VARIOUS RIGS
Probably the first sail ever placed upon a boat was merely a piece of
hide or skin, lashed to a sapling and kept spread open by a rough stick
lashed across it. Through all the countless centuries this first form of
sail has been retained and while the skin has been replaced by cloth and
the rough saplings have given place to well-finished poles or spars, the
spritsail, as it is called, still remains one of the simplest, handiest
and most widely used of sails.
The true spritsail is a square, or nearly square, piece of canvas laced
by one edge to the mast and kept stretched flat by means of a pole known
as a _sprit_ which extends from the lower part of the mast diagonally
across the sail to the upper, outer corner.
Sometimes the sail is attached to hoops or rings which run up and down
the mast and a halyard is used in hoisting the sail but, in order to
spread the sail well, the sprit must be pulled out by hand and cannot be
arranged to rise or fall with the sail. The ordinary method of securing
the sprit is to place the tip in a small loop, or eye of rope made at
the corner of the sail and then heave the sprit out until the sail is
taut by means of a rope known as a _lanyard_ which is attached to the
mast and is passed through a hole or a notch in the lower end of the
sprit.
Another very simple sail, which is really a modification of the
spritsail, is the _leg-o’-mutton_. This differs mainly from the
spritsail in form, for instead of being rectangular it is three-cornered
and the sprit, instead of extending from the mast to the upper, outer
corner of the sail, extends almost horizontally across it. Leg-o’-mutton
sails, like the spritsails, are often arranged to be raised or lowered
by a halyard and owing to the position of the sprit it is not necessary
to remove it when lowering a leg-o’-mutton sail.
Some spritsails have two sprits, but this is a nuisance and for most
purposes the leg-o’-mutton is the far better sail of the two. In the
first place it stays flatter and thus enables one to sail closer to the
wind; it does not have the tendency to “kick up” and wrap itself about
the mast, like the spritsail, when sailing before the wind, and finally
it is not so liable to capsize a boat in a heavy wind as the greatest
area is low, whereas in the spritsail the upper portion presents the
largest surface to the wind.
[Illustration: VARIOUS RIGS]
1—Felucca. 2—Lugger. 3—Nonpareil. 4—Dandy. 5—Bermuda boat.
6—French gunter. 7—Batten sail. 8—Settee sail.
Somewhat similar to the leg-o’-mutton sail in form is the _gunter sail_
or _sliding gunter_, which is a great favorite in many parts of Europe
but which has never been widely introduced in America, although it has a
great many advantages over other sails for small boats. The gunter sail
is a very easy one to raise or lower, for there is no sprit to remove
and it is very easy to reef. In the gunter sail the mast is made in two
sections with the upper portion sliding by travellers over the lower
portion, and to this movable part the single halyard is attached. In
order to reef sail it is only necessary to lower the sliding mast a
trifle, tie the reef points to the boom and again hoist the sail taut.
Another form of rig, which is seen everywhere in Oriental waters, and is
the prime favorite with all Latin races, is the _lateen_. Like the
leg-o’-mutton and the gunter rigs the lateen is triangular, but unlike
the two former it is longer than high, or in other words, is placed
horizontally, instead of perpendicularly. The lateen is a particularly
good sail for small boats as the greatest area is low and why it has not
been more generally adopted is something of a mystery. As used in the
West Indies the lateen is rigged on a single, short mast which points or
“rakes” slightly towards the bow of the boat. It has two yards and is
raised and lowered by one halyard. It is kept taut and flat by a crotch,
or ring, passed around the mast and fastened to the lower yard. Properly
made the lateen will set very flat and smooth, it is easily and quickly
raised or lowered, readily reefed and is the most graceful and
picturesque of all rigs.
Somewhat like the lateen, but with the forward end cut off, is the
_lugsail_ which is the sail most often used by the fishermen of northern
Europe and the British Isles. Personally I could never see any advantage
which this sail possesses over the common and much more simple spritsail
or the ordinary boom-and-gaff sail and on large boats it is heavy,
clumsy and far less to be recommended than several other forms.
The common _boom-and-gaff_ sail is the one so familiar to everyone who
lives on or near the water or who has ever seen sailing boats or
vessels, for it is more widely used than any other form and is the basis
of all fore-and-aft rigs in most localities.
