisted. Some ropes
are laid up _left-handed_ with each strand composed of yarns twisted
_right-handed_, but when made in this way the rope becomes a _cable_ or
a _cable-laid_ rope.
The ropes ordinarily used are the three-stranded, right-hand kinds and
they may be made of cotton, jute, Manilla or hemp, the Manilla being the
best and most widely used.
Small ropes are usually termed _lines_ by sailors, and one never hears a
seaman speak of “string.” Instead he says “twine,” “line,” “yarn,” or
“marline.” _Twine_ is small right-handed line. _Spun-yarn_, or yarn, is
loosely laid, left-handed hemp, tarred and rubbed down. _Marline_ is
line made of two finely dressed hemp yarns laid left-handed and usually
tarred.
Whenever a rope is used for tying a knot or making a splice certain
terms are employed to designate the various parts and as these names are
used in the directions for making knots you should become familiar with
them.
The principal portion or longest part of the rope is called the
_standing part_; the portion bent or curved is the _bight_, and the
shorter portion used in making the knot or splice is the _end_. Fig. 1.
There are various types of knots, some employed for everyday useful
purposes and some for purely ornamental uses. As the former are the
easiest to make and are most important, it is a wise plan to learn how
to tie them before attempting to master the more difficult ornamental
knots.
[Illustration: USEFUL KNOTS AND SPLICES]
Before commencing to work with a rope the loose strands at the ends
should be _whipped_ to prevent the rope from unraveling. To _whip_ the
rope take a piece of soft, strong twine, lay it on the rope an inch or
two from the end, pass the twine several times around the rope, keeping
the ends of the twine under the first few turns to hold it in position,
and then make a large loop with the free end of the twine. Bring this
back to the rope, continue winding it for a few turns around the rope
and the end of the twine and finally finish by drawing the loop snug by
pulling on the free end as shown in Fig. 2. This is the true sailor
fashion of whipping a rope’s end, but for mere temporary purposes when
practising ropework, twine wrapped a few times around the rope and tied
will be sufficient.
_Cuckold’s necks_ are loops or rings of rope such as are illustrated in
Fig. 3. They are very easily made by bringing the end of a rope around
in a circular bight and then seizing the bight to the standing part by
means of twine or yarn. As soon as the two parts are thus bound together
or seized the _cuckold’s neck_ becomes a _clinch_ which is often very
useful about a boat, while the loop or cuckold’s neck itself is the
foundation of many useful knots.
Of all true knots perhaps the simplest is the _overhand knot_ (Fig. 4).
To make this knot merely pass the end of the rope over the standing part
and through the bight or cuckold’s neck thus formed (Fig. 4 A). When
drawn tight the knot appears as in Fig. 4 B and is often used in making
splices, grommets and fancy knots.
Another useful and very simple knot is the _figure eight_ which is shown
commenced in Fig. 5 A and completed in Fig. 5 B, but the most useful and
important of all is the _square knot_ or _reef knot_ shown in Fig. 6.
This is the knot used to tie reef points, to furl sails, to fasten two
lines together and for many other purposes, and it is doubtless the best
all-around knot known. It has the advantages of being easy to tie and
untie, of holding fast under tremendous strain and of never becoming
jammed.
To tie a reef knot take one end of the rope in each hand, pass the
_left_ over and under the _right_ and then pass the _right over and
under the left_. If you will always remember this formula, _left over_,
_right over_, you will never make a mistake and tie a granny (Fig. 7).
To make a granny knot stamps you as a landlubber, for the granny is a
useless, troublesome knot which can never be depended upon and which is
unfit for any purpose. It will not hold a strain, it is liable to slip
and it soon becomes jammed and hard to untie.
If when tying a reef knot, the bight of one end is used instead of the
end itself, a _slippery reefer_ is made and this is far better for tying
reef points than the true square knot as it may be cast off by merely
pulling on the free end of the loop (Fig. 8).
When fastening a boat or any other object where it may be necessary to
cast off quickly, a _lark’s head_ is a good fastening to use (Fig. 9).
To make this knot pass the bight of a rope through the ring or other
object to which you are making fast and then slip a piece of wood, a
marlinspike, or some other object through the sides of the bight and
under or behind the standing part as shown in Fig. 9 at A. The end of
the rope is then laid over and under the standing part and back over
itself. This knot may be instantly unfastened by merely pulling out the
bit of wood or _toggle_ (_A_).
Another knot, which is easy to cast off and is very useful in many
places, is the _slippery-hitch_ (Fig. 10). To make this knot run the end
of the rope through the ring or eye, then back over the standing part
and pull the loop or bight back through the cuckold’s neck thus formed.
To untie merely pull on the free end.
A better knot for fastening a boat or other object quickly and securely
is that shown in Fig. 11. This is made of two half-hitches and is widely
used by sailors and is the easiest of all reliable and secure knots to
tie. It is made by passing the end of a rope around a post or other
object, then carrying the end over and around the standing part between
itself and the post and then under and around the standing part between
its own loop and the one first made. It is easier to learn this knot by
studying the diagram than by a description, and as soon as you get the
“hang” of it you can tie it in an instant in the darkest night. It will
hold forever without working loose and even on a smooth stick or spar it
will stand a great strain without slipping along.
A better knot for fastening to such an object as a smooth stick, where
there is a longitudinal strain or to another rope, is the _clove hitch_
(Fig. 12). To make this, pass the end of the rope around the stick or
other object, then over itself, then over and around the spar and pass
the end under itself and between the rope and spar as shown in the
diagram.
If you have occasion to fasten a rope to a hook for hoisting anything
you should use the _blackwall hitch_ (Fig. 13), which is very secure and
easily made. To make this hitch form a loop or cuckold’s neck with the
end of the rope underneath and then pass it over the hook so that the
standing part bears against the end and jams it fast.
Still another strong knot for attaching a rope to a hook is shown in
Fig. 14. This is called a _catspaw_ and is made as follows: Lay the
bight of the rope over the end and standing part; then, with a bight in
each hand take three twists _away from you_; then bring the two bights
side by side and hook them over the hook as shown.
For towing a spar, mast or a piece of timber, or for fastening to a log,
the best knot to use is the _timber hitch_ (Fig. 15). This is made by
passing the end of the rope around the object, then around the standing
part and then twisting it three times under and over its own part. If
you wish to have this still more secure, a half-hitch may be taken with
the line a foot or two farther along the spar (Fig. 15 A).
It often happens that one needs to fasten two very heavy or stiff ropes
or hawsers together and this may be impossible with any ordinary knots.
In such cases there is nothing better than the _carrick bend_ (Fig. 16).
To make this bend, form a bight by laying the end of the hawser on top
of and across the standing part. Then take the end of the other hawser
and pass it through this bight, first down and then up over the cross
and then down through the bight again, so that it comes out on the
opposite side from the other end thus bringing _one end on top_ and the
_other below_ as illustrated. If the lines are very heavy or stiff the
ends may be seized to the standing parts by twine or marline.
Heavy hawsers can seldom be handled like small ropes and there are
several bends or knots which are especially designed for these large
ropes. Among them are the _anchor bends_ shown in Fig. 16 A and the
_fisherman’s bend_ (Fig. 16 B), both of which are so simple that an
explanation is not necessary as they can readily be mastered by looking
at the diagrams.
