STEUBEN, BARON VON, general in the American War of Independence,

born in Magdeburg; originally in the Prussian service under Frederick the

Great, and had distinguished himself at the siege of Prague and at

Rossbach; emigrating to America at the end of the Seven Years' War he

offered his services, which were readily welcomed, and contributed to

organise and discipline the army, to the success of the revolution

(1730-1794).

STEVENSON, ROBERT, an eminent Scottish engineer, born at Glasgow,

the son of a West India merchant; adopted the profession of his

stepfather Thomas Smith, and in 1796 succeeded him as first engineer to

the Board of Northern Lighthouses, a position he held for 47 years,

during which he planned and erected as many as 23 lighthouses round the

coasts of Scotland, his most noted erection being that on the Bell Rock;

introduced the catoptric system of illumination and other improvements;

was also much employed as a consulting engineer in connection with

bridge, harbour, canal, and railway construction (1772-1850).

STEVENSON, ROBERT LOUIS BALFOUR, novelist and essayist, grandson of

the preceding, born at Edinburgh, where in 1875 he was called to the bar,

after disappointing his father by not following the family vocation of

engineering; had already begun to write for the magazines, and soon

abandoned law for the profession of letters, in which he rapidly came to

the front; in 1878 appeared his first book, "An Inland Voyage," quickly

followed by "Travels with a Donkey," "Virginibus Puerisque," "Familiar

Studies"; with "Treasure Island" (1883) found a wider public as a writer

of adventure and romance, and established himself permanently in the

public favour with "Kidnapped" (1886, most popular story), "The Master of

Ballantrae," "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde," &c.; his versatility in letters

was further revealed in his charming "A Child's Garden of Verse,"

"Ballads," "Memories and Portraits," and "A Footnote to History" (on

Samoan politics); in 1890 failing health induced him to make his home in

the island of Samoa, where he died and is buried; "His too short life,"

says Professor Saintsbury, "has left a fairly ample store of work, not

always quite equal, seldom quite without a flaw, but charming,

stimulating, distinguished as few things in this last quarter of a

century have been" (1850-1894).

STEWARD, LORD HIGH, in early times the highest office of state in

England, ranking in power next to the sovereign; hereditary during many

centuries, the office lapsed in the reign of Henry IV., and since has

been revived only on special occasions, e. g. a coronation, a trial of

a peer, at the termination of which the office is demitted, the Lord High

Steward himself breaking in two his wand of office.

STEWART, BALFOUR, physicist, born in Edinburgh; after finishing his

university curriculum went to Australia and engaged for some time in

business; returned to England; became director at Kew Observatory, and

professor of Natural Philosophy at Owens College, Manchester; made

discoveries in radiant heat, and was one of the founders of SPECTRUM

ANALYSIS (q. v.); published text-books on physics, in wide repute

(1828-1887).

STEWART, DUGALD, Scottish philosopher, born in Edinburgh, son of

Matthew Stewart; attended the High School and the University; studied one

session at Glasgow under Dr. Reid; assisted his father in conducting the

mathematical classes in Edinburgh, and succeeded Adam Ferguson in the

Moral Philosophy chair in 1785, a post, the active duties of which he

discharged with signal success for twenty-five years, lecturing on a wide

range of subjects connected with metaphysics and the science of mind; he

wrote "Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind," "Philosophical

Essays," &c.; "His writings," says Carlyle, who held him in high

veneration, "are not a philosophy, but a making ready for one. He does

not enter on the field to till it; he only encompasses it with fences,

invites cultivators, and drives away intruders; often (fallen on evil

days) he is reduced to long arguments with the passers-by to prove that

it _is_ a field, that this so highly-prized domain of his is, in truth,

soil and substance, not clouds and shadows. It is only to a superficial

observer that the import of these discussions can seem trivial; rightly

understood, they give sufficient and final answer to Hartley's and

Darwin's and all other possible forms of Materialism, the grand Idolatry,

as we may rightly call it, by which, in all times, the true Worship, that

of the Invisible, has been polluted and withstood" (1753-1858).

STEWART, HOUSE OF. See STUART.

STEWART, MATTHEW, mathematician, born at Rothesay; bred for the

Church, was for a time minister of Roseneath, and succeeded Maclaurin as

professor of Mathematics in Edinburgh in 1747; was the author of a

mathematical treatise or two, and the lifelong friend of Robert Simson

(1717-1785).

STEYER (17), a manufacturing town of Upper Austria, at the junction

of the Steyer and Enns, 20 m. NE. of St. Valentin; noted for its

flourishing iron and steel manufactures, of which it is the chief seat in

Austria.

STHENO, one of the THREE GORGONS (q. v.).

STIELER, a celebrated German cartographer, born at Gotha; his

atlases are deservedly held in high esteem for their excellence

(1775-1836).

STIER, RUDOLF EWALD, German theologian; was a devout student of the

Bible as the very Word of God, and is best known as the author of the

"Words of the Lord Jesus" (1800-1862).

STIGAND, archbishop of Canterbury and favourite of Edward the

Confessor, who advanced him to the bishoprics of Elmham and Winchester

and to the Primacy in 1052; his appointment was popularly regarded as

uncanonical, and neither Harold nor William the Conqueror allowed him to

perform the ceremony of coronation; through William's influence was by

the Pope deprived of his office and condemned to imprisonment.

STIGMATA, impressions of marks corresponding to certain wounds

received by Christ at His crucifixion, and which certain of the saints

are said to have been supernaturally marked with in memory of His. St.

Francis in particular showed such marks.

STILICHO, a Roman general, son of a Vandal captain under the emperor

Valens; on the death of Theodosius I., under whom he served, became the

ruler of the West, and by his military abilities saved the Western

Empire; defeated Alaric the Goth in a decisive battle and compelled him

to retire from Italy, as he did another horde of invading barbarians

afterwards; aspired to be master of the Roman empires, but was

assassinated at Ravenna in 403.

STILL, JOHN, bishop of Bath and Wells, born at Grantham; rose in the

Church through a succession of preferments: is credited with the

authorship of one of the oldest comedies in the English language, "Gammer

Gurton's Needle," turning on the loss and recovery by her of the needle

with which she was mending her goodman's breeches (1543-1607).

STILLING, JUNG, a German mystic; studied medicine at Strasburg, and

when there became acquainted with Goethe, who took a liking for him and

remained his warm friend; settled as a physician at Elberfeldt and became

professor at Marburg and at Heidelberg; he was distinguished for his

skill in operations on the eye, and is said to have restored to sight

without fee or reward 3000 poor blind persons; he is best known by his

autobiography; Carlyle defines him as the German "Dominie Sampson."

STILLINGFLEET, EDWARD, bishop of Worcester, born in Dorsetshire; was

a scholarly man, wrote on apologetics, in defence of the Church of

England as a branch of the Church Catholic, in support of the doctrine of

the Trinity, and in advocacy of harmony in the Church; was an able

controversialist and a generous minded; was a handsome man, and popularly

called the "Beauty of holiness" (1635-1699).

STIPPLE, a mode of engraving by dots instead of lines, each dot when

magnified showing a group of small ones.

STIRLING, JAMES HUTCHISON, master in philosophy, born in Glasgow;

bred to medicine and practised for a time in South Wales; went to Germany

to study the recent developments in philosophy there, on his return to

Scotland published, in 1863, his "Secret of Hegel: being the Hegelian

System in Origin, Principle, Form, and Matter," which has proved

epoch-making, and has for motto the words of Hegel, "The Hidden Secret of

the Universe is powerless to resist the might of thought! It must unclose

before it, revealing to sight and bringing to enjoyment its riches and

its depths." It is the work of a master-mind, as every one must feel who

tackles to the study of it, and of one who has mastered the subject of it

as not another in England, or perhaps even in Germany, has done. The grip

he takes of it is marvellous and his exposition trenchant and clear. It

was followed in 1881 by his "Text-book to Kant," an exposition which his

"Secret" presupposes, and which he advised the students of it to expect,

that they might be able to construe the entire Hegelian system from its

root in Kant. It is not to the credit of his country that Dr. Stirling

has never been elected to a chair in any of her universities, though it

is understood that is due to the unenlightened state of mind of electoral

bodies in regard to the Hegelian system and the prejudice against it,

particularly among the clergy of the Church. He was, however, elected to

be the first Gifford Lecturer in Edinburgh University, and his admirers

have had to content themselves with that modicum of acknowledgment at

last. He is the author of a critique on Sir William Hamilton's theory of

perception, on Huxley's doctrine of protoplasm, and on Darwinianism,

besides a translation of SCHWEGLER'S "History of Philosophy," with

notes, a highly serviceable work. His answer to Huxley is crushing. He is

the avowed enemy of the Aufklärung and of all knowledge that consists of

mere Vorstellungen and does not grasp the ideas which they present; _b_.

1820.

STIRLING, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, EARL OF, poet, born at Menstrie, near

Alloa; was for a time tutor to the family of Argyll; was the author of

sonnets called "Aurora," some curious tragedies, and an "Elegy on the

Death of Prince Henry"; he was held in high honour by James VI. and

followed him to London, obtained a grant of Nova Scotia, and made

Secretary of State for Scotland; he has been ranked as a poet with

Drummond of Hawthornden, who was his friend (1580-1640).

STIRLING-MAXWELL, See MAXWELL, STIRLING.

STIRLING (17), the county town of Stirlingshire, and one of the most

ancient and historically-interesting cities of Scotland; occupies a fine

site on the Forth, 36 m. NW. of Edinburgh and 29 m. NE. of Glasgow; most

prominent feature is the rocky castle hill, rising at the westward end of

the town to a height of 420 feet, and crowned by the ancient castle, a

favourite Stuart residence, and associated with many stirring events in

Scottish history, and utilised now as a garrison-station; interesting

also are "Argyll's Lodging," Greyfriars Church (Pointed Gothic of the

15th century), the fine statue of Bruce, &c.; has manufactures of

tartans, tweeds, carpets, &c., and a trade in agricultural and mining

products.