[Illustration: PARTS OF SAILS, SPARS, ETC., OF FORE-AND-AFT RIG]
The true fore-and-aft sail or boom-and-gaff sail is really an adaptation
of the older lugsail and is a vast improvement over it. It is attached
to the mast by means of rings or travelers and has two spars; the one at
the top known as the _gaff_ and the one at the bottom known as the
_boom_. There are two halyards used, known as the peak halyard and
throat halyard; the latter being used to hoist the sail and the former
to spread it tight and flat. This rig is noted for its ability to sail
close to the wind; it is easy to handle and in case of a sudden storm or
squall the peak may be dropped and the area of the sail thus reduced
without stopping to reef. For very small boats it has the disadvantage
of requiring rather heavy spars and mast and a multiplicity of ropes,
blocks, etc., and hence for this purpose the sprit, leg-o’-mutton,
gunter or lateen rigs are preferable.
Aside from the shape or type of sails there are various rigs which are
well recognized as standards and which are combinations of several
sails. Thus the rig known as the _cat rig_ is a single fore-and-aft sail
near the bow of the boat. The _jib-and-mainsail_ rig has a boom-and-gaff
sail and a small triangular sail known as a _jib_, which is set on a
stay running from the masthead to the bow, or to the end of the
bowsprit. The _sloop_ rig is like the jib-and-mainsail rig but in
addition has a small sail known as a _topsail_ between the gaff and the
topmast; it may also have two or three other small triangular sails on
the forestays. When there are two of these the lowest is known as the
_fore staysail_, the next is the _jib_ and the third is the _flying
jib_. _Schooners_ are two-, three-, four-, five-, six- or even
seven-masted vessels with the masts fore-and-aft rigged and with jibs
like a sloop and with staysails between the various topmasts. In
schooners the various fore-and-aft sails are all of nearly the same size
with the sail on the rear mast the largest.
[Illustration: 1—KETCH RIG. 2—CAT YAWL RIG]
Two other rigs which have two masts and carry fore-and-aft sails are the
_ketch_ and the _yawl_. The ketch has a foremast rigged like that of a
sloop, or schooner, with a much smaller boom-and-gaff sail on a mast
near the stern, while the _yawl_ is practically the same with a still
smaller rear sail. If the rear mast or mizzen is placed _in front of the
sternpost_ the rig is the _ketch_ whereas if placed _behind the
sternpost_ it is a _yawl_ rig. There are also _cat yawls_ which have no
jibs and some ketches and yawls carry lugsails on both masts, or have a
boom and gaff mainsail and a lugsail mizzen or even a sprit, lateen,
leg-o’-mutton, gunter or other type of mizzen sail. Yawls and ketches
are at times rigged with leg-o’-mutton, lug, gunter or lateen sails on
both masts, but when thus rigged the crafts are not, properly speaking,
either yawls or ketches. If lugsails are used the rig is really a
_lugger_; if both masts carry leg-o’-mutton or gunter sails the rig is
known as the _nonpareil_; if the mizzen is a leg-o’-mutton sail the boat
is _dandy-rigged_ and if both main and mizzen sails are of the lateen
type the boat becomes a _felucca_, which is one of the favorite
Mediterranean rigs and is familiar to every reader of sea tales as the
typical rig of the Eastern corsairs.
All of the sails mentioned on these various rigs are those known as
_working sails_, but in addition there are numerous light sails used
when there is little wind or when racing, such as _spinnakers_, _jib
topsails_, _balloon jibs_, etc., but which are of little interest in
connection with small boats or boats for the amateur sailor.
Nevertheless some knowledge of such matters never comes amiss and it is
well to know the names and uses of these racing sails.
_Spinnakers_ are immense triangular sails used when running before the
wind and which are spread out from the side of the boat by means of a
spar known as a spinnaker boom. _Balloon jibs_ are huge, jib-like sails
of very light cotton or silk used in place of the smaller head sails
when running on, or before, the wind, while _jib topsails_ are
triangular sails run up on the stay which extends from the topmast to
the bowsprit.