But of all knots perhaps the most perfect is the _bowline_ (Fig. 17).
This is preëminently _the_ sailor’s knot and every person who uses or
owns boats should learn to tie a bowline quickly and readily for it is
the strongest, most secure and best of all useful knots and can be used
for a thousand and one different purposes.
It is very simple and by following the various stages as illustrated you
will have no difficulty in learning to tie it. In A the rope is shown
with the bight or cuckold’s neck formed with the end over the standing
part. Pass A back through the bight, under, then over, then under again,
as shown in B; then over and down through the bight, as shown at C and
D. Then draw tight as at E.
While for most purposes knots serve every purpose for fastening two
ropes together or for attaching a rope to some other object, yet a tied
rope is never as strong as a whole rope and moreover where two ropes are
thus fastened together, the knot will not pass through blocks, eyes or
other openings which will admit the rope itself. For this reason it is
often necessary to join two ropes so that there is scarcely any increase
in the size of the ropes. This is accomplished by making what is known
as a _splice_.
A splice, if well made, is as strong as the rest of the rope; it will
run through a block or eye readily and moreover it is not difficult to
make. There are various kinds of splices, known as _short splices_, _eye
splices_, _cut splices_, _long splices_, etc., and everyone who has
occasion to use ropes should be able to make any or all of these.
The simplest splice, and the one you should learn first, is the _short
splice_ (Fig. 18). To make this untwist or _unlay_ the ends of the two
ropes to be joined for a few inches and wrap a few turns of twine or
yarn around them to prevent the strands from untwisting any farther, as
shown at A, A. The end of each strand should also be whipped or seized
to prevent unravelling, but after you are adept at splicing you can omit
these seizings as you will be able to splice just as well, but while
learning you will find them quite necessary.
You will also find it far easier to learn how to splice if you wax or
grease the strands and this applies to ropes which are used when
practising simple or fancy knots also.
When you have the ropes ready, place them end to end, as shown in B, B,
and with a marlinspike, a pointed stick, or some smooth, round, sharp
tool open the strand 1 C and through this push the strand A of the other
rope. Next open strand 2 and pass the next strand of the other rope
through the opening and treat the third strand in the same way. Now open
the strands of the second, or right-hand, rope below the seizings and
push the strands of the first, or left-hand, rope through the apertures.
The two ropes will now appear as in D, D. Next untwist each strand, cut
off about one-half of the yarns, twist the strands tightly and seize
with twine. Each of the reduced strands must now be poked under the
whole strands of the opposite rope in the same manner as you passed the
whole strands before cutting them down. After drawing each strand tight,
pass them once more under the whole strands and finally trim them off
close to the rope.
If a really fine, neat splice is desired, you may trim off a few of the
yarns in each strand every time they are passed under the others, thus
gradually tapering the ends and in this way forming a splice which is
scarcely distinguishable from the rest of the rope.
An _eye splice_ (Fig. 19), is made in the same manner as the short
splice but instead of splicing the two ends of separate ropes together
the end of the rope is unlaid and then bent around in a loop and the
ends are spliced into the strands of the standing part as shown in the
illustration.
A _cut splice_ (Fig. 20), is made in a very similar manner but instead
of bending the rope around in a bight two ropes are spliced together
overlapping, or a short rope may be spliced into another rope at both
its ends.
Where a very strong splice the same diameter as the rope is required a
_long splice_ must be used (Fig. 21). This is the most difficult of all
splices to make and it is even harder to describe than to make, but when
well spliced it will pass through a block or eye as readily as a plain
rope and the splice cannot be distinguished from the rope itself.
To make a long splice unlay the strands of the ropes about four times as
much as for a short splice, or from four to five feet, and unlay one
strand in each rope for half as much again. Place the center strands
together, as at A, so that the long strands appear as at B and C and the
spiral groove, left where they were unlaid, will look like D, E. Take
off the two middle strands F, G, and lay them into the grooves D, E,
until they meet B, C, and be sure to keep them tightly twisted while
doing this. Then take the strands H, J, cut off half the yarns in each,
make an overhand knot in them and stick the ends in as in making a short
splice. Do the same with strands B, C, and F, G, dividing, knotting and
sticking in the ends. Finally stretch the rope, pound and roll it until
smooth and trim off any loose bits and ends of yarn close to the rope.
While making any splice or knot where the strands are unlaid and are
again laid up, be sure to keep the strands tightly twisted by turning
them _from right to left_. Then when they are laid in place they will
hold their position snugly by their tendency to untwist. If you examine
a rope carefully you will discover that the various strands are _not_
merely twisted together, but that two of them are twisted and that the
third is then laid into the groove between the other two. In laying up a
rope after making a knot or splice this should be borne in mind.
Sometimes a ring of rope is required and this can be quickly and easily
obtained by making a _grommet_ (Fig. 22). To make a grommet unlay and
cut a long strand from a common rope, bend it around in a circle of the
desired size, lay one end over the other and with the long end follow
the grooves or _lay_ of the strand until it comes back to where it
started, thus forming a ring of two strands. Continue laying the free
end into the groove between the two strands until the ring is completed
with three strands all around and then finish by dividing the yarns of
the two ends where they meet, making overhand knots in them and then
passing them underneath the nearest strands, as when making a splice,
and finally trim off all loose, projecting yarns.
These grommets make very good quoits and they may also be used as
handles to chests and boxes, rings for masts of small boats and for many
other purposes.
After the common useful knots and splices have been thoroughly mastered
it is well to learn how to make a few ornamental knots and ropework.
Many of these are really useful about a boat while others add greatly to
the neat, yachty appearance of ropes, rigging, etc.
At first sight most ornamental knots appear very complicated and
difficult, but they are really no harder to tie than a bowline or a reef
knot, once you know how.
In tying fancy knots you will find cotton rope or very fine hemp better
than Manilla, but after you are really skillful you will find no trouble
in forming any knot in any old rope that is handy.
The two most important of fancy knots and those which are the foundation
of many others are the _crown_, (Figs. 23, 24) and the _wall_, (Figs.
25, 26). The _Matthew Walker_, (Fig. 32) and the _Turk’s head_, (Fig.
33) are also very beautiful and useful knots and by the use of these
four and their various combinations an endless number of fancy knots may
be devised. Many of these combinations of two or more knots have become
so generally used that they have received specific names and are now
recognized as regular knots. Such are the _wall and crown_, _double wall
and crown_, etc.
In addition to true ornamental knots there are various other forms of
fancy ropework, such as _worming_, _parcelling_, _serving_, _sennett
work_, _thumming_, etc., while _four-stranded and crown-braids_ are used
in making ornamental lanyards, hand lines, rope fenders, etc.
[Illustration: ORNAMENTAL KNOTS]
The simplest of ornamental knots is the _crown_ and it is well to
commence with this. Unlay the strands of the rope for a few inches.
Seize or whip the ends of the rope as when making a short splice. Now
while holding the rope in your left hand, fold one strand over and away
from you as in A, Fig. 23; then fold B over A and while holding these in
place with your thumb and finger pass C over B and through the bight of
A, as shown in the cut. Now pull the ends tight and work the bights up
snugly and your knot will be the _single crown_, but as this is a poor
knot to stay tied and is not very ornamental, it should be finished by
tucking the free ends under and over the strands of the rope as shown in
Fig. 24, meanwhile tapering them down as described in the directions for
making an eye splice.