STIRLINGSHIRE (126), a midland county of Scotland, stretching E. and

W. from Dumbarton (W.) to the Forth (E.); between Lanark (S.) and Perth

(N.) it forms the borderland between the Lowlands and the Highlands; Loch

Lomond skirts the western border, and on the northern Loch Katrine,

stretching into Perthshire; Ben Lomond and lesser heights rise in the

NW.; main streams are the Avon, Carron, Bannock, &c.; between Alloa and

Stirling stretches the fertile and well-cultivated plain, "The Carse of

Stirling"; in the W. lies a portion of the great western coal-field, from

which coal and iron-stone are largely extracted; principal towns are

STIRLING (q. v.), Falkirk, and Kilsyth; interesting remains of

Antoninus' Wall, from Forth to Clyde, still exist; within its borders

were fought the battles of Bannockburn, Sauchieburn, Stirling Bridge,

Falkirk, &c.

STIRRUP CUP, a "parting cup" given by the Highlanders to guests when

they are leaving and have their feet in the stirrups.

STOBSÆUS, JOANNES, a native of Stobi, in Macedonia; flourished at

the end of the 5th and beginning of the 6th century; celebrated as the

compiler (about 500 A.D.) of a Greek Anthology, through which many

valuable extracts are preserved to us from works which have since his day

been lost.

STOCK EXCHANGE, a mart for the buying and selling of Government

stocks, company shares, and various securities, carried on usually by the

members of an associated body of brokers having certain rules and

regulations. Such associations exist now in most of the important cities

of the United Kingdom and commercial world generally (on the Continent

are known as _Bourses_). The London Stock Exchange, transacting business

in handsome buildings in Capel Court, facing the Bank of England, was

established in 1801, stock-exchange transactions previous to then being

carried on in a loose, ill-regulated fashion by private parties chiefly

in and around Change Alley, the scene of the memorable SOUTH SEA

BUBBLE (q. v.) speculation. The great development in stock-exchange

business in recent times is due chiefly to the sale of foreign and

colonial bonds, and the remarkable growth and spread of joint-stock

companies since the Joint-Stock Company Act of 1862.

STOCKHOLM (246), capital of Sweden; occupies a charming site on the

channel leading out of Lake Mälar into a bay of the Baltic; stands partly

on the mainland and partly on nine islands, communication between which

is facilitated by handsome bridges and a busy service of boats; its

wooded and rocky islands, crowned with handsome buildings, its winding

waterways, peninsulas, crowded wharves, and outlook over the isleted

lake, combine to make it one of the most picturesque cities of Europe;

Town Island, the nucleus of the city, is occupied by the royal palace,

House of Nobles, principal wharf, &c., while on Knights' Island stand the

Houses of Parliament, law-courts, and other public buildings; Norrmalm,

with the Academy of Science, National Museum, Academy of Fine Arts, Hop

Garden, &c., is the finest quarter of the city; manufactures embrace

sugar, tobacco, silks, linen, cotton, &c., besides which there are

flourishing iron-works and a busy export trade in iron and steel, oats,

and tar, despite the hindrance caused by the ice during three or four

months in winter; founded in 1255 by Birger Jarl.

STOCKMAR, BARON DE, statesman, born at Coburg; bred to medicine,

became physician to Leopold I. of Belgium, and at length his adviser; was

adviser also of Queen Victoria before her accession; accompanied Prince

Albert to Italy before his marriage, and joined him thereafter in England

as the trusted friend of both the queen and him; he had two political

ideals--a united Germany under Prussia, and unity of purpose between

Germany and England (1757-1863).

STOCKPORT (70), a cotton town of East Cheshire; occupies a site on

the slopes of a narrow gorge overlooking the confluence of the Thame and

Goyt (forming the Mersey), 37 m. E. of Liverpool; a handsome viaduct

spans the river; has an old grammar-school, free library, technical

school, &c.; during the present century has grown to be a busy centre of

cotton manufactures, and has besides flourishing iron and brass

foundries, machine-shops, breweries, &c.

STOCKTON-ON-TEES (69), a prosperous manufacturing town and port of

Durham, on the Tees, 4 m. from its mouth; an iron bridge spanning the

river connects it with Thornaby-on-Tees; has the usual public buildings;

steel and iron shipbuilding building, potteries, foundries, machine-shops

are flourishing industries; iron and earthenware are the chief exports,

and with imports of corn and timber give rise to a busy and increasing

shipping, facilitated by the excellent river-way.

STOICS, the disciples of Zeno; derived their name from the _stoa_ or

portico in Athens where their master taught and founded the school in 340

B.C. The doctrines of the school were completely antagonistic to those

of Epicurus, and among the disciples of it are to be reckoned some of the

noblest spirits of the heathen world immediately before and after the

advent of Christ. These appear to have been attracted to it by the

character of its moral teachings, which were of a high order indeed. The

principle of morality was defined to be conformity to reason, and the

duty of man to lie in the subdual of all passion and a composed

submission to the will of the gods. It came short of Christian morality,

as indeed all Greek philosophy did, in not recognising the Divine

significance and power of humility, and especially in its failure to see,

still more to conform to, the great doctrine of Christ which makes the

salvation of a man to depend on the interest he takes in, as well as in

the fact of the salvation of, other men. The Stoic was a proud man, and

not a humble, and was content if he could only have his own soul for a

prey. He did not see--and no heathen ever did--that the salvation of one

man is impossible except in the salvation of other men, and that no man

can save another unless he descend into that other's case and stand, as

it were, in that other's stead. It is the glory of Christ that He was the

first to feel Himself, and to reveal to others, the eternal validity and

divinity of this truth. The Stoic morality is selfish; the morality of

Christ is brotherly.

STOKE-UPON-TRENT (24), chief seat of the "Potteries," in

Staffordshire, on the Trent and the Trent and Mersey Canal, 15 m. SE. of

Crewe; is of modern growth, with free library, infirmary, public baths,

statue to Wedgwood, &c., and is busily engaged in the manufacture of all

sorts of porcelain ware, earthenware, encaustic tiles, &c., besides which

there are flourishing iron-works, machine-shops, coal-mines, &c.

STOKES, SIR GEORGE GABRIEL, mathematician and physicist, born in

Skreen, co. Sligo; he is great in the department of mathematical physics,

and has been specially devoted to the study of hydro-dynamics and the

theory of light; has opened new fields of investigation, and supplied

future experimenters with valuable hints; he was one of the foremost

physicists of the day; _b_. 1819.

STOLBERG, CHRISTIAN, COUNT, German poet of the Göttingen school, to

which Bürger and Voss belonged, born in Hamburg; was with his brother a

friend of Goethe's, and held a civil appointment in Holstein (1748-1821).

STOLBERG, FRIEDRICH LEOPOLD, COUNT OF, German poet, born in

Holstein, brother of preceding; held State appointments in Denmark;

joined the Romish Church, and showed a religious and ascetic temper

(1750-1819).

STOLE, a long scarf worn by bishops and priests in the

administration of the sacraments of the Church, and sometimes when

preaching, as well as in symbol of authority.

STONE AGE, the name given to that period in the history of

civilisation when the weapons of war and the chase and the implements of

industry were made of stone, prior to employment for these purposes of

bronze, characteristic of the age succeeding.

STONE CIRCLES, circles of STANDING STONES (q. v.) found in

various parts of Great Britain, North Europe generally, and also, but of

more recent origin, in North India; were certainly, in the most of cases,

set up to mark the circular boundary of a place of burial; erroneously

ascribed to the Druids; from the character of numerous cinerary urns

exhumed, seem to have belonged to the bronze age in Great Britain; most

interesting are those of Stennis, in Orkney, with a circumference of 340

ft., Avebury, in Wiltshire, and STONEHENGE (q. v.).

STONEHAVEN (4), fishing port and county town of Kincardineshire,

situated at the entrance of Carron Water (dividing the town) into South

Bay, 16 m. SSW. of Aberdeen; has a small harbour, and is chiefly engaged

in herring and haddock fishing.

STONEHENGE, the greatest and best preserved of the STONE

CIRCLES (q. v.) of Britain, situated in Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire,

7 m. N. of Salisbury; "consists of two concentric circles, enclosing two

ellipses"; the diameter of the space enclosed is 100 ft.; the stones are

from 13 ft. to 28 ft. high; is generally regarded as an exceptional

development of the ordinary stone circle, but the special purpose of its

unusual construction is still a matter of uncertainty.

STONYHURST, a celebrated Roman Catholic college in East Lancashire,

10 m. N. of Blackburn; established in 1794 by certain Jesuit fathers who,

after the suppression of their seminary at St. Omer, in France, by the

Bourbons, took up their residence at Bruges and then at Liège, but fled

thence to England during the Revolution, and accepted the shelter offered

them at Stonyhurst by Mr. Weld of Lulworth; there are about 300 students,

and upwards of 30 masters; a preparatory school has been established at

Hodder, a mile distant; in 1840 was affiliated to the University of

London, for the degrees of which its students are chiefly trained;

retains in its various institutions many marks of its French origin.

STOOL OF REPENTANCE, in Scotland in former times an elevated seat in

a church on which for offences against morality people did penance and

suffered rebuke.

STORM, THEODORE WOLDSEN, German poet and exquisite story-teller,

born in Sleswig; was a magistrate and judge in Sleswig-Holstein

(1817-1888).

STORM-AND-STRESS PERIOD, name given in the history of German

literature to a period at the close of the 18th century, when the nation

began to assert its freedom from artificial literary restraint, a period

to which Goethe's "Goetz von Berlichingen" and Schiller's "Robbers"

belong, and the spirit of which characterises it; the representatives of

the period were called Kraftmänner (Power-men), who "with extreme

animation railed against Fate in general, because it enthralled free

virtue, and with clenched hands or sounding shields hurled defiance

towards the vault of heaven."