Nowadays fore-and-aft-rigged vessels form the bulk of all sailing craft,
many of which are of immense size and capable of carrying many hundreds
of tons of cargo. The use of fore-and-aft sails on any but small boats
is comparatively recent, however, and formerly all large craft were what
are known as _square-riggers_. Although far more beautiful and stately
than the schooners the square-rigged vessels gradually gave way to the
more economical and handy fore-and-aft rigs and a few years ago one
seldom saw a square-rigged vessel, save in out-of-the-way places. With
the tremendous demand for ocean-going vessels, brought about by the
European War, the square-riggers once more came into their own and today
one may see ships, barks and brigs everywhere in the important ports of
the world.
Although small boats are seldom square-rigged yet everyone who is fond
of the sea and of boats should know something of square-rigged craft and
should be familiar with the various rigs and their sails and should know
the proper names and terms to use in speaking of them. To the landsman,
and to many sailors as well, the rigging of a square-rigged vessel
appears most complicated and confusing, but in reality it is very
simple.
A great many people call every large vessel a “ship” and many more who
can distinguish a sloop from a schooner, and a schooner from a yawl,
fail to note the differences between the various square-rigs and call
all square-rigged vessels “ships.” As a matter of fact “ships” are only
one type of square-rigged craft and it is just as erroneous to call a
bark a “ship” as to call a sloop a “schooner.”
[Illustration: SAILS OF SQUARE-RIGGED VESSELS]
1—Topsail schooner. 2—Brigantine. 3—Brig (main course in
dotted lines). 4—Barkentine (with double topsails).
5—Bark (with double topsails). 6—Ship (with double
topsails, fore and main skysails (mizzen course in
dotted lines)). Staysails are omitted in Figs. 3, 4, 5,
6.
Oddly enough one may trace the transition from the original
square-riggers to the modern fore-and-aft schooners by the various rigs,
for the old square sails died hard and even after the many advantages of
fore-and-aft sails were proven sailors still held tenaciously to certain
square sails and thus many types of square-rigged vessels are
combinations of the two forms and are really connecting links between
true square-riggers and fore-and-aft rigs.
This is the case with the so-called “topsail schooners” which are almost
a thing of the past in most countries but are still used in
Newfoundland, the Canadian provinces and in parts of Europe. The topsail
schooner is essentially a two-masted, fore-and-aft schooner, but the
foretopmast is equipped with yards bearing square sails, the lower sail
being known as the _foretopsail_ and the upper one as the
_foretopgallantsail_. Another step backward and we find the foremast
equipped entirely with square sails, the fore-and-aft sail on the
foremast missing and a fourth square sail above the foretopgallantsail.
This rig is known as the _brigantine_, while in the rig known as a
_brig_ both masts carry square sails and in addition the mainmast is
furnished with a fore-and-aft sail known as the _spanker_. In every
square-rigged vessel there are a definite number of square sails on each
mast and these always have the same name, although some vessels do not
carry all of them. Thus, the lowest sail is the _course_, the next is
the _topsail_, the next the _topgallantsail_, the next the _royal_ and
the highest of all is the _skysail_.
Formerly each of these sails was in one large piece, but in order to
make it easier to handle them _double topsails_ and _double
topgallantsails_ were invented and are now in general use. Thus one may
see square-rigged vessels with _seven_ instead of _five_ square sails on
each mast, but the names remain the same, the second and third sails
above the deck becoming _lower_ and _upper topsails_, and the two above
these being _lower_ and _upper topgallantsails_. Many other vessels
carry double topsails and single topgallantsails, but one can always
recognize these _double_ sails as they are much narrower than the full
sails. Comparatively few vessels carry skysails, many do not even carry
royals and still others carry more on one mast than on another.
Just as brigantines form a sort of connecting link between brigs and
two-masted schooners so _barkentines_ and _barks_ are connecting links
between three-masted schooners and real ships. The barkentine has the
forward mast square-rigged with the main and mizzen masts fore-and-aft
rigged, while the _bark_ has the fore and mainmast square-rigged and
only the mizzen fore-and-aft rigged. Finally there is the true _ship_ or
“full rigged ship,” as it is often called, in which all three masts are
square-rigged with a small fore-and-aft spanker on the last, or mizzen,
mast.
In former years barks and ships never had more than three masts, but
with the advent of steel hulls, and donkey engines to hoist and trim
sails, four-, five- and even six-masted barks and ships came into use.