This results in a very neat and ship shape finish for a rope’s end and
as it will never work loose like a seizing and can be tied in a very few
moments, it can be recommended as the handiest and best of all methods
for finishing the ends of ropes to prevent unravelling.
As simple as the crown and far more attractive, is the _wall knot_,
Figs. 25, 26. In making this knot unlay and whip the rope as for the
crown and make a bight in the strand C by bringing the end down and
across the standing part. Then bring strand A over C and around the
standing part, and finally bring B over A and up through the bight of C.
Draw all the ends tight and snug and the _single wall_ will be finished.
As in the case with the _crown knot_, this is mainly of value as a basis
for other knots, or for ending rope by tucking in the ends as shown in
Fig. 26.
By “doubling” the wall or crown, the knots are made far more ornamental.
This is done by _following the lay_ of the single knot, or in other
words, after the single wall or crown is made the strands are carried
around side by side of themselves. To make a _double wall knot_ make the
single knot and then, before drawing it tight, bring the strand A up
through its own bight beside the end of C. Then bring B up through its
own bight beside A and carry C up through its own bight beside B. When
drawn tight it will be very neat. The ends may be trimmed off or tucked
through the strands of the standing part as preferred. (Fig. 26.)
A still more ornamental knot may be formed by _crowning_ a wall knot.
This is done by first making a plain wall knot and then bringing A up
over the top, laying B across A and bringing C over B and through the
bight of A, or in other words, tying a crown knot on top of a wall knot,
(Fig. 27).
This is the foundation for one of the most beautiful of rope-end knots
which is known as the _double wall and crown_ or _manrope knot_. (Fig.
28.) To make this, tie the single wall, crown it and leave the strands
slack. Then pass the ends under and up through the bights of the single
wall knot and then push the ends alongside of the strands which form the
single crown knot, passing them through the bights in the crown and down
through the walling.
If you have learned the single wall and single crown, you will find this
very simple, for it consists in merely following the lay of the strands
of the single wall and crown. When well done and worked up tight and
snug with the ends trimmed off closely it makes a highly ornamental
knot, (Fig. 28), and if the ends are tucked into the standing part, as
directed for tying the single crown, there should be no sign of a
beginning or ending to this knot, the finished result appearing like an
ornamental knob of rope.
This is a useful as well as an ornamental knot and is handy in many
places on a boat. It is often used in finishing the ends of rope
railings, the ends of manropes (hence its name) for the ends of yoke
lines for steering small boats, to form _stoppers_ or _toggles_ to
bucket-handles, slings, etc., and in fact, wherever a large ornamental
end to a rope is required or where a knot is desired to prevent a rope
from slipping through any aperture.
Its use for such purposes is shown in Figs. 29, 30 and 31 which
represent topsail halyard toggles, formed by turning an eye splice in a
short length of rope with a double wall and crown at the end. Such
toggles are useful for many purposes other than for topsail halyards.
They may be used as stops for furling sails, for slings around gaffs or
booms, for attaching blocks when hoisting and in many other places which
will suggest themselves to the user of a small boat.
Another very beautiful end knot, and the most difficult of all to make
is the _Matthew Walker_ or _stopper knot_ (Fig. 32). To tie this knot
pass one strand around the standing part and through its own bight, then
pass B underneath and through the bight of A and through its own bight
as well. Then pass C underneath, around and through the bights of A, B
and its own bight. The knot will not appear as at Fig. 32 A, but by
carefully hauling the ends around and working the bights up tight—a
little at a time, the knot will assume the shape shown in Fig. 32 B.
This is a splendid knot for the ends of ropes to prevent them from
slipping through holes, as it is hard, close and presents an almost flat
shoulder on its lower side. It is because of its adaption to such
purposes that the name “stopper knot” has been given to it.
All of the preceding are end knots, but a knot of a very different sort,
which is widely used for ornamenting ropes, is the _Turk’s head_ (Fig.
33). Turk’s heads are used in decorating lower standing rigging, for
rings or shoulders on shrouds or ropes, to secure other rigging in
position, to ornament yoke lines, for forming sliding collars on knife
lanyards and for collars around stanchions, spars, oars, etc., and when
placed around a rope close beneath a manrope or Matthew Walker knot it
gives a very beautiful and elaborate finish to a rope.
Although so handsome and apparently intricate, the Turk’s head is a very
simple and easy knot to make and while you may have some difficulty in
mastering it at the first a little practice and perseverance will enable
you to become proficient and you will be able to tie this beautiful knot
at any time and in any position.
To learn to make this knot obtain a smooth, round stick and some closely
twisted, or braided, small line. Pass two turns with the line around the
rod, as at A, Fig. 33, pass the upper bight down through the lower bight
and reeve the upper end down through it, as at B, Fig. 33. Then pass the
bight up again and pass the end over the lower bight and up between it
and the upper bight. Dip the upper bight again through the lower bight
and pass the end over what is now the upper bight and between it and the
lower one, as at C, Fig. 33. Continue to work around in this manner to
the right until the other end is met when the other part should be
followed around until a plait of two or more lays is complete as shown
in the cut.
[Illustration: ROPEWORK]
The various bights should then be drawn snugly until there is no slack
and the completed knot fits tightly about the rod. A variation of this
knot may be formed by making the first part as directed and then by
slipping the knot to the end of the rod work one side tighter than the
other until the plaits form a complete cap (Fig. 33 D). This makes a
fine finish for the ends of stanchions, poles, flagstaffs, etc., and it
may be kept in position by a few tacks or small nails driven through the
inner strands into the woodwork.
Ropes that are to be used as handlines, stanchions, manropes, lifelines,
shrouds or, in fact, for any purpose where appearances count, are
usually _wormed_, _served_ and _parcelled_. _Worming_ consists of
twisting a small line or filler into the grooves and making the rope
smooth and ready for parcelling or serving. _Parcelling_ is done by
wrapping the wormed line with a narrow strip of canvas (Fig. 34 B), and
finally the whole is _served_ by being wrapped tightly with marline or
spun yarn (Fig. 34 C).
Although all this may be done by hand the serving is usually
accomplished by means of a tool known as a serving mallet (Fig. 34 D).
This instrument enables one to work much more evenly and tightly than is
possible by hand serving, but whether a mallet is used or you depend
upon hand serving, the rope to be treated must be stretched tightly
between two uprights or the result will never be satisfactory. Sometimes
a rope is served without either worming or parcelling and for ordinary
purposes the parcelling is not necessary; although the results obtained
by performing all these operations are very much more satisfactory.
A variation in serving is made by means of _half-hitch_ work as shown in
Fig. 35. This is very ornamental when well done and is very simple and
easy to accomplish. To make this covering, take a half-hitch with the
small line about the rope, then another below it, draw snug, take
another half-hitch and continue in this way until the rope or other
object, is covered and the half-hitches form a spiral row of knots
running around the covered object. Bottles, jugs, ropes, stanchions,
fenders and many other articles may be covered with this half-hitch work
and as you become expert you will be able to cover objects with several
alternating rows of half-hitches.
_Four-strand braiding_ is also highly ornamental and is very simple. To
do this (Fig. 36), merely cross the opposite strands of small lines as
illustrated in A, B, Fig. 36 B, first crossing A to the left of B, then
crossing C and D above A and B and continue in this way until the braid
is the desired length.