STORMS, CAPE OF, name originally given in 1486 to the Cape of Good

Hope by the Portuguese navigator Bartholomew Dias.

STORNOWAY, a fishing-port, the capital of Lewis, and the chief town

in the Outer Hebrides, with Stornoway Castle adjoining.

STORTHING (i. e. great court), the national Parliament of Norway,

composed of two chambers, the Lagthing or Upper Chamber, and the

Odelsthing or Lower.

STORY, JOSEPH, American jurist and judge, born in Massachusetts

(1779-1845).

STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE, poet and sculptor, son of preceding; _b_.

1819.

STOTHARD, THOMAS, artistic designer and book illustrator, as well as

painter, born in London, son of an innkeeper; illustrated, among other

works, "Pilgrim's Progress," and along with Turner, Rogers' "Italy"

(1755-1834).

STOURBRIDGE, manufacturing town in Worcestershire; its staple

manufactures are glass and pottery.

STOW, JOHN, English antiquary, born in London; bred a tailor; took

to antiquarian pursuits, which he prosecuted with the zeal of a devotee

that spared no sacrifice; wrote several works on antiquities, the chief

and most valuable being his "Survey of London and Westminster"; he ended

his days in poverty (1525-1605).

STOWELL, WILLIAM SCOTT, eminent English judge, born at Heworth,

brother of Lord Eldon; famed for his judicial decisions (1745-1836).

STRABO, ancient geographer, born at Amasia, in Pontus; flourished in

the reign of Augustus, and the early part of that of Tiberius; was a

learned man, lived some years in Rome, and travelled much in various

countries; wrote a history of 43 books, all lost, and a work on

geography, in 17 books, which has come down to us entire all to the 7th;

the work is in general not descriptive; it comprehends principally

important political events in connection with the countries visited, with

a notice of their illustrious men, or whatever seemed to him

characteristic in them or was of interest to himself; born about 63 B.C.

STRADDHA, the funeral rites and funeral offerings for the dead among

the Hindus.

STRAFFORD, THOMAS WENTWORTH, EARL OF, English statesman, born in

London, of an old Yorkshire family; studied at Cambridge; after some

months' travel on the Continent entered Parliament in 1614, but took no

active part in affairs till 1621; he took sides at first with the party

for freedom, but in 1622 felt compelled to side with the king, to his

elevation of greater and greater influence as his counsellor; his policy,

named "Thorough," was to establish a strong Government with the king at

the head, and to put down with a strong hand all opposition to the royal

authority; appointed Lord-Deputy in Ireland in 1633, he did all he could

to increase the royal resources, and was at length, in 1640, exalted to

the Lord-Lieutenancy, being at the same time created Earl of Strafford;

he had risen by this time to be the chief adviser of the king, and was

held responsible for his arbitrary policy; after the meeting of the Long

Parliament he was impeached for high treason; the impeachment seemed

likely to fail, when a Bill of Attainder was produced; to this the king

refused his assent, but he had to yield to the excitement his refusal

produced, and as the result Strafford was beheaded on Tower Hill

(1593-1641).

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS (507, of which 150 are Chinese), British colony

in the East Indies, embracing the British possessions in the Malay

Peninsula (on the Strait of Malacca), Singapore, Malacca, Penang, and the

Keeling Islands and Christmas Island; were under the jurisdiction of the

Governor-General of India till 1867, in which year they passed under the

control of the Colonial Office at home.

STRALSUND (28), a fortified seaport of North Prussia, on Strela

Sound, opposite the island of Rügen, in the Baltic, and 66 m. NW. of

Stettin, forms of itself an islet, and is connected with the mainland

(Pomerania) by bridges; is a quaint old town, dating back to the 13th

century; figures often in the wars of Prussia, and is now a place of

considerable commercial importance.

STRANGFORD, PERCY C. S. SMYTHE, VISCOUNT, diplomatist; graduated at

Trinity College, Dublin, in 1800; entered the diplomatic service, and in

the following year succeeded to the title; was ambassador to Portugal,

Sweden, Turkey, and Russia; translated the "Rimas" of Camoëns, and was

raised to the peerage (1825) as Baron Penshurst (1780-1855).

STRANGFORD, PERCY E. F. W. SMYTHE, son of preceding, diplomatist and

noted philologist, born at St. Petersburg; passed through Harrow and

Oxford; entered the diplomatic service; became attaché at Constantinople,

and during the Crimean War served as Oriental Secretary, acquiring the

while a profound grip of the Eastern Question, and an unrivalled

knowledge of European and Asiatic languages--Turkish, Persian, Arabic,

Slavonic, Afghan, Basque, &c.; succeeded to the title in 1855, and

henceforth resided chiefly in London; was President of the Asiatic

Society, and was considered by Freeman "our greatest English

philologist"; author of various articles on political, geographical, and

philological subjects (1825-1869).

STRANRAER (6), a royal burgh and seaport of Wigtownshire, finely

situated at the southern extremity of Loch Ryan, 73 m. W. of Dumfries;

has an interesting 16th-century castle, and a handsome town-hall and

court-house; there is some shipping in agricultural produce, and steamers

ply daily between Stranraer and Larne, in Ireland.

STRAPAROLA, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO, author of a famous collection of

stories after the style of Boccaccio's "Decameron," partly borrowed and

partly genuine folk-stories, which ranks as an Italian classic, and has

been translated into various European languages; flourished in the 16th

century.

STRAP, HUGH, a simple-hearted friend and adherent of Roderick Random

in Smollett's novel of that name.

STRAPPADO, an obsolete military punishment by drawing a culprit to

the top of a beam and then letting him drop the length of the rope.

STRASBURG (124), capital, since 1871, of Alsace-Lorraine, on the

Ill, a few miles above its confluence with the Rhine, 89 m. N. of Basel;

a place of great strategical importance, and a fortress of the first

class; is a city of Roman origin, and contains a magnificent Gothic

cathedral (11th century) with a famous astronomical clock, an imperial

palace, university, &c.; manufactures embrace beer, leather, cutlery,

jewellery, &c.; there is also a busy transit trade; a free town of the

German empire in the 13th century; fell into the hands of the French in

1681, and was captured by the Germans, after a seven weeks' siege, on

28th September 1870, after which it became finally German, as it was

originally, by the peace of Frankfort, May 1871.

STRATFORD (40), manufacturing town in Essex, on the Lee, 4 m. NE. of

London.

STRATFORD DE REDCLIFFE, SIR STAFFORD CANNING, FIRST VISCOUNT, a

distinguished ambassador, born in London, son of a well-connected

merchant, and cousin to Canning the statesman; passed from Cambridge to

the Foreign Office in 1807 as a précis-writer to his cousin; in three

years had risen to the post of minister-plenipotentiary at

Constantinople, where he speedily gave evidence of his remarkable powers

as a diplomatist by arranging unaided the treaty of Bucharest (1814)

between Russia and Turkey, and so setting free the Russian army to fall

upon Napoleon, then retreating from Moscow; as minister to Switzerland

aided the Republic in drawing up its constitution, and in the same year

(1815) acted as commissioner at the Congress of Vienna; was subsequently

employed in the United States and various European capitals, but his

unrivalled knowledge of the Turkish question brought him again, in 1842,

to Constantinople as ambassador, where his remarkable power and influence

over the Turks won him the title of "Great Elchi"; exerted in vain his

diplomatic skill to prevent the rupture between Turkey and Russia, which

precipitated the Crimean War; resigned his embassy in 1858; was raised to

the peerage in 1852; sat in Parliament for several years previous to

1842, but failed to make his mark as a debater; ranks among the great

ambassadors of England (1786-1880).

STRATFORD-ON-AVON (8), a pleasant old market-town of Warwickshire,

on the right bank of the Avon, 8 m. SW. of Warwick and 110 m. NW. of

London; forever famous as the birth and burial place of Shakespeare, with

whom all that is of chief interest in the town is associated, the house

he was born in, his old school, Anne Hathaway's cottage on the

outskirts, the fine Early English church (14th century), where he lies

buried, the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, museum, &c.; is Visited

annually by some 20,000 pilgrims; a thriving agricultural centre.

STRATHCLYDE or NORTHERN CUMBRIA, an ancient kingdom of the

Britons, which originated in the 8th century, and comprised the W. side

of Scotland between the Solway and the Clyde; Alclyde or Dumbarton was

the capital; was permanently annexed to Scotland in 1124 under David I.

STRATHFIELDSAYE, an estate in Hampshire with a fine Queen Anne

mansion, 7 m. NE. of Basingstoke, purchased by Parliament for £263,000,

and presented to the Duke of Wellington in 1817.

STRATHMORE ("Great Valley"), the great plain of Scotland stretching

for 100 m. (5 to 10 m. broad), in a north-easterly direction from

Dumbartonshire to Stonehaven, in Kincardineshire, between the great

mountain barrier of the Highlands, the Grampians, and the Southern

Lennox, Ochil, and Sidlaw Hills; in a more restricted sense denotes the

plain between Perth and Brechin.

STRATHPEFFER, a watering-place in Ross and Cromarty, 5 m. W. of

Dingwall, a great health-resort, and much frequented on account of its

mineral waters and bracing air and other attractions.