It is sometimes difficult to tell whether these vessels are barks or
ships, but if there is _more than one mast fore-and-aft rigged_ they are
properly _barkentines_, if _only one_ mast is _without square sails_ the
vessel is a bark and if square sails are on all masts it is a
ship;—regardless of how many masts there are. Just as fore-and-aft
rigged vessels carry light sails to supplement the ordinary working
sails, so square-rigged vessels often spread additional canvas when the
winds are light or when greater speed is desired. Between the various
masts _staysails_, shaped like jibs, are extended, while at times small
sails known as _studding sails_ or _stunsails_ are set at the outer ends
of the square sails. These light sails take the names of the masts or
yards from which they are set and thus there are _main_ and _mizzen
topmast_ and _topgallant staysails_; _fore_, _main_ and _mizzen
topgallant_ and _royal studding sails_, etc.
These great steel and iron square-riggers often have each of their masts
in one piece or _polemasts_, but the older and typical square-rigged
vessels had their masts made up of several pieces, each of which carried
a sail, and the names of each section corresponded to the sail which it
carried. Thus the lowest section was the _mast_ proper, the piece above
was the _topmast_, the next was the _topgallant mast_, the next the
_royal mast_ and the slenderest, uppermost part was the _skysail pole_.
Each of these masts had its own stays and shrouds and between the masts
triangular, jib-like sails known as _staysails_ were set. These were
named after the masts to which the _upper ends_ were attached and thus
the staysail which extended downward from the top of the _topgallant_
mast was a _topgallant staysail_, etc.
[Illustration: HULL, SPARS AND RIGGING OF A SHIP]
1—Jib boom. 2—Bowsprit. 3—Dolphin-striker or martingale.
4—Cathead. 5—Capstan. 6—Cable. 7—Stem or Cutwater.
8—Hawse-pipe or hawse-hole. 9—Starboard bow.
10—Starboard beam. 11—Water line. 12—Starboard
quarter. 13—Rudder. 14—Rudder post. 15—Counter.
16—Deck house or cuddy. 17—Fore royalmast. 18—Main
royalmast. 19—Mizzen royalmast. 20—Fore royalyard.
21—Main royalyard. 22—Mizzen royalyard. 23—Fore
topgallantmast. 24—Main topgallantmast. 25—Mizzen
topgallantmast. 26—Fore topgallantyard. 27—Main
topgallantyard. 28—Mizzen topgallantyard. 29—Fore
topmast. 30—Main topmast. 31—Mizzen topmast. 32—Fore
topsailyard. 33—Main topsailyard. 34—Mizzen
topsailyard. 35—Foretop. 36—Maintop. 37—Mizzentop.
38—Foreyard. 39—Mainyard. 40—Mizzen, or Cross-jack,
yard. 41—Foremast. 42—Mainmast. 43—Mizzenmast.
44—Foregaff, or fore-spencer-gaff. 45—Trysail-gaff, or
Main-spencer-gaff. 46—Spanker-gaff. 47—Spanker-boom.
48—Bulwark, or rail. 49—Starboard ports. 50—Starboard
scupper-holes. 51—Starboard chain-plates.
A, A, A—Fore, main and mizzen royal-stays.
B—Flying-jib-stay. C, C, C—Fore, main and mizzen
topgallant-stays. D—Jib-stay. E, E, E—Fore, main and
mizzen topmast-stays. F, F, F—Fore, main and
mizzen-stays. G, G—Fore and main-tacks. H, H, H—Fore,
main and mizzen royal-lifts. I, I, I—Fore, main and
mizzen topgallant-lifts. J, J, J—Fore, main and mizzen
topsail-lifts. K, K, K—Fore, main and mizzen, or
cross-jack, lifts. L, L, L—Fore, main and mizzen
royal-braces. M, M, M—Fore, main and mizzen
topgallant-braces. N, N, N—Fore, main and mizzen
topsail-braces. O, O, O—Fore, main and mizzen, or
cross-jack, braces. P, P, P—Fore, main and mizzen
starboard shrouds. Q, Q, Q—Fore, main and mizzen
backstays. R, R, R—Peak halyards. S, S, S—Trysail and
spanker vangs. T, T—Fore and main sheets. U—Spanker
topping-lift. V—Spanker sheet. W—Flying martingale.