Still more decorative is a _crown braid_, which is made by forming one
crown knot over another.
A _wall braid_ may be made by forming a series of single wall knots in
the same way and either the crown or wall braiding may be done with any
number of strands or lines desired; the more strands used the finer and
more ornamental will be the braid produced.
Sometimes the _monkey chain_, Fig. 38, is used for ornamental work, but
it is more useful as a means of shortening rope in such a manner that it
may be quickly lengthened out for use. To make the _monkey chain_ draw a
loop of the rope through its own bight as at A, B, Fig. 38; draw another
loop through this (C, Fig. 38), another through this (D, Fig. 38), and
continue in this way until the rope is shortened as much as desired,
when the end may then be passed through the last bight as shown at E,
Fig. 38. If left in this way the chain will never come loose and yet the
rope may be lengthened instantly by slipping out the end and pulling
upon it whereupon the entire chain will ravel.
Once having mastered these various knots and splices you will find
little difficulty in selecting and tying the best knot for any purpose
which may arise, but no description of knots would be complete without a
few hints on slinging barrels, casks or other objects.
Three of the best and simplest slings are shown in Figs. 39, 40 and 41.
The first, Fig. 39, shows a handy and useful sling for bags or bales and
consists of a strap or length of rope with the two ends spliced together
and slipnoosed around the object as shown. A large grommet also makes a
good sling of this type. Fig. 40 shows how to sling a cask or barrel in
an upright position when it contains water or other contents, while in
Fig. 41, a sling for hoisting barrels, boxes or other articles is
illustrated. In this case the rope may be used with an eye splice at one
end as shown, or it may be merely tied with a bowline or other good
knot. Sometimes a sling is used which has an eye splice at each end and
if you have one or two slings readymade with finished ends, or with eye
splices turned in them, you will find they are very useful and will save
a lot of time and trouble, for they can be used for many purposes other
than as slings.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER VIII
SIMPLE NAVIGATION
Among the first things that the amateur sailor should learn are the
rules of the road at sea, for there are just as strict and definite
rules for boats traversing maritime highways as are in force for
vehicles using highways on the land.
But whereas traffic rules ashore vary in different countries, and even
in the various states and cities, the rules of the road on the water are
alike throughout all the world, and if you learn the rules in force in
American waters, the knowledge will serve just as well in the waters of
any other country.
The first and principal rule is to _turn to the right when meeting
another boat_. At times this may be impossible and hence signals and
rules have been arranged which provide for turning to the left when
necessary, but sailing boats _always_ have the right of way over
steamers and power boats. It does not follow, because this is the case,
however, that a man in a small sailboat should compel a larger vessel to
give way to him and endanger the other ship for it may be impossible for
the larger craft to turn out, owing to the narrow channel or some
similar reason, and hence you should know what the various lights and
signals mean and should be prepared for any unusual condition which may
arise.
In order that sailors may know in which direction a vessel is proceeding
at night, as well as the character of the vessel, all vessels carry what
are known as _side lights_, the one on the right or starboard side being
green, while that on the port or left side is red. If you remember that
the _port_ light is _red_ like _port wine_, you will never become
confused as to which color is port and which starboard. These lights are
only used when vessels are sailing or under way and when at anchor or at
moorings, a white light or _riding-light_ is placed in the rigging.
Steamers and power boats carry a white light near the stern and another
white light forward. The rear white light is visible from all directions
and is high up, while the forward white light is visible only from one
side around a half-circle to the other side of the bow, while the side
lights can only be seen from ahead or from either side.
By these lights you can always determine the direction in which a vessel
is moving and can thus keep clear. If she is approaching bow-on, you
will see _both_ the side lights and you can be sure she is a power boat
or steamer if you see the two white lights. If the two white lights are
not in exact line, you will know that she is turning and the direction
she is heading is easily determined, for if the _low bow light_ is to
the _right_ of the high stern light she is turning to your _right_,
while if it appears at the _left_ of the higher stern light she is
heading to your _left_. If only one side light is seen you may be sure
the vessel is moving at right angles, or at nearly right angles to your
course, and if she is a power-propelled vessel you can easily tell the
angle at which she is moving by the position of the white lights. If a
steamer or power boat is ahead of you and moving in the same direction,
you can see only the high white stern light and the instant she turns
you will know it by the other lights becoming visible.
Steamers and power boats also have signals which are given by the
whistles to show which way they wish to proceed and the steamer which
signals first dictates the direction. One blast means the vessel is
turning to her _starboard_ or _right_ hand and _two blasts_ signifies
she is going to her _left_ or _port_, and while such signals should be
answered by other power or steam boats, sailing craft are not supposed
to reply. Unless there is some unusual reason for not following the
ordinary rules of the road, a steamer or power boat will never signal to
a sailboat and hence, if a steamer is approaching or overtaking you, and
whistles, you should look about and be sure she is not signalling some
other steamer for _all_ power and steam vessels are supposed to keep
clear of sailing craft. Naturally they expect the sailing boats’
helmsmen to know the rules of the road and, therefore, if you think
their signals are intended for you and change your course the steamer
may not know why you are doing such an unexpected thing and a collision
may result. If you adhere strictly to the rules of the road there is no
reason why you should _ever_ have an accident through your own fault,
but if a power boat or steamer is approaching and does not show signs of
giving way to your right of way you should blow a horn, halloo, shout or
do something to attract attention and if necessary go about and get out
of the way as soon as possible.
During thick weather, in fogs, mists, snow and heavy rain, sailing
vessels signal the direction in which they are moving by means of blasts
on a foghorn. If they are on the _starboard_ tack, that is, with the
wind on the right or starboard side, _one_ blast is blown at intervals
of about a minute, if on the _port_ tack, _two_ blasts are blown at
intervals, while if running _before_ the wind _three_ blasts are
sounded. As you can always tell the direction of the wind by your own
sails, you can easily determine the direction in which the other boats
are headed by their signals and can thus avoid them.
Always remember that a sailing vessel on the _starboard tack has the
right of way over a vessel on the port tack_, and that a vessel sailing
_close hauled or against the wind has the right of way over a vessel
running free or on the wind_ regardless of their size, the direction in
which they are moving or anything else.
In order to make the primary rules of the road easier to remember they
have been made into verse and some of these simple verses, if memorized,
will prove a great help.
[Illustration: RULES OF THE ROAD AND BUOYS]
1—Meeting head-on, turn to starboard. 2—Crossing, boat to
starboard has right of way. 3—Crossing, boat to
starboard has right of way. 4—Passing. 5—Meeting, Green
to green, hold course. 6—Meeting at angle, boat to
starboard has right of way. 7—Meeting at angle, boat to
starboard has right of way. 8—Boat on wind has right of
way over boat sailing free. 9—Boat on starboard tack has
right of way. 10—Red spar buoy, pass on starboard when
entering harbor, on port when leaving harbors. 11—Black
spar buoy. Leave on port when entering and on starboard
when leaving harbors. 12—Horizontal red and black buoy.
Danger, keep clear. 13—White and black striped buoy.
Midchannel, keep close to it. 14—Anchorage buoy.
15—Nun buoy. 16—Can buoy. 17—Gas buoy. 18—Bell buoy.
19—Whistling buoy. 20—Perch and ball. 21-22—Beacons.