STRAUSS, DAVID FRIEDRICH, German theological and biblical critic,

born at Ludwigsburg, in Würtemberg; studied in the Theological Institute

of Tübingen under Baur, was ordained in 1830, and went in 1834 to Berlin

to attend the lectures of Hegel and Schleiermacher, and returning to

Tübingen gave lectures on Hegel in 1832, he the while maturing his famous

theory which, published in 1835, made his name known over the whole

theological world; this was his "Leben Jesu," the first volume of which

appeared that year, in which he maintained that, while the life of Christ

had a historical basis, all the supernatural element in it and the

accounts of it were simply and purely mythical, and the fruit of the idea

of His person as Divine which at the foundation of the Christian religion

took possession of the mind of the Church; the book proved epoch-making,

and the influence of it, whether as accepted or as rejected, affected, as

it still does, the whole theology of the Church; the effect of it was a

shock to the whole Christian world, for it seemed as if with the denial

of the supernatural the whole Christian system fell to pieces; and its

author found the entire Christian world opposed to him, and he was cast

out of the service of the Church; this, however, did not daunt his

ardour, for he never abandoned the ground he had taken up; his last work

was entitled "Der Alte und der Neue Glaube," in which he openly

repudiates the Christian religion, and assigns the sovereign authority in

spiritual matters to science and its handmaid art. In a spiritual

reference the whole contention of Strauss against Christianity is a

tissue of irrelevancies, for the spirit of it, which is its life and

essence, is true whatever conclusion critics in their seraphic wisdom may

come to regarding the facts (1808-1874).

STRAUSS, JOHANN, musical composer, born at Vienna; was a musical

conductor and composer, chiefly of waltz music.

STREATHAM (48), a Surrey suburb of London, 6½ m. SW. of St. Paul's.

STREET, GEORGE EDMUND, architect, born in Essex; was the architect

of the New Law Courts in London; had been trained under Gilbert Scott

(1824-1881).

STRELITZES, the name given to the life-guards of the czar, which at

one time numbered 40,000; became so unruly and dangerous to the State

that they were dissolved by Peter the Great, and dispersed in 1705.

STRETTON, HESBA, the _nom de plume_ of Sarah Smith, daughter of a

Shropshire bookseller, whose semi-religious stories, chiefly for the

young, have won wide acceptance in English homes since the publication of

"Jessica's First Prayer" in 1867; was a regular contributor to _Household

Words_ and _All the Year Round_ during Dickens's editorship; has written

upwards of 40 volumes.

STRICKLAND, AGNES, biographer of the queens of England, born at

Roydon Hall, near Southwold, Suffolk; had already published poems and

some minor works before she conceived the plan of writing a series of

biographies of the queens of England; these appeared in 12 vols. during

1840-1848, and such was their popularity that a similar work dealing with

the queens of Scotland was immediately undertaken; was aided in these by

her sister Elizabeth (1794-1875); was the author of various other works,

"Lives of the Seven Bishops," "Bachelor Kings of England," &c.; her

writings are of no value as history, but are full of entertaining details

(1806-1874).

STRINDBERG, AUGUST, the most noted of modern Swedish writers, born

at Stockholm; accumulated stores of valuable experience during various

early employments, which he utilised in his first successful work, "The

Red Room" (1879), a satire on social life in Sweden, "The New Kingdom"

(1882), equally bitter in its attack on social conventions, got him into

trouble, and since then his life has been spent abroad; "Married Life," a

collection of short stories, brought upon him a charge of "outraging

Christianity," but after trial at Stockholm, in which he eloquently

defended himself, he was acquitted; a prolific writer in all kinds of

literature, and imbued with modern scientific and socialistic ideas, his

writings lack the repose necessary to the highest literary achievement;

_b_. 1849.

STROMBOLI, one of the Lipari Islands; has an active volcano, the

cone 3022 ft., which erupts every five minutes what happens to be little

else than steam; it is 12 m. in circuit, and contains about 1000

inhabitants.

STROMKARL, a Norwegian spirit who has 11 different music strains, to

10 of which people may dance, the 11th being his night strain, to the

tune of which every one and everything begins to dance.

STROMNESS, a seaport on the Orkney island of Pomona.

STROUD (10), a busy manufacturing town of Gloucestershire; stands on

rising ground overlooking the confluence of the Frome and Slade, which

unite to form the Frome or Stroud Water, 10 m. SE. of Gloucester;

numerous cloth and dye works are built along the banks of the river; in

the town are several woollen factories.

STRUCK JURY, a jury of men who possess special qualifications to

judge of the facts of a case.

STRUENSEE, Danish statesman, bred to medicine; became minister of

Charles VII., took advantage of his imbecility and directed the affairs

of government, roused the jealousy of the nobles, and he was arrested,

tried on false charges, and was beheaded (1737-1776).

STRUTT, JOSEPH, antiquary, born in Essex; wrote the "Regal and

Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England," followed by other works on the

manners and customs of the English people, that on their "Sports and

Pastimes" the chief (1742-1802).

STRYPE, JOHN, historian and biographer, born in London; was a

voluminous writer, wrote Lives of eminent English Churchmen and upon the

English Reformation (1643-1737).

STUART, ARABELLA, daughter of the Earl of Lennox, and, as descended

from Margaret Tudor, heiress to the English throne in default of James

VI. of Scotland and his family, and towards whom James all along

cherished a jealous feeling, and who was subjected to persecution at his

hands; when she chose to marry contrary to his wish he confined her in

the Tower, where she went mad and died.

STUART DYNASTY, a dynasty of Scotch and finally English kings as

well, commenced with Robert II., who was the son of Marjory, Robert the

Bruce's daughter, who married Walter, the Lord High Steward of Scotland,

hence the name, his successors being Robert III., James I., James II.,

James III., James IV., and James V., Mary Queen of Scots, and James VI.

in Scotland, and ended with James II. of England, who was expelled from

the throne for an obstinacy of temper which characterised all the members

of his house, "an unfortunate dynasty," too, being appointed at length to

rule at a time and over a people that thought kings were born for the

country and not the country for kings, a dictum which they stubbornly

refused to concede, thinking that the nation existed for them instead of

them for the nation. The line became extinct by the death of Cardinal

York in 1807, who survived his brother Charles Edward 19 years.

STUART, GILBERT CHARLES, American portrait-painter, born at

Narragansett, Rhode Island; was taken up by a Scotch painter named

Alexander, whom he accompanied to Edinburgh, but was set adrift by the

death of his patron, and for some years led a wandering life in America

and London till his great gift of portrait-painting was recognised; in

1792 returned to America, and there painted portraits of Washington,

Jefferson, and other noted Americans (1756-1828).

STUART, JOHN, Scottish antiquary; author of "The Sculptured Stones

of Scotland," "The Book of Deer," and frequent contributor to the

_Proceedings of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries_; held a post in the

Register House for 24 years (1813-1877).

STUBBS, C. W., English clergyman, born in Liverpool; has held

several incumbencies; is rector at Wavertree, near Liverpool, and takes a

great interest in the working-classes and in social subjects; is liberal

both in his political and in his theological opinions; has written on

questions of the day in a Christian reference; _b_. 1845.

STUBBS, WILLIAM, historian, born at Knaresborough; studied at

Oxford; became a Fellow of Trinity and of Oriel, professor of Modern

History at Oxford, and finally bishop; was author of "Constitutional

History of England," an epoch-making book in three volumes, and editor of

a collection of mediæval Chronicles, with valuable prefaces accompanying;

his writings are distinguished by their learning and accuracy; _b_. 1825.

STUHLWEISSENBURG (25), an old historic Hungarian town, 42 m. SW. of

Pesth; was for long the residence of the Hungarian kings, in the

cathedral of which they were crowned and buried.

STUKELEY, WILLIAM, antiquary, born at Holbeach, Lincolnshire;

graduated in medicine at Cambridge, and practised in London and elsewhere

till 1729, when he took holy orders, and, after holding livings at

Stamford and Somerby, was presented in 1747 to the rectory of St George

the Martyr in London; maintained a lifelong interest in antiquarian

research, and published many volumes on British and Roman antiquities, in

which he displays unflagging industry and an exuberant fancifulness; "I

have used his materials," says Gibbon, "and rejected most of his fanciful

conjectures"; his credulous works on the supposed Druidical remains at

Stonehenge and elsewhere gained him the title of the "Arch-Druid"

(1687-1765).

STUMP ORATOR, one who is ready to take up any question of the day,

usually a political one, and harangue upon it from any platform offhand;

the class, the whole merely a talking one, form the subject, in a pretty

wide reference, of one of Carlyle's scathing "Latter-Day Pamphlets."

STURM, JOHANN, educational reformer, born In Luxemburg; settled in

Paris; established a school there for dialectics and rhetoric for a time,

but left it on account of his Protestantism for Strasburg at the

invitation of the civic authorities, and became rector of the gymnasium

there, which under him acquired such repute that the Emperor Maximilian

constituted it a university with him at the head; his adoption of the

theological views of Zwingli in opposition to those of Luther made him

many enemies, and he was dismissed from office, but was allowed a

pension; he was a great student of Cicero; he wrote many works in Latin

in a style so pure and elegant that he was named the German Cicero

(1507-1589).

STURM-UND-DRANG. See STORM-AND-STRESS.

STURT, CHARLES, a noted Australian explorer, and a captain in the

army; during 1828-45 was the determined leader of three important

exploratory expeditions into Central Australia, the results of which he

embodied in two works; became colonial secretary of South Australia, but

failing health and eyesight led to his retirement, and he was pensioned

by the first Parliament of South Australia; he returned to England

totally blind (1795-1869).

STUTTGART (140), capital of Würtemberg, stands amid beautiful

vine-clad hills in a district called the "Swabian Paradise," on an

affluent of the Neckar, 127 m. SE. of Frankfort; is a handsome city with

several royal palaces, a 16th-century castle, interesting old churches, a

royal library (450,000 vols.), a splendid royal park, conservatory of

music, picture gallery, and various educational establishments; ranks

next to Leipzig as a book mart, and has flourishing manufactures of

textiles, beer, pianofortes, chemicals, &c.

STYLITES. See PILLAR-SAINTS.

STYMPHALIAN BIRDS, fabulous birds with brazen claws, wings, and

beaks, that used their feathers as arrows, ate human flesh, and infested

Arcadia; Hercules startled them with a rattle, and with his arrows either

shot them or drove them off.