W′—Martingale stay. X—Bobstays. Y—Chafing gear.
NOTE—Modern vessels carry double-topsails and often
double topgallantsails also, in which case the words
“upper” or “lower” are prefixed to the sails, spars and
rigging of these sails. Skysails also are carried at
times. These are small sails set on the skysail poles
above the royal masts and their rigging takes the prefix
“skysail.” Spencers and trysails are often omitted and
are obsolete, as are studding sails.
It will thus be seen that in order to know the names of all the sails on
a square-rigged vessel it is only necessary to learn the names of the
five parts of each mast, for every sail has the same name with the
addition of fore, main, or mizzen as the case may be. The same is true
of the yards, the stays, the halyards and every other part of a ship’s
rigging and so the seemingly complicated maze becomes very simple, for
all you have to do is to learn the names of the various parts on one
mast and prefix _fore_, _main_ or _mizzen_ to them for those on the
other masts.
Just as the little catboat has its stays, halyards and sheet, so the
huge, towering ship has its stays and shrouds, sheets and halyards and
the use of each is exactly the same as on the catboat with its single
sail. The stays or shrouds always hold the masts in position and
strengthen them. There are _backstays_, _forestays_ and _bobstays_ on
every vessel, and each is designated by the proper prefix of _fore_,
_main_ or _mizzen_, _top_, _topgallant_, _royal_, etc.
The halyards are to hoist the sails and they take their names from the
sails to which they are attached. The sheets are used to haul the sails
flat and tight and they extend from the corners of the sails to the tips
of the yards, but in addition there are many parts of the rigging which
have no counterpart on fore-and-aft-rigged vessels. For example, the
_braces_ are used to swing or set the yards in various positions, the
_clewlines_ are used to gather up the sails ready for furling and there
are _buntlines_, _garnet-lines_ and many other _lines_ which are only
used on square-riggers and are of little interest, unless you expect to
use a square rig or are interested in all things pertaining to sailing
craft.
It may sound foolish to speak of using a square rig, but one can have a
lot of fun and can learn a great deal about ships and sailing by fitting
up a small boat as a brig, bark, or ship. I once had a twenty-foot
sharpie rigged as a miniature full-rigged ship. Of course there is no
practical advantage in this, for the square rigs require a great deal of
care, they do not sail as well as fore-and-aft rigs when tacking to
windward, and they should never be used, save as a means of recreation
and for sailing on smooth waters, on a small boat.
As to which is the best fore-and-aft rig to use on small boats there is
a great diversity of opinion, for every boat sailor has his own ideas
and his own favorite rig and what may prove very satisfactory to one
person may not be at all satisfactory to another.
The best method to follow in determining your rig is to weigh the
advantages and disadvantages of each, adopt the one you think best
suited to your special requirements and your boat and if this doesn’t
fulfill expectations try another. No two boats, even of the same model,
sail just alike and often one rig will give far better results on one
type of boat than on another while the character of the waters sailed,
the prevalent winds, the size of the boat, its form, the purpose for
which it is used and many other factors must be considered when deciding
upon a rig.
If you are a beginner and your boat is small and open, a leg-o’-mutton
or gunter sail will probably be as good as any, whereas if your boat is
very stable or heavy, or if you sail where there are light winds, a lug,
sprit or boom-and-gaff sail will be better.
It is a great mistake to place too much sail on a boat for nothing is
gained by it and the dangers of sailing are vastly increased. Too much
sail on a boat will invariably and inevitably result in one of three
things. If the boat is not wonderfully stable she will capsize, or will
lean over until she swamps; if so heavy or stable that she still stands
up, the wind will rip the sail or tear out the masts and if neither of
these casualties occur she will simply “drag” sail and will handle
badly. Every boat will sail to the very best advantage with a definite
amount of sail and the amount will vary according to the breeze. Hence
it is no economy to carry on with all sail in a heavy wind, for if the
sail used is adapted to the boat for light winds it stands to reason it
will be far too much in heavy weather.