23—Lighthouse. 24—Lightship. 25—Light beacon. 26—Keg
beacon. 27—Channel mark. 28—Range marks.
When meeting a vessel head-on you are supposed to turn to the right as
the following verse shows:
When two lights you see ahead
Port your helm and show your red,
or in other words, put your tiller to port and turn your boat to the
right.
If, on the other hand, a vessel is passing side-to you will see but one
light and the following verse tells you that
Green to green, or red to red
Perfect safety—go ahead,
or, in other words, if you see a _green_ light on your _green_ or
_starboard_ side or a _red_ or _port_ light on your _red_ or _port_
side, the other boat is parallel to you and your course should be kept.
The greatest danger is in approaching another vessel at right angles,
but in this case remember that the _boat that has the other on the
starboard or right-hand side must keep clear of the other_, or, as the
verse says:
If to your starboard red appear
’Tis your duty to keep clear,
Act as judgment says is proper,
Port or starboard, back or stop her.
But when on your port is seen
A vessel with a light of green
There’s not much for you to do
The green light must keep clear of you
But more important perhaps than all is the universal rule that _all_
boats must keep a _good lookout_, and the following verse indicates
this:
Both in safety and in doubt
Always keep a good lookout
Should there not be room to turn
Shift your helm and pass astern.
The last line is most important. _Never_ under _any_ circumstances
attempt to _cross the bows_ of another moving vessel. If you do and
accident occurs it will be your own fault. A boat crossing another’s
bows _always does so at her own risk_. No matter how you are heading, no
matter how much of a hurry you may be in, no matter how much trouble it
may involve, if you are approaching another boat of any kind so that
your course will cross hers, remember the last verse and _shift your
helm and pass astern_.
Another very important matter for all boat sailors to learn is the
meaning of the various buoys, beacons, lights and other guide-boards of
the sea. In small boats these are often of little importance for one may
sail hither and thither without paying much attention to channels, but
even in the smallest of sailboats there is a danger of running on reefs,
rocks or shoals if one does not know what the guiding marks mean.
In nearly every port, harbor, or other navigable body of water, except
in the open ocean, there are buoys. To the landsman these appear as so
many red, black or parti-colored sticks or metal cylinders, but to the
sailor every one has a definite meaning and he knows that if he proceeds
according to the route marked by the buoys he is perfectly safe.
There are two general classes of buoys, known as _channel buoys_ and
_danger buoys_. The first are used to mark lanes or channels for boats
and are always black or red in color. _All_ the red buoys are placed on
one side of the channel and _all_ the black buoys on the other side and
every boat, when coming in from sea or _moving towards the land should
keep the red buoys on her right or starboard side_ and all the _black
buoys on her port or left hand_. When going _out_ of the harbor or _away
from land, the red buoys are passed on the left and the black ones on
the right_.
In other words, in _leaving_ a harbor all the _red buoys_ should be
passed on the _red light side of your boat_. Moreover, all the channel
buoys are numbered, the black buoys bearing odd numbers, while the red
ones are marked with even numbers, so that even if the colors are
indistinct you can tell whether they are to be passed on right or left.
But all channel buoys are not alike for there are _spar buoys_, _can
buoys_ and _nun buoys_, each of which serves a definite purpose and
means a certain thing.
_Can buoys_ are cylindrical, like giant tin cans, and are painted black
and marked with odd numbers, while _nun buoys_ are tapered on the top,
are painted red and bear even numbers.
_Spar buoys_ are merely huge, wooden poles painted red or black and
bearing odd numbers on the black ones and even numbers on those which
are red.
In some places the _can_ and _nun buoys_ are used to mark the main ship
channels and the spar buoys are used to show smaller or less important
channels, while in other places only one kind is used or _can_ or _nun_
buoys may be placed among the spar buoys to mark turning points or to
aid mariners in locating their position in the channel. All the buoys’
numbers commence at the one farthest out, which is number 1, for buoys
are of more importance to vessels entering a harbor than to those going
out to sea.
Danger buoys differ from channel buoys in color and are not numbered and
they may be either of the spar, can or nun type. A buoy painted _red and
black in horizontal stripes_ running round the buoy indicates that there
is some small reef, rock or other obstruction close to it and that
vessels must keep clear, _but can pass on either side_. A buoy painted
with _vertical stripes of black and white_ means exactly the opposite
and shows that in order to avoid danger vessels must _pass as closely to
the buoy as possible_ and that there are shoals or obstructions on one
or both sides of the buoy a short distance away. This _striped buoy_
also is used to mark the _center of a channel_ and is known as a
_midchannel buoy_.
_Bell buoys_ and _whistling buoys_ are also used to mark danger spots
and turning-points in channels. Whistling buoys are metal buoys fitted
with whistles which are blown by air forced up by the motion of the
waves and are sometimes called _grunters_ as the sound is more like a
grunt than a whistle. _Bell buoys_ are provided with a bell which is
rung by the swaying of the buoy. In many places they are located well
out to sea to indicate the beginning of a channel; in other spots they
are placed on reefs, rocks or other obstructions as warnings, and in
still other places they serve to show where a channel turns sharply or
where another channel branches off.
Still another sort of buoy is the _gas buoy_. These serve as miniature
lighthouses or lightships and are furnished with lamps which burn
compressed acetylene or other gas. They are usually placed on outlying
reefs or rocks or in spots where it would not pay to keep a regular
lightship.
In many places, where ordinary buoys cannot be used, a large sphere is
set up on the end of a pole and painted red or black, according to the
side on which it should be passed. This is known to seamen as a _perch
and ball_. Often a square, boxlike affair or a cone made of iron or
wooden slats is used in the same manner.
In still other localities the government does not think it worth while
to establish regular buoys and local fishermen or others use channel
marks in the form of kegs set on posts or rods in place of danger buoys
and cedar trees fastened on tall posts to indicate the channels.
In many parts of the country _beacons_ are used which are tripods or
platforms of wood or iron on which lanterns are suspended. Sometimes the
beacons are built of stone or concrete.
On navigable rivers and inland waters and in some places on the coasts
_range marks_ are used. These are square or diamond-shaped frames of
boards painted white with a square or circle of black in the center and
set on posts. They are placed so that when two come directly in line the
boatman knows he is in the center of the channel. At night lanterns are
often hung upon them.
Sometimes one sees a large spar buoy painted _white_ and with a _little
black anchor_ painted upon it. This shows the anchorage for large
vessels and indicates that vessels cannot anchor further than the buoy
without obstructing a channel or endangering cables, submarine works or
other things.
Just as buoys tell the sailor which way to steer in harbors or when
close to shore so _lightships_ and _lighthouses_ show mariners how to
sail along the coasts. Lightships are vessels carrying lights at their
mastheads and are anchored out at sea on shoals or off harbors to show
where the channels begin.
Lighthouses are usually built on shore close to the sea, but they are
often built on stone, masonry or slender steel supports quite a distance
from the land. Each lighthouse has a different light, many are painted
in stripes or other distinctive patterns and lightships are numbered and
named to enable sailors to identify them easily.
[Illustration: HARBOR CHART SHOWING LIGHTS, BUOYS, CHANNELS, SOUNDINGS,
BEARINGS, BOTTOM, ETC.]