STYRIA (1,281), a central duchy of Austria, stretching in a

semicircle from Upper Austria and Salzburg on the NW. to Croatia and

Slavonia on the SE., and flanked by Hungary on the E.; a mountainous

region crossed by various eastern ranges of the Alpine system, and

drained by the Drave, Save, Inn, and other rivers; more than half lies

under forest; agriculture flourishes, but mineral products, iron, salt,

coal, &c., constitute the chief wealth. The principal manufactures are

connected therewith; was joined to the Austrian crown in 1192.

STYX, name (from the Greek verb signifying "to abhor") of the

principal river of the nether world, which it flows sluggishly round

seven times; is properly the river of death, which all must cross to

enter the unseen world, and of which, in the Greek mythology, Charon was

the ferryman. In their solemn engagements it was by this river the gods

took oath to signify that they would forego their godhood if they swore

falsely. The Styx was a branch of the Great Ocean which girds the

universe. See OCEANUS.

SUAKIN or SAWAKIN (11), a seaport under Egyptian control, and

since the Mahdi's revolt garrisoned by the English, on the Nubian coast

of the Red Sea; stands on a rocky islet, and is connected with El Keff on

the mainland by a causeway; is the starting-point of caravans to Berber

and Khartoum, and as such has a large transit trade, exporting silver

ornaments, ivory, gums, hides, gold, &c.; here African pilgrims to Mecca

embark to the number of 6000 or 7000 annually.

SUAREZ, FRANCISCO, scholastic philosopher, born at Grenada; after

joining the Jesuit body became professor of Theology at Coimbra,

attempted to reconcile realism with nominalism, and adopted in theology a

system called "Congruism," being a modification of Molinism; wrote a

"Defence of the Catholic Faith against the Errors of the Anglican Sect"

at the instance of the Pope against the claims of James I. in his oath of

allegiance (1548-1617).

SUBAHDAR, a title given to governors of provinces in the times of

the Mogul dynasty, now bestowed upon native officers in the Indian army

holding rank equivalent to an English captaincy.

SUBIACO (7), an ancient and interesting town of Central Italy;

occupies a pleasant site amid encircling hills on the Teverone, 32 m. E.

by N. of Rome; has a quaint, mediæval appearance, and is overlooked by an

old castle, a former residence of the Popes; there are two Benedictine

monasteries dating from the 6th century, and in a grotto near St.

Benedictine lived, in his youth, a hermit life for three years.

SUBJECTIVE, THE, that, in contrast to objective, which rests on the

sole authority of consciousness, and has no higher warrant.

SUBJECTIVISM, the doctrine of the pure relativity of knowledge, or

that it is purely subjective.

SUBLAPSARIANISM, same as INFRALAPSARIANISM (q. v.).

SUBLIMATION, the vaporisation of a solid body and its resumption

thereafter of the solid form.

SUBLIME PORTE, a name given to the Ottoman Government, so called

from a lofty gateway leading into the residence of the Vizier.

SUBSTITUTION, in theology the doctrine that Christ in His obedience

and death stood in the place of the sinner, so that His merits on their

faith in Him are imputed to them.

SUBTLE DOCTOR, name given to DUNS SCOTUS (q. v.) for his

hairsplitting acuteness and extreme subtlety of distinction.

SUCCESSION WARS, the general title of several European wars which

arose in the 18th century consequent on a failure of issue in certain

royal lines, most important of which are (1) WAR OF THE SPANISH

SUCCESSION (1701-1713). The death (1700) of Charles II. of Spain

without direct issue caused Louis XIV. of France and the Emperor Leopold

I. (the former married to the elder sister of Charles, the latter to the

younger sister, and both grandsons of Philip III. of Spain) to put forth

claims to the crown, the one on behalf of his grandson, Philip of Anjou,

the other for his second son, the Archduke Charles. War broke out on the

entry of Philip into Madrid and his assumption of the crown, England and

the United Netherlands uniting with the emperor to curb the ambition of

Louis. During the long struggle the transcendent military genius of

Marlborough asserted itself in the great victories of Blenheim,

Ramillies, and Oudenarde, but the lukewarmness of England in the

struggle, the political fall of Marlborough, and the Tory vote for peace

prevented the allies reaping the full benefit of their successes. The

Treaty of Utrecht (1713) left Philip in possession of his Spanish

kingdom, but the condition was exacted that the crowns of Spain and

France should not be united. The emperor (the Archduke Charles since

1711) attempted to carry on the struggle, but was forced to sign the

Treaty of Rastadt (1714), acknowledging Philip king of Spain. Spain,

however, ceded her Netherlands Sardinia, &c., to the emperor, while

Gibraltar, Minorca, and parts of North America fell to England. (2) WAR

OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (1740-1748) followed on the death (1740)

of the Emperor Charles VI. without male issue. His daughter, Maria

Theresa, entered into possession of Bohemia, Hungary, and the Archduchy

of Austria, but was immediately attacked by the Elector Charles Albert of

Bavaria and Augustus of Saxony and Poland, both rival claimants for the

imperial crown, while Frederick II. of Prussia seized the opportunity of

Maria's embarrassment to annex Silesia. France, Spain, and England were

drawn into the struggle, the last in support of Maria. Success oscillated

from side to side, but the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which brought the

war to a close, left Maria pretty well in possession of her inheritance

save the loss of Silesia to Frederick.

SUCHET, LOUIS GABRIEL, DUC D'ALBUFERA, marshal of France, born in

Lyons; distinguished himself in Italy, Egypt, Austria, and Prussia, and

became general in command in Aragon, by his success in ruling which last

he gained the marshal's baton and a dukedom; he rejoined Napoleon during

the Hundred Days; after Waterloo he lost his peerage, but recovered it in

1819 (1770-1826).

SUCKLING, SIR JOHN, poet, born, of good parentage, at Whitton,

Middlesex; quitted Cambridge in 1628 to travel on the Continent, and for

a time served in the army of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany; returning to

England about 1632 he became a favourite at Court, where he was noted for

his wit, prodigality, and verses; supported Charles in the Bishops' Wars

against the Scots; sat in the Long Parliament; was involved in a plot to

rescue Strafford, and to bring foreign troops to the aid of the king, but

discovered, had to flee the country; died, probably by his own hand, in

Paris; wrote several forgotten plays, a prose treatise on "Religion by

Reason," and miscellaneous poems, amongst which are his charming songs

and ballads, his title to fame (1609-1642).

SUDARIUM, the handkerchief given by ST. VERONICA (q. v.) to

Christ as He was passing to crucifixion, and on which His face was

miraculously impressed as He wiped the sweat off it.

SUDBURY (7), a borough of Suffolk, on the Stour, where it crosses

the Essex border, 58 m. NE. of London; has three old churches

(Perpendicular style), a grammar-school founded in the 15th century, a

corn-exchange, &c.; manufactures embrace cocoa-nut matting, silk, &c.

SUDETIC MOUNTAINS stretch in irregular broken masses and subsidiary

chains for 120 m. across South-East Germany, separating Bohemia and

Moravia from Saxony and Prussian Silesia, and forming a link between the

Carpathians and mountains of Franconia; highest and central position is

known as the RIESENGEBIRGE (q. v.); Schneekoppe is the culminating point

of the range.

SUDRAS, the fourth and lowest of the HINDU CASTES (q. v.);

are by some alleged to be of the aboriginal race of India who to retain

their freedom adopted Brahmanism.

SUE, MARIE-JOSEPH-EUGÈNE, a writer of sensational novels, born at

Paris; was for some years an army surgeon, and served in the Spanish

campaign of 1823; his father's death (1829) bringing him a handsome

fortune, he retired from the army to devote himself to literature; his

reputation as a writer rests mainly on his well-known works "The

Mysteries of Paris" (1842) and "The Wandering Jew" (1845), which,

displaying little skill on the artistic side, yet rivet their readers'

attention by a wealth of exciting incident and plot; was elected to the

Chamber of Deputies in 1850, but the _coup d'état_ of 1852 drove him an

exile to Annecy, in Savoy, where he died (1804-1859).

SUETONIUS, TRANQUILLUS, Roman historian; practised as an advocate in

Rome in the reign of Trajan; was a friend of the Younger Pliny, became

private secretary to Hadrian, but was deprived of this post through an

indiscretion; wrote several works, and of those extant the chief is the

"Lives of the Twelve Cæsars," beginning with Julius Cæsar and ending with

Domitian, a work which relates a great number of anecdotes illustrating

the characters of the emperors; _b_. A.D. 70.

SUEZ (13), a town of Egypt, stands at the edge of the desert at the

head of a gulf of the same name and at the S. end of the Suez Canal, 75

m. E. of Cairo, with which it is connected by railway; as a trading

place, dating back to the times of the Ptolemies, has had a fluctuating

prosperity, but since the completion of the canal is growing steadily in

importance; is still for the most part an ill-built and ill-kept town;

has a large English hospital and ship-stores.

SUEZ CANAL, a great artificial channel cutting the isthmus of Suez,

and thus forming a waterway between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea;

was planned and undertaken by the French engineer Lesseps, through whose

untiring efforts a company was formed and the necessary capital raised;

occupied 10 years in the construction (1859-69), and cost some 20 million

pounds; from Port Said on the Mediterranean to Suez at the head of the

Red Sea the length is about 100 m., a portion of which lies through Lakes

Menzaleh, Ballah, Timsah, and the Bitter Lakes; as widened and deepened

in 1886 it has a minimum depth of 28 ft., and varies from 150 to 300 ft.

in width; traffic is facilitated by electric light during the night, and

the passage occupies little more than 24 hours; has been neutralised and

exempted from blockade, vessels of all nations in peace or war being free

to pass through; now the highway to India and the East, shortening the

voyage to India by 7600 m.; three-fourths of the ships passing through

are English; an annual toll is drawn of close on three million pounds,

the net profit of which falls to be divided amongst the shareholders, of

whom since 1875 the British Government has been one of the largest.