Flat-bottomed boats are usually very safe if properly handled and not
provided with too much sail, but owing to their shape they capsize very
quickly once they are tipped a trifle too far. For this reason
leg-o’-mutton or gunter sails should be selected for this type of boat,
partly because they offer a small area to the wind near their tops and
because they have the quality of “spilling” the wind when at an angle
and thus preventing the boat from being tipped dangerously. A
flat-bottomed boat may be sailed in perfect safety with these sails when
lug or boom-and-gaff sails of the same area would be extremely
dangerous.
Another matter to remember is that a greater amount of sail may be
safely carried as two or more sails than would be possible in a single
sail, but for boats less than twenty feet over all a multiplicity of
sails is a nuisance. The question of just how much sail should be
carried is a very difficult one to answer, for boats vary in their
stability and a great deal depends upon how they are handled and the
skill of the sailor. For ordinary open boats used for pleasure where a
single sail is carried, the sail area should not greatly exceed one and
one-half times the number of square feet obtained by multiplying the
boat’s length by its extreme breadth. Thus a boat twenty feet long by
five feet wide could safely carry one hundred and fifty square feet of
canvas, but for safety this should be as low as possible. A sail fifteen
feet high and seven feet wide might upset the boat before it would drive
it along and yet a sail ten feet high and twelve feet wide might serve
to sail the boat very well and without any danger of capsizing. At any
rate, until you are thoroughly familiar with handling your boat and with
the rudiments of sailing under all conditions, you should confine
yourself to a small amount of sail and should make haste slowly.
In addition to the fore-and-aft sails described there are many which are
combinations, adaptations or improvements and which are known by
different names. Among these are the _French gunter_ in which the upper
portion of the mast not only slides on the lower part but may be lowered
like a gaff as well; the leg-o’-mutton with a boom at the lower edge in
place of the sprit; the various _battened_ sails which are really
lugsails fitted with light wooden strips, or battens, across them to
keep the sails flatter and to make reefing easier; the old-fashioned
lugsails which have no spar or boom at the lower edge; the _settee_
sails which have a boom and a much curved and very long upper yard like
a _lateen_, and finally the _Bermuda_ sails which are different from
all.
The Bermudians consider a boat’s ability to carry sail in heavy weather
and to sail close to the wind of the greatest importance and their boats
and sails are designed primarily for these objects. The true Bermuda
sail is like a leg-o’-mutton with a curved lower edge and with the top
point cut off and attached to a short piece of wood or _club_ to which
the halyard is fastened. In place of a boom there is a sprit-like pole
which is provided with a small tackle on the mast end and the sail is
set very flat by hauling out on this tackle, very much as in the
leg-o’-mutton sail. The greatest peculiarity of the Bermuda rig is that
the mast is set very far forward and leans or _rakes_ sharply backward
and a good-sized jib is carried. It is a splendid rig for windward work,
but is a bad rig before the wind and for amateur use is not to be
recommended.
For boats over twenty-five feet long nothing is handier or better than
the yawl rig. In the first place it is just as easy to sail as a sloop
or jib-and-mainsail rig, for the tiny mizzen practically takes care of
itself. When coming to a mooring or to anchor the mainsail may be
lowered and the boat handled under jib and mizzen and by hauling the
mizzen close in and lowering the other sails the boat will lie right in
the wind’s eye when at moorings or riding out a gale. If in a narrow
channel a yawl may actually be _backed_ out by swinging the mizzen
across the boat and lowering the other sails and when tacking or coming
about in a seaway or where there is a strong current the mizzen helps
wonderfully and the boat’s head may be quickly brought about by hauling
the mizzen to windward. In case of a sudden squall or a heavy wind the
boat may be sailed safely under jib and mizzen and, best of all, when
one is obliged to reef, it is not necessary to anchor or toss about
helplessly and drift down the wind, for the mainsail may be lowered and
reefed in comfort while holding on the course under jib and mizzen.
Nevertheless the beginner should never attempt to learn to sail or
handle a boat with a yawl, schooner, sloop or even a jib-and-mainsail
rig. Commence with a single, simple sail, such as a sprit, a
leg-o’-mutton, a gunter, a lug, a lateen or a gaff-and-boom sail and
when you have become thoroughly accustomed to this, when you know how to
sail and handle your simple boat and sail under all conditions, then and
not until then, you may try your hand at craft with more sails and
rigging.
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