Some lighthouses throw a steady red light, others a steady white light,
others flashes of white, others flashes of red, others alternate flashes
of red and white, and in many places they are arranged so that a white
light is visible from vessels in the channels or in safe waters, while a
red sector causes a red light to be thrown over the shallow or dangerous
waters. Moreover, the flashing lights have various intervals between
flashes and thus, by knowing the colors of the various lights and the
duration of their flashes, a sailor can determine just where he is by
the lighthouses he sights.
All of these safeguards of the sea would be of little value to mariners,
however, if it were not for charts, for no man could remember _all_ the
various buoys, beacons, range marks, lightships and lighthouses of the
coasts and the various harbors.
To enable the seaman to know just what every one of these means, and to
help him find his way in places where he has never been, charts are
furnished by the government. These are maps which show all the buoys,
lights, signals and other guides and also indicate the depth of the
water, the kind of bottom, the points of the compass, the prominent
landmarks, the rise and fall of tides and the outlines of the shores.
With the aid of a chart a sailor can safely find his way into any harbor
or along any coast, and even if it is some remote place where there are
no lights or buoys, or if the weather is too thick to enable him to see
the buoys or lights, the charts will tell him where he is by the
character of the bottom and the depth of the water.
It may seem queer to think of a sailor navigating a vessel by the bottom
of the sea, but it is a method very widely used and of great importance.
In nearly every place the bottom varies more or less and the waters
shoal in a certain way and by finding the kind of bottom there is and
the depth of the water the seaman identifies the locality he is in.
Thus, if the bottom is white sand and the depth is five fathoms, he
looks upon the chart and finds the spot where a similar depth and bottom
is indicated. Perhaps there are several such spots and the sailor is not
sure which one he is on. In that case, he looks in the direction he is
sailing and finds that on the chart the water shoals very gradually and
that blue mud exists just beyond the spot where he _thinks_ he should
be. If his next sounding shows blue mud and only a little less depth
than before he knows he is right, whereas if it shows deeper water and
gravel, or much shallower water and sand, he knows he is off his course
and by comparing his soundings with the chart he can tell just where he
is.
To determine the depth of water, a sounding line is used with a heavy
lead weight at the end and with the fathoms marked upon the line and
every time the lead is dropped to the bottom a tiny sample of the bottom
is brought up sticking to a little tallow which fills a recess in the
end of the lead.
Nowadays there are many improved forms of sounding lines and leads, some
of which have very cleverly arranged appliances for bringing up samples
of the bottom, but the old-fashioned line and lead is still widely used.
Still other important items which are indicated on the chart are
bearings or landfalls. Often some prominent cliff, hill, mountain or
other object is visible long before the shores themselves or any lights
can be seen, and by bringing certain such marks in line, or by obtaining
the direction which they bear to the ship and then referring to the
charts, the sailor can tell just what part of the shore he is
approaching and how he should steer to enter a harbor or channel.
But charts, bearings or landmarks would be almost useless without that
most important of all mariners’ guides, the compass.
Everyone who uses a boat should know how to use a compass and every
boat, save the very smallest open boats, should invariably have a
compass on board. Even if you never expect to sail far from shore you
may some day be caught in a thick fog or blown off to sea for several
miles and a compass may save your life and the lives of others. But
unless you know how to use a compass this useful instrument will be of
little aid. It may seem strange to speak of learning to use a compass
for everyone knows that a compass points toward the north, but when an
ordinary compass is used on a boat the conditions are very different
from using a compass on land. In the first place it is not enough to
know the cardinal points of north, south, east and west, for while such
general directions may serve on the land, a very slight variation of the
course may result in running on a reef or in missing a harbor, when
sailing. For this reason you should become thoroughly familiar with
_all_ the points of a compass and should be able to _box the compass_ or
repeat all the thirty-two points from north around the circle to north
and back again without looking at the compass. Then you should learn the
quarter points and should be able to tell at a glance whether the boat
is heading north-one-quarter-east or is a quarter of a point off her
course in any direction, for a quarter-point error in sailing may make a
vast difference at the end of a few hours’ run.
There are two general types of compasses in use: one known as the
_pocket compass_ or _movable-needle compass_, the other as the
_mariner’s compass or floating-card compass_. The former is generally
used on land and has a fixed card with the various points marked upon it
and a movable needle which points to the north, while the mariner’s
compass has a card with the points which revolves and there is a notch
or _lubber’s mark_ on one side of the case which should be so placed
that when facing north the north mark on the card is exactly in line
with the lubber’s mark.
[Illustration: USE OF COMPASS IN BOAT]
A—Mariner’s compass. B-C—Pocket compass.
In a boat the floating-card or mariner’s compass is almost a necessity,
for with it the boat’s bow may be headed in the direction or course
desired, whereas with a pocket compass the dial remains stationary and
the needle moves about and as a result some mental calculation is
necessary in order to steer a course correctly.
This will be better understood by studying the accompanying
illustration. In this you will see that at A a boat with a mariner’s
compass is headed _northeast_, and that if the course is to be altered
to any given point of the compass it is merely necessary to turn until
the desired mark is in line with the lubber’s mark.
In the diagram B, however, the boat is apparently headed north although
the same course is being steered as in A. This is because the compass
used is a fixed-card compass with a movable needle and the needle moves
as the boat’s course is changed, while the card remains stationary, and
although the boat is really headed _northeast_ the needle points to the
_northwest_. In other words, when using such a compass it is necessary
to read it backwards and if you wish to steer _northeast_ swing the boat
until the needle points _northwest_, and so on, for every direction.
This, of course, is very confusing and it can be avoided only by
shifting the position of the compass so as to bring the needle directly
over “north” each time the boat’s course is altered as shown at C. By
doing this the boat’s bow will correspond to the direction being
steered, as indicated on the compass card, but it is often very
inconvenient, if not impossible, to move a compass constantly while
bobbing about in a sea or tacking, although on land it is no trouble to
turn the compass until the needle and “north” are in line and then
proceed in the desired direction.
Moreover, a pivoted needle is often very erratic and swings wildly when
in a boat and for these reasons a floating-dial compass should always be
used. Many pocket compasses are made with moving dials, or cards, and
these will serve very well for small boats, but they are not to be
compared to the true boat compasses for steadiness, accuracy and
convenience.
Sometimes one may find oneself without a compass and may wish to obtain
a general idea of direction and in such a case it is of great value to
know that an ordinary watch or clock may be made to serve as a compass.
To use a watch as a compass, place it horizontally, with the hour hand
pointing directly towards the sun, or until the shadow of the hour hand
falls directly beneath the hand itself. When this position is attained
south will be exactly halfway between the point of the hour hand and the
figure 12; counting from left to right, or southward, if _before_ noon
and from right to left if _after_ noon.
This will prove very accurate for our latitudes during most of the year
and the method will be clearly understood by referring to the
illustrations in which the watch is shown with the hour hand pointing
towards the sun at six A. M. when the figure 9 indicates south, while in
the afternoon, with the hour hand pointing at the sun at four o’clock,
the figure 2 indicates south.
This method of determining direction is only useful on sunny or bright
days, however, and one often needs to know the points of the compass at
night, when the watch would be useless.
In any spot north of the equator the North Star, or Pole Star, serves as
a guide, while south of the equator the Southern Cross indicates the
true south. But the Southern Cross becomes visible long before the
equator is reached, in about twenty degrees north latitude, and hence
there is a wide area in which both of these stellar guides serve the
mariner.