SUFFOLK (371), eastmost county of England, fronts the North Sea

between Norfolk (N.) and Essex (S.); is a pleasant undulating county with

pretty woods and eastward-flowing streams (Waveney, Aide, Orwell, Stour,

&c.); long tracts of heathland skirt the coast; agriculture is still the

staple industry, wheat the principal crop; is famed for its antiquities,

architecture, historic associations, and long list of worthies. Ipswich

is the county town.

SUFFREN, BAILLI DE, a celebrated French admiral, who entered the

navy a boy of 14 during the wars with England, and rose to be one of his

country's greatest naval heroes, especially distinguishing himself as

commander of a squadron in the West Indies, proving himself a master of

naval tactics in more or less successful engagements with the English; is

regarded by Professor Laughton as "the most illustrious officer that has

ever held command in the French navy"; sprang from good Provence stock

(1729-1788).

SUFISM, the doctrine of the Sufis, a sect of Mohammedan mystics;

imported into Mohammedanism the idea that the soul is the subject of

ecstasies of Divine inspiration in virtue of its direct emanation from

the Deity, and this in the teeth of the fundamental article of the

Mohammedan creed, which exalts God as a being passing all comprehension

and ruling it by a law which is equally mysterious, which we have only to

obey; this doctrine is associated with the idea that the body is the

soul's prison, and death the return of it to its original home, a

doctrine of the dervish fraternity, of which the Madhi is high-priest.

SUGER, ABBÉ, abbot of St. Denis, minister of Louis VI. and Louis

VII.; reformed the discipline in his abbey, emancipated the serfs

connected with it, maintained the authority of the king against the great

vassals; he was regent of the kingdom during the second Crusade, and

earned the title of Father of his Country; he wrote a Life of Louis VI.

(1082-1152).

SUIDAS, name of a grammarian and lexicographer of the 10th or 11th

century; his "Lexicon" is a kind of encyclopædic work, and is valuable

chiefly for the extracts it contains from ancient writers.

SUIR, a river of Ireland which rises in Tipperary and joins the

Barrow after a course of 100 m.

SUKKUR (29), a town on the Indus (here spanned by a fine bridge), 28

m. SE. of Shikarpur; has rail communication with Kurrachee and

Afghanistan, and considerable trade in various textiles, opium,

saltpetre, sugar, &c.; 1 m. distant is Old Sukkur; the island of Bukkur,

in the river-channel and affording support to the bridge, is occupied and

fortified by the British.

SULEIMAN PASHA, a distinguished Turkish general, born in Roumelia;

entered the army in 1854, fought in various wars, became director of the

Military Academy at Constantinople; distinguished himself in the Servian

War of 1876, and was elected governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina; during

the Russian-Turkish War made a gallant attempt to clear the enemy from

the Shipka Pass, but as commander of the Danube army was defeated near

Philippopolis (1878), and subsequently court-martialled and sentenced to

15 years' imprisonment, but was pardoned by the sultan (1838-1883).

SULIMAN or SULEIMAN MOUNTAINS, a bare and rugged range,

stretching N. and S. for upwards of 350 m. from the Kyber Pass almost to

the Arabian Sea, and forming the boundary between Afghanistan and the

Punjab, India.

SULIOTES, a Græco-Albanian race who in the 17th century, to escape

their Turkish oppressors, fled from their old settlement in Epirus to the

mountains of Suli, in South Albania, where they prospered in the

following century in independence; driven out by the Turks in 1803, they

emigrated to the Ionian Islands; came to the aid of Ali Pasha against the

sultan in 1820, but, defeated and scattered, found refuge in Cephalonia,

and later gave valuable assistance to the Greeks in their struggle for

independence. The treaty of 1829 left their district of Suli in the hands

of the Turks, and since then they have dwelt among the Greeks, many of

them holding high government rank.

SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS, a Roman of patrician birth; leader of the

aristocratic party in Rome, and the rival of Marius (q. v.), under whom

he got his first lessons in war; rose to distinction in arms afterwards,

and during his absence the popular party gained the ascendency, and

Marius, who had been banished, was recalled; the blood of his friends had

been shed in torrents, and himself proscribed; on the death of Marius he

returned with his army, glutted his vengeance by the sacrifice of

thousands of the opposite faction, celebrated his victory by a triumph of

unprecedented splendour, and caused himself to be proclaimed Dictator 81

B.C.; he ruled with absolute power two years after, and then resigning

his dictatorship retired into private life; _d_. 76 B.C. at the age of

60.

SULLAN PROSCRIPTIONS, sentences of proscription issued by Sulla

against Roman citizens in 81 B.C. under his dictatorship.

SULLIVAN, SIR ARTHUR SEYMOUR, English composer, born in London; won

the Mendelssohn scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music, and by means

of it completed his musical education at Leipzig; in 1862 composed

incidental music for "The Tempest," well received at the Crystal Palace;

since then has been a prolific writer of all kinds of music, ranging from

hymns and oratorios to popular songs and comic operas; his oratorios

include "The Prodigal Son" (1868), "The Light of the World," "The Golden

Legend," &c., but it is as a writer of light and tuneful operas

(librettos by W. S. GILBERT, q. v.) that he is best known; these

began with "Cox and Box" (1866), and include "Trial by Jury," "The

Sorcerer" (1877), "Pinafore," "Patience" (1881), "Mikado" (1885), &c., in

all of which he displays great gifts as a melodist, and wonderful

resource in clever piquant orchestration; received the Legion of Honour

in 1878, and was knighted in 1883; _b_. 1842.

SULLIVAN'S ISLAND, a long and narrow island, a favourite sea-bathing

resort, on the N. of the entrance to Charleston Harbour, South Carolina,

U.S.

SULLY, MAXIMILIEN DE BÉTHUNE, DUKE OF, celebrated minister of Henry

IV. of France, born at the Château of Rosny, near Mantes, whence he was

known at first as the Baron de Rosny; at first a ward of Henry IV. of

Navarre, he joined the Huguenot ranks along with him, and distinguished

himself at Coutras and Ivry, and approved of Henry's policy in changing

his colours on his accession to the throne, remaining ever after by his

side as most trusted adviser, directing the finances of the country with

economy, and encouraging the peasantry in the cultivation of the soil;

used to say, "Labourage et pasteurage, voilà les deux mamelles dont La

France est alimentée, les vraies mines et trésors de Pérou," "Tillage and

cattle-tending are the two paps whence France sucks nourishment; these

are the true mines and treasures of Peru;" on the death of the king he

retired from court, and occupied his leisure in writing his celebrated

"Memoirs," which, while they show the author to be a great statesman,

give no very pleasant idea of his character (1560-1611).

SULLY-PRUDHOMME, French poet, born in Paris; published a volume of

poems in 1865 entitled "Stances and Poèmes," which commanded instant

regard, and have been succeeded by others which have deepened the

impression, and entitled him to the highest rank as a poet; they give

evidence of a serious mind occupied with serious problems; was elected to

the Academy in 1881; _b_. 1839.

SULPICIUS SEVERUS, an ecclesiastical historian, born in Aquitaine;

wrote a "Historia Sacra," and a Life of St. Martin (363-406).

SULTAN, the title of a Mohammedan sovereign, Sultana being the

feminine form.

SULU ISLANDS (75), an archipelago of 162 islands in Asiatic waters,

lying to the NE. of Borneo, and extending to the Philippines; belongs to

the Spaniards who, in 1876, subdued the piratical Malay inhabitants; the

trade in pearls and edible nests is mainly carried on by Chinese.

SUMATRA (3,572, including adjacent islands), after Borneo the

largest of the East Indian islands, stretches SE. across the Equator

between the Malay Peninsula (from whose SW. coast it is separated by the

Strait of Malacca) to Java (Strait of Sunda separating them); has an

extreme length of 1115 m., and an area more than three times that of

England; is mountainous, volcanic, covered in central parts by virgin

forest, abounds in rivers and lakes, and possesses an exceptionally rich

flora and peculiar fauna; rainfall is abundant; some gold and coal are

worked, but the chief products are rice, sugar, coffee, tobacco,

petroleum, pepper, &c.; the island is mainly under Dutch control, but

much of the unexplored centre is still in the hands of savage tribes who

have waged continual warfare with their European invaders. Padang (150)

is the official Dutch capital.

SUMBAWA (150), one of the Sunda Islands, lying between Lombok (W.)

and Flores (E.); mountainous and dangerously volcanic; yields rice,

tobacco, cotton, &c.; is divided among four native rulers under Dutch

authority.

SUMNER, CHARLES, American statesman and abolitionist, born in

Boston; graduated at Harvard (1830), and was called to the bar in 1834,

but found a more congenial sphere in writing and lecturing; during

1837-40 pursued his favourite study of jurisprudence in France, Germany,

and England; was brought into public notice by his 4th of July oration

(1845) on "The True Grandeur of Nations," an eloquent condemnation of

war; became an uncompromising opponent of the slave-trade; was one of the

founders of the Free Soil Party, and in 1851 was elected to the National

Senate, a position he held until the close of his life, and where he did

much by his eloquent speeches to prepare the way for emancipation, and

afterwards to win for the blacks the rights of citizenship (1811-1874).

SUMNER, JOHN BIRD, archbishop of Canterbury; rose by a succession of

preferments to the Primacy, an office which he discharged with discretion

and moderation (1780-1862).

SUMPTUARY LAWS, passed in various lands and ages to restrict excess

in dress, food, and luxuries generally; are to be found in the codes of

Solon, Julius Cæsar, and other ancient rulers; Charles VI. of France

restricted dinners to one soup and two other dishes; appear at various

times in English statutes down to the 16th century against the use of

"costly meats," furs, silks, &c., by those unable to afford them; were

issued by the Scottish Parliament against the extravagance of ladies in

the matter of dress to relieve "the puir gentlemen their husbands and

fathers"; were repealed in England in the reign of James I.; at no time

were they carefully observed.