[Illustration: COMPASSES]
1—Pocket compass. 2—Mariner’s compass. 3—Points of compass.
4—How to use a watch as a compass. 5—How to find the
North Star.
It is a very easy matter to locate the North Star by finding the
constellation known as the Great Dipper or the Great Bear. Then by
following in a straight line from the two outer stars of the Dipper, the
upper one of which would form the lip of the Dipper, or the breast of
the Bear, the North Star will be the first bright star in range of these
two stars in the constellation and which are known as _the Pointers_.
As the Great Dipper revolves around the North Star the latter may be
either above or below the Dipper, but by carrying your imaginary line
through the pointers, from the foot or bottom of the constellation and
beyond the top, the star may always be located if the night is clear and
even if the Pole Star is _not_ visible the Dipper itself will serve as a
guide to enable you to steer a fairly straight course.
Captains of large vessels, sailing out of sight of land, determine their
positions and steer their course by taking observations by means of
instruments called _sextants_ and by _chronometers_.
The chronometer is merely an extremely accurate clock which is set by
standard time with Greenwich, and by comparing the actual time with this
at noon, the mariner can work out the distance east or west of
Greenwich, or in other words, obtain his _longitude_.
By means of the sextant he determines the exact moment at which the sun
crosses the meridian, or the exact noon hour at his locality and he also
learns the angle or _declination_ of the sun above the horizon. By means
of tables he is thus enabled to work out his _latitude_, or his distance
north or south of the equator, and then by marking the spot on his chart
where the longitude and latitude cross, he indicates the exact position
of his ship.
It is an easy matter to learn to “shoot the sun” and to compute latitude
and longitude. Every amateur sailor will do well to acquire this
knowledge, even if it never becomes necessary to use it.
For all ordinary purposes, however, _dead reckoning_ will serve and many
sailors, and not a few captains of large vessels find dead reckoning
sufficiently accurate for their needs if near land or only sailing for
comparatively short distances out at sea.
Dead reckoning consists of computing a vessel’s position by the distance
sailed from one time to another; the drift or leeway made and the
directions in which the boat has sailed.
To find the distance sailed it is necessary to multiply the number of
hours by the speed per hour. To determine this an instrument called a
_log_ is used. In former days the log was in reality a log, and
consisted of a drag of wood attached to a marked line on a reel. The log
was thrown over the vessel’s stern and as the line ran out it was timed
by a _sandglass_ and the number of _knots_ on the line which ran out
while the sand fell through the glass gave the speed of the ship. Today
instruments known as _patent logs_ are used which are like small
propellers attached to a line connected with a clocklike arrangement,
and as the log whirls around by being dragged through the water the
hands on the dials indicate the speed of the vessel.
But while the log has been changed to a metal whirler and the line and
sandglass have given place to an accurate and complicated mechanism of
wheels and cogs, yet the name _log_ is still retained and sailors always
speak of knots instead of miles.
By marking off the number of knots sailed in the proper direction the
sailor might easily tell where he was, provided there were no currents
or tides and the vessel moved at a uniform speed and made no leeway. As
a matter of fact the ocean is full of currents, streams and tides and
moreover a vessel, when sailing, or steaming for that matter, is carried
to one side or the other and forwards and backwards by these as well as
by the wind.
Besides a sailing vessel moves more slowly or faster according to the
strength of the wind and is often obliged to tack or to alter its course
to suit the winds.
All of these matters must be considered in working out a position by
dead reckoning and the course of a sailing vessel when thus _pricked
out_ on a chart often looks like the track made by a drunken man, as it
zigzags hither and thither, swings about, and varies widely from one
side or the other of its true course.
In order to come anywhere near accuracy by means of dead reckoning a
mariner must be thoroughly familiar with the tides and currents through
which he is sailing. He must be able to judge the strength of the wind;
he must know just what his vessel will do under varying conditions; he
must be able to guess very closely the leeway she makes, and he must
bear in mind all the changes of course, all the tacks and all the
shifting of sails which have been made. Only by such knowledge and by
long practice can a sailor determine where he is by dead reckoning and
even then he can only locate his position approximately. It seems
remarkable that any man can come anywhere near the truth by such means
but many sea captains have become so expert that they can figure out
their position by dead reckoning and come within a very few miles of the
right result every time.
Very few amateur sailors will ever need to go into the details of dead
reckoning, but it is often convenient to be able to determine roughly
where you are and you should strive to become so accustomed to your
boat’s speed under various conditions that you can guess very closely
how far and how fast she has sailed. You should also study the charts of
your vicinity and learn all about the tides and currents and should be
able to judge of the leeway you are making, as well as to form an
accurate idea of the weight of the wind or the speed at which it is
blowing. All these things are a part of knowing how to sail and handling
a boat and they will come in mighty handy sooner or later.
Many a race has been won by a man or boy knowing the currents and tides
and taking advantage of them. If you are out in a fog or in darkness
your knowledge of winds, currents and other conditions will enable you
to steer a true course and reach port, whereas, if ignorant of these
simple matters, you might be compelled to drift about for hours until
you could see your surroundings.
Until you have tried you can have no idea of how much you can learn
about such matters or what a keen sense of location and direction you
can develop. The fishermen on the coast of Maine and other parts of New
England know the currents, winds and tides of their waters so well that
thick fogs or the darkest nights have no terrors for them. I have seen a
Maine fisherman sail his schooner straight for the rocky, reef-fringed
coast through the thickest fog and drive into a narrow harbor entrance
as surely as if he was following a well marked lane of buoys. Yet
nothing could be seen and the roar of surf was deafening and to make a
mistake of a hundred feet in his course meant certain death and the loss
of the vessel.
These men don’t know _how_ they know where they are or _how_ they are
able to find their way blindly on these dangerous coasts when nothing
can be seen. They will tell you it’s “by the lay of the land,” although
the land cannot be seen, or they may say they “smell where they are,”
but as a matter of fact it is owing to their intimate knowledge of
conditions and surroundings which has become such a part of their daily
life that they are perfectly unconscious of it.
Of course the amateur sailor can scarcely hope to become as expert as
these old shellbacks who have spent their lives knocking about in boats,
but you can readily learn the bearings of certain places, the location
of certain tide-rips and the direction and flow of certain currents in
the waters where you sail and these will all help to guide you when
sailing in darkness or in fog.
Fog is perhaps the greatest danger that menaces sailors along the
coasts, for a thick fog not only hides all objects and surroundings, but
when something _is_ seen it is often so distorted, so spectral or so
unusual in appearance that it is hard to recognize the most familiar
landmarks. Moreover it is next to impossible to judge of distance in a
fog and an object, seen dimly through the mist and apparently far away,
may be close at hand or again something which looms seemingly near may
really be far away. Sound also is distorted by fogs and even old hands
are often woefully deceived as to the direction and distance of sounds
heard through fog.
Sometimes, too, a fog may settle low and high objects may be visible
above it, or again it may lift and hide all objects above a certain
height and yet leave things close to the water within plain sight.
In most places the approach of fogs may be readily seen, but quite
frequently a fog will come on very suddenly or a light mist may suddenly
shut in as a dense fog, while in some places fogs almost always occur at
certain seasons or at certain hours and can be expected at such times.
If a fog is seen approaching, or a light mist commences to thicken up,
always try to make port before it becomes dense. If you have a compass
make a note of the direction you must steer, look about for vessels that
may be in your course and note the direction of the wind, the waves and
the courses other craft are sailing, if any can be seen.