SUMTER, FORT, a fort on a shoal in Charleston harbour, 3½ m. from

the town; occupied by Major Anderson with 80 men and 62 guns in the

interest of the secession of South Carolina from the Union, and the

attack on which by General Beauregard on 12th April 1861 was the

commencement of the Civil War; it held out against attack and bombardment

till the month of July following.

SUN, THE, is a star; is the centre of the solar system, as it is in

consequence called, is a globe consisting of a mass of vapour at white

heat, and of such enormous size that it is 500 times larger than all the

planets of the system put together, or of a bulk one million and a half

times greater than the earth, from which it is ninety-two and a half

million miles distant; the bright surface of it is called the

_photosphere_, and this brightness is diversified with brighter spots

called _faculæ_, and dark ones called _sun-spots_, and by watching which

latter as they move over the sun's disk we find it takes 25 days to

revolve on its axis, and by means of SPECTRUM ANALYSIS (q. v.)

find it is composed of hydrogen and a number of vaporised metals.

SUNDA ISLANDS, a name sometimes applied to the long chain of islands

stretching SE. from the Malay Peninsula to North Australia, including

Sumatra, Timor, &c., but more correctly designates the islands Bali,

Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sandalwood Island, &c., which lie between Java

and Timor, are under Dutch suzerainty, and produce the usual East Indian

products. See various islands named.

SUNDERBUNDS or SUNDARBANS, a great tract of jungle, swamp, and

alluvial plain, forming the lower portion of the Ganges delta; extends

from the Hooghly on the W. to the Meghna on the E., a distance of 165 m.;

rice is cultivated on the upper part by a sparse population; the lower

part forms a dense belt of wild jungle reaching to the sea, and is

infested by numerous tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, pythons, cobras, &c.

SUNDERLAND (142), a flourishing seaport of Durham, situated at the

mouth of the Wear, 12 m. SE. of Newcastle-upon-Tyne; embraces some very

old parishes, but as a commercial town has entirely developed within the

present century, and is of quite modern appearance, with the usual public

buildings; owes its prosperity mainly to neighbouring coal-fields, the

product of which it exports in great quantities; has four large docks

covering 50 acres; also famous iron shipbuilding yards, large iron-works,

glass and bottle works, roperies, &c.

SUNDERLAND, CHARLES SPENCER, THIRD EARL, son of succeeding, and son

in law of the Duke of Marlborough; was a Secretary of State in Queen

Anne's reign during 1706-1710, and in the following reign, as leader of

the Whigs, exercised unbounded influence over George I.; narrowly

escaped, chiefly through Walpole's help, being found guilty of accepting

heavy bribes from the South Sea Company; lost office, and was displaying

his father's propensity to underhand scheming by intriguing with the

Tories and the Pretender's party when death cut short his career

(1675-1722).

SUNDERLAND, ROBERT SPENCER, SECOND EARL OF, an English statesman

prominent in the reign of Charles II., James II., and William III.; was

for some years engaged in embassies abroad before being appointed

Secretary of State in 1679; adroit and insinuating, and with great

capacity for business, he soon became a leading minister; attached

himself to the Duchess of Portsmouth, and in the corrupt politics of the

two Stuart kings played his own hand with consummate if unscrupulous

skill, standing high in King James's favour as Prime Minister, although

he had formerly intrigued in favour of Monmouth; supported the Exclusion

Bill, and even then was in secret communication with the Prince of

Orange; after the Revolution rose to high office under William; was

instrumental in bringing the Whigs into power, and during 1695-1697 was

acknowledged head of his Government (1640-1702).

SUNNITES, the orthodox Mohammedans, a name given to them because

they accept the _Sunna_, i. e. traditional teaching of the Prophet, as

of the same authority as the Korân, in the matter of both faith and

morals, agreeably to a fundamental article of Mohammedanism, that not

only the rule of life, but the interpretation of it, is of divine

dictation.

SUN-WORSHIP, the worship of the sun is conceived of as an

impersonation of the deity, that originated among races so far advanced

in civilisation as to recognise what they owed to its benignant

influence, in particular as tillers of the soil, and, is associated with

advance as the worship of Bacchus was, which could not originate prior to

cultivation of the vine.

SUONADA, the Inland Sea of Japan, separating Kyushu and Shikoku from

the Main Island, Honshiu, a fine sheet of water (250 m. by 50),

picturesquely studded with islands which, however, render navigation

difficult.

SUPEREROGATION, WORKS OF, name given in the Roman Catholic theology

to works or good deeds performed by saints over and above what is

required for their own salvation, and the merit of which is held to be

transferable to others in need of indulgence.

SUPER-GRAMMATICAM (above grammar), name given to Sigismund, emperor

of Germany, from his rejoinder to a cardinal who one day on a high

occasion mildly corrected a grammatical mistake he had made in a grand

oration, "I am King of the Romans, and above grammar."

SUPERIOR, LAKE, largest fresh-water lake on the globe, lies between

the United States and Canada, the boundary line passing through the

centre; area, 31,200 sq. m., almost the size of Ireland; maximum depth,

1008 ft.; St. Mary's River, the only outlet, a short rapid stream,

carries the overflow to Lake Huron; receives upwards of 200 rivers, but

none of first-class importance, largest is the St. Louis; is dotted with

numerous islands; water is singularly clear and pure, and abounds with

fish; navigation is hindered in winter by shore-ice, but the lake never

freezes over.

SUPERSTITION, the fear of that which is not God, as if it were God,

or the fear of that which is not the devil, as if it were the devil; or,

as it has in more detail been defined by Ruskin, "the fear of a spirit

whose passions and acts are those of a man present in some places and not

others; kind to one person and unkind to another, pleased or angry,

according to the degree of attention you pay him, or the praise you

refuse him; hostile generally to human pleasure, but may be bribed by

sacrificing part of that pleasure into permitting the rest."

SUPRALAPSARIANISM, the doctrine of the extreme Calvinists, that the

decree of God as regards the eternal salvation of some and the eternal

reprobation of others is unconditional.

SUPREMACY, ROYAL, the supremacy of the sovereign in matters

ecclesiastical and matters of civil right to the exclusion of matters

spiritual and the jurisdiction in the former claimed by the Pope.

SURABAYA (127), a seaport on the NE. coast or Java, is the

head-quarters of the Dutch military, and exports tropical products; of

the population 6000 are European, and 7000 or so Chinese.

SURAT (109), a city of India, Bombay Presidency, on the Tapti, 14 m.

from its entrance into the Gulf of Bombay; stretches along the S. bank of

the river, presenting no architectural features of interest save some

Mohammedan, Parsee, and Hindu temples, and an old castle or fortress;

chief exports are cotton and grain; the English erected here their first

factory on the Indian continent in 1612, and with Portuguese and Dutch

traders added, it became one of the principal commercial centres of

India; in the 18th century the removal of the English East India Company

to Bombay drew off a considerable portion of the trade of Surat, which it

has never recovered.

SURINAM. See GUIANA, DUTCH.

SURPLICE, a linen robe with wide sleeves worn by officiating

clergymen and choristers, originating in the rochet or alb of early

times.

SURREY (1,731), an inland county, and one of the fairest of England,

in the SE. between Kent (E.) and Hampshire (W.), with Sussex on the S.,

separated from Middlesex on the N. by the Thames; the North Downs

traverse the county E. and W., slope gently to the Thames, and

precipitously in the S. to the level Weald; generally presents a

beautiful prospect of hill and heatherland adorned with splendid woods;

the Wey and the Mole are the principal streams; hops are extensively

grown round Farnham; largest town is Croydon; the county town, Guildford.

SURREY, HENRY HOWARD, EARL OF, poet, son of the Duke of Norfolk;

early attached to the court of Henry VIII., he attended his royal master

at the "Field of the Cloth of Gold," and took part in the coronation

ceremony of Anne Boleyn (1533); was created a Knight of the Garter in

1542, and two years later led the English army in France with varying

success; imprisoned along with his father on a charge of high treason,

for which there was no adequate evidence, he was condemned and executed;

as one of the early leaders of the poetic renaissance, and introducer of

the sonnet and originator of blank verse, he deservedly holds a high

place in the history of English literature (1516-1547).

SURYA, in the Hindu mythology the sun conceived of as a female

deity.

SUSA (the Shushan of Daniel, Esther, &c.), an ancient city of

Persia, now in ruins, that spread over an area of 3 sq. m., on the

Kerkha, 250 m. SE. of Bagdad; was for long the favourite residence of the

Persian kings, the ruins of whose famous palace, described in Esther, are

still extant.

SUSAN, ST., the patron saint and guardian of innocence and saviour

from infamy and reproach. See SUSANNA.

SUSANNA, THE HISTORY OF, a story in the Apocrypha, evidently

conceived to glorify Daniel as a judge, and which appears to have been

originally written by a Jew in Greek. She had been accused of adultery by

two of the elders and condemned to death, but was acquitted on Daniel's

examination of her accusers to their confusion and condemnation to death

in her stead. The story has been allegorised by the Church, and Susanna

made to represent the Church, and the two elders her persecutors.

SUSQUEHANNA, a river of America, formed by the junction at

Northumberland, Pennsylvania, of the North Branch (350 m.) flowing out of

Schuyler Lake, central New York, and the West Branch (250 m.) rising in

the Alleghany Mountains; flows in a shallow, rapid, unnavigable course S.

and SE. through beautiful scenery to Port Deposit, at the N. end of

Chesapeake Bay; length, 150 m.