If you have no compass note the direction of the waves and wind as
compared with the course you wish to take, pick out some prominent
landmark or beacon for which you can steer and when the fog shuts in
guide your course by the waves and _not by the wind_, for a wind often
shifts about when the fog arrives.
If you have no compass and are in any doubt as to how you are heading,
drop your sails and anchor at once, or if you can reach a buoy, moor to
that until the fog lifts.
There is nothing much more perilous than sailing about blindly in a fog,
for you are liable to sail in a circle, or far off your course, and when
the fog lifts, if you haven’t run aground or into another vessel, you
may find yourself out of sight of land or many miles from your
destination.
Always have a foghorn when sailing in localities where fogs occur and if
for any reason you have no horn, shout halloo or beat on a bucket or a
tin pan at intervals to warn other vessels of your presence.
Sometimes, if you climb to the masthead, you may be able to see above
the fog or through it, for fogs are often thin a few feet above the
water, and if you find this is the case your companion may be able to
stay aloft and direct you, or you may be able to locate some landmark
and to discover in which direction to proceed. If you see that the water
is visible for quite a distance about and yet the fog is thick, you may
be able to see a long way by leaning over the boat’s side and peering
ahead close to the surface of the sea, while if there are whistling or
bell buoys in the vicinity these may serve to guide you.
Always proceed slowly and cautiously in a fog, for a reef or a vessel is
likely to loom up close aboard at any moment and you must be ever alert
and have your boat under perfect control ready for any emergency. If
there is someone with you, have him stand in the bow and report anything
which he sees and _above all sound fog signals of some sort at intervals
of not more than a minute_ and if you hear another vessel’s signals veer
off and be sure you understand whether she is on the port or the
starboard tack or is running before the wind.
[Illustration: EFFECT OF WAVES ON STABILITY]
Sailing in heavy weather or in large seas is very different from sailing
in smooth water and no one should attempt sailing a boat in strong winds
or heavy seas unless thoroughly expert in handling a boat, or unless
compelled to do so by necessity.
More accidents happen when running in a seaway than under any other
conditions, for a boat which may be perfectly safe and stable in an
ordinary sea, may capsize quickly if not handled with the utmost care
and skill in large waves.
The effect of waves upon a boat’s stability is seldom realized even by
fairly competent sailors. This may be better understood by the
accompanying diagram which represents a boat in waves as viewed in
section and supposedly sailing with a beam wind in a sea running
broadside on, A. If she is heeled to an angle of fifteen degrees, as
shown, she would be perfectly safe, provided the surface of the water
remained constant, but if a wave came from the leeward, or right, as
indicated by the dotted line B, the angle would be suddenly increased to
thirty degrees in relation to the waves’ surface. Under normal
conditions she might recover herself and swing back to fifteen degrees,
or until her mast assumed the position shown by the vertical line, but
long before she could so recover herself among the waves she probably
would be swamped.
Moreover, in a sea a boat always rolls and if she is sailing at an
angle, or heel, of fifteen degrees and rolls an additional fifteen
degrees she is liable to capsize, and if her extreme roll occurs in
unison with such a position as indicated in the diagram C, she would
inevitably upset.
Even if neither of these occurrences took place there is the danger of a
sea underrunning her and leaving the lee side unsupported, as indicated
by the line D, and the wind, which has force enough to heel her fifteen
degrees when properly immersed in water, would then force her to the
capsizing angle as shown.
Aside from these dangers of the seas there is the added peril of a
sudden gust or squall and if such a sudden increase of wind strikes the
sails when the hull is at its extreme leeward roll she will be certain
to blow over. In this connection it should always be borne in mind that
a wind which will only heel a boat to fifteen degrees when it blows
steadily, may heel her to the upsetting point if applied suddenly. In
other words, it is not so much the actual force of the wind which must
be guarded against as the suddenness of its application.
Many amateur sailors seem to think that when sailing among waves danger
may be guarded against by sitting on the upper, or windward, side of the
boat or by shifting ballast to the windward side. This is a very grave
mistake, for, as the boat rolls to windward when the waves run under her
keel, the weight on the windward side may cause her to roll far enough
to be swamped or it may prevent her from recovering quickly and the next
wave may strike her bottom and turn her completely over. In addition
there is the danger that she may swing her sail to windward, be caught
aback and upset in a flash.
For these reasons _always_ keep ballast, whether passengers or real
ballast, as near the center of the boat and as near the bottom as
possible when sailing among waves and decrease the canvas until she
cannot heel at a dangerous angle. A boat may be sailed among waves many
times and not upset merely because the conditions described do not
happen to occur conjointly and yet the very next time she may capsize
under apparently identical conditions. Hence, you should always use the
greatest care when among waves and should invariably shorten sail until
you are sure you are safe.
Always try to avoid sailing with a beam sea, especially if the wind is
also from the side, for this is the most dangerous of all conditions. A
heavy sea may cause the boat to roll over, the sail may swing and spill
the wind and allow her to be caught aback with her weather roll and to
avoid a breaking sea which may swamp her, it will be necessary to swing
her about for eight points, or at right angles, which cannot be done in
a seaway in time to avoid swamping.
_Never_ try to luff a boat up to a sea when in this position, but ease
the sheet, swing her off and let the sea run diagonally under her keel.
Remember that in waves a deep keel or a centerboard may prevent a great
deal of the roll and even if running free keep your centerboard down,
unless you find it causes her to steer badly.
If in order to reach your destination, it is necessary to run across a
heavy sea with a beam wind you can avoid the danger of doing so by
_quartering_ or zigzagging—first heading up into the wind for a time and
then turning and running with the wind on the quarter as shown by the
diagram.
When running up the wind in this way you should luff right up into any
heavy sea as it approaches, so as to take it bow-on, and the instant it
has passed put the helm up, let the sails fill well and gather good
headway to meet the next sea. Finally, when ready to go about choose a
time when riding on the top of a long, easy sea; swing her about
quickly, ease off the sheets and use great care not to let the boat
swing beam-on to the seas.
In puffs or squalls, and as you rise towards the crests of the waves,
when running in seas, the boat should be luffed up and sheets eased
before she is heeled rail-under, for if you wait too long she will
answer her helm sluggishly and may capsize before she will luff to meet
the sudden gust. _Don’t_ let her lose headway but as soon as the squall
has passed or the craft has righted bear off again until the next puff
comes along.
Almost as dangerous as sailing in a beam sea is running before wind and
sea or “scudding” among waves, and many a good craft and many a valuable
life has been sacrificed to carelessness or ignorance when scudding in a
seaway.
The two greatest perils are _getting brought by the lee_ and
_broaching-to_. The former occurs when the boat’s bow falls off to
leeward by her stern being thrown to windward as a wave runs under her,
while the latter is brought about by the head swinging into the wind and
her stern off, thus causing her sail to “spill” with the result that she
loses headway, swings broadside to the waves and upsets. Only the
quickest and most expert handling can save a boat under these conditions
and frequently she will refuse to come about or to answer her helm as
she is raced along on the crest of a wave. If it is absolutely necessary
to run before a sea, reduce sail, top the boom up well by the
topping-lift or the peak halyards and stand ready to haul in the sheet
and to swing her into the wind or to ease her off instantly.