SUSSEX (550), a S. maritime county of England, fronts the English

Channel between Hampshire (W.) and Kent (E.), with Surrey on its northern

border; is traversed E. and W. by the South Downs, which afford splendid

pasturage for half a million sheep, and terminates in Beachy Head; in the

N. lies the wide, fertile, and richly-wooded plain of the Weald; chief

rivers are the Arun, Adur, Ouse, and Rother, of no great size; is a fine

agricultural county, more than two-thirds of its area being under

cultivation; was the scene of Cæsar's landing (55 B.C.), of Ælla's, the

leader of the South Saxons (whence the name Sussex), and of William the

Conqueror's (1066); throughout the country are interesting antiquities;

largest town, Brighton; county town, Lewes.

SUTHERLAND (22), a maritime county of N. Scotland; presents a N. and

a W. shore to the Atlantic, between Ross and Cromarty (S.) and Caithness

(E.), and faces the North Sea on the SE., whence the land slopes upwards

to the great mountain region and wild, precipitous loch-indented coasts

of the W. and N.; scarcely 3 per cent, of the area is cultivated, but

large numbers of sheep and cattle are raised; the Oykell is the longest

(35 m.) of many streams, and Loch Shin the largest of 300 lochs; there

are extensive deer forests and grouse moors, while valuable salmon and

herring fisheries exist round the coasts; is the most sparsely populated

county in Scotland. Dornoch is the county town.

SUTLEJ, the eastmost of the five rivers of the Punjab; its

head-waters flow from two Thibetan lakes at an elevation of 15,200 ft.,

whence it turns NW. and W. to break through a wild gorge of the

Himalayas, thence bends to the SW., forms the eastern boundary of the

Punjab, and joins the Indus at Mithankot after a course of 900 m.

SUTRAS, name given to a collection of aphorisms, summaries of the

teachings of the Brahmans, and of rules regulative of ritual or religious

observances, and also given to these aphorisms and rules themselves.

SUTTEE, a Hindu widow who immolates herself on the funeral pile of

her husband, a term applied to the practice itself. The practice was of

very ancient date, but the custom was proclaimed illegal in 1829 under

Lord William Bentinck's administration, and it is now very seldom that a

widow seeks to violate the law. In 1823, in Bengal alone, 575 widows gave

themselves to be so burned, of whom 109 were above sixty, 226 above

forty, 209 above twenty, and 32 under twenty.

SUWARROW or SUVOROFF, Russian field-marshal, born at Moscow;

entered the army as a private soldier, distinguished himself in the Seven

Years' War, and after 20 years' service rose to command; in command of a

division he in 1773 routed an army of the Turks beyond the Danube, and in

1783 he reduced a tribe of Tartars under the Russian yoke; his greatest

exploit perhaps was his storming of Ismail, which had resisted all

attempts to reduce it for seven months, and which he, but with revolting

barbarities however, in three days succeeded by an indiscriminate

massacre of 40,000 of the inhabitants; his despatch thereafter to Queen

Catharine was "Glory to God and the Empress, Ismail is ours!" he after

this conducted a cruel campaign in Poland, which ended in its partition,

and a campaign in Italy to the disaster of the French and his elevation

to the peerage as a prince, with the title of Italinski; he was all along

the agent of the ruthless purposes of POTEMKIN (q. v.) (1730-1800).

SVEABORG, a strong fortress in Finland, protecting Helsingfors, in

the Baltic, 3 m. distant from that town, and called the "Gibraltar of the

North."

SVIR, a Russian river that flows into Lake Ladoga.

SWABIA, an ancient duchy in the SW. of Germany, and most fertile

part, so called from the Suevi, who in the 1st century displaced the

aboriginal Celts, and which, along with Bavaria, formed the nucleus of

the Fatherland; was separated by the Rhine from France and Switzerland,

having for capital Augsburg, and being divided now into Würtemberg,

Bavaria, Baden, and Lichtenstein.

SWAHILI (i. e. coast people), a people of mixed Bantu and Arab

stock occupying Zanzibar and the adjoining territory from nearly Mombasa

to Mozambique; they are an enterprising race, and are dispersed as

traders, hunters, carriers, &c., far and wide over Central Africa.

SWALE, a river in the North Riding of Yorkshire, uniting, after a

course of 60 miles, with the Ure to form the Ouse.

SWAMMERDAM, JAN, a Dutch entomologist, born at Amsterdam, where he

settled as a doctor, but turning with enthusiasm to the study of insect

life, made important contributions to, and practically laid the

foundations of, entomological science (1637-1680).

SWAN OF AVON, sweet name given by Ben Jonson to Shakespeare.

SWAN OF MANTUA, name given to Virgil, as born at Mantua.

SWANSEA (90), a flourishing and progressive seaport of

Glamorganshire, at the entrance of the Tawe, 45 m. into Swansea Bay; has

a splendid harbour, 60 acres of docks, a castle, old grammar-school, &c.;

is the chief seat of the copper-smelting and of the tin-plate manufacture

of England, and exports the products of these works, as well as coal,

zinc, and other minerals, in large quantities.

SWATOW (30), a seaport of China, at the mouth of the Han, 225 m. E.

of Canton; has large sugar-refineries, factories for bean-cake and

grass-cloth; since the policy of "the open door" was adopted in 1867 has

had a growing export trade.

SWAZILAND (64), a small South African native State to the E. of the

Transvaal, of which in 1893 it became a dependency, retaining, however,

its own laws and native chief; is mountainous, fertile, and rich in

minerals; the Swazis are of Zulu stock, jealous of the Boers, and

friendly to Britain.

SWEATING SICKNESS, an epidemic of extraordinary malignity which

swept over Europe, and especially England, in the 15th and 16th

centuries, attacking with equal virulence all classes and all ages, and

carrying off enormous numbers of people; was characterised by a sharp

sudden seizure, high fever, followed by a foetid perspiration; first

appeared in England in 1485, and for the last time in 1551.

SWEATING SYSTEM, a term which began to be used about 1848 to

describe an iniquitous system of sub-contracting in the tailoring trade.

Orders from master-tailors were undertaken by sub-contractors, who

themselves farmed the work out to needy workers, who made the articles in

their own crowded and foetid homes, receiving "starvation wages." The

term is now used in reference to all trades in cases where the conditions

imposed by masters tend to grind the rate of payment down to a bare

living wage and to subject the workers to insanitary surroundings by

overcrowding, &c., and to unduly long hours. Kingsley's pamphlet, "Cheap

Clothes and Nasty," and novel, "Alton Locke," did much to draw public

attention to the evil. In 1890 an elaborate report by a committee of the

House of Lords was published, and led in the following year to the

passing of the Factory and Workshops Act and the Public Health Act, which

have greatly mitigated the evil.

SWEDEN (4,785), a kingdom of Northern Europe, occupying the eastern

portion of the great Scandinavian Peninsula, bounded W. by Norway, E. by

Russian Finland, Gulf of Bothnia, and the Baltic, and on the N. stretches

across the Arctic circle between Norway (NW.) and Russia (NE.), while its

southern serrated shores are washed by the Skager-Rack, Cattegat, and

Baltic. From the mountain-barrier of Norway the country slopes down in

broad terrace-like plains to the sea, intersected by many useful rivers

and diversified by numerous lakes, of which Lakes Wenner, Wetter, and

Mälar (properly an arm of the sea) are the largest, and lying under

forest to the extent of nearly one-half its area; is divided into three

great divisions: 1, Norrland in the N., a wide and wild tract of

mountainous country, thickly forested, infested by the wolf, bear, and

lynx, in summer the home of the wood-cutter, and sparsely inhabited by

Lapps. 2, Svealand or Sweden proper occupies the centre, and is the

region of the great lakes and of the principal mineral wealth (iron,

copper, &c.) of the country. 3, Gothland, the southern portion, embraces

the fertile plains sloping to the Cattegat, and is the chief agricultural

district, besides possessing iron and coal. Climate is fairly dry, with a

warm summer and long cold winter. Agriculture (potatoes, grain, rye,

beet), although scarcely 8 per cent. of the land is under cultivation, is

the principal industry, and with dairy-farming, stock-raising, &c., gives

employment to more than one-half of the people; mining and timber-felling

are only less important; chief industries are iron-works,

sugar-refineries, cotton-mills, &c.; principal exports timber (much the

largest), iron, steel, butter, &c., while textiles and dry-goods are the

chiefly needed imports. Transit is greatly facilitated by the numerous

canals and by the rivers and lakes. Railways and telegraphs are well

developed in proportion to the population. As in Norway, the national

religion is Lutheranism; education is free and compulsory. Government is

vested in the king, who with the advice of a council controls the

executive, and two legislative chambers which have equal powers, but the

members of the one are elected for nine years by provincial councils,

while those of the other are elected by the suffrages of the people,

receive salaries, and sit only for three years. The national debt amounts

to 14½ million pounds. In the 14th century the country became an appanage

of the Danish crown, and continued as such until freedom was again won in

the 16th century by the patriot king, Gustavus Vasa. By the 17th century

had extended her rule across the seas into certain portions of the

empire, but selling these in the beginning of the 18th century, fell from

her rank as a first-rate power. In 1814 Norway was annexed, and the two

countries, each enjoying complete autonomy, are now united under one

crown.

SWEDENBORG, EMMANUEL, a mystic of the mystics, founder of the "New

Church," born at Stockholm, son of a bishop, a boy of extraordinary gifts

and natural seriousness of mind; carefully educated under his father,

attended the university of Upsala and took his degree in philosophy in

1709; in eager quest of knowledge visited England, Holland, France, and

Germany; on his return, after four years, was at 28 appointed by Charles

XII. assessor of the Royal College of Mines; in 1721 went to examine the

mines and smelting-works of Europe; from 1716 spent 30 years in the

composition and publication of scientific works, when of a sudden he

threw himself into theology; in 1743 his period of illumination began,

and the publication of voluminous theological treatises; the Swedish

clergy interfered a little with the publication of his works, but he kept

the friendship of people in power. He was never married, his habits were

simple, lived on bread, milk, and vegetables, occupied a house situated

in a large garden; visited England several times, but attracted no

special attention; died in London of apoplexy in his eighty-fifth year.

"He is described, in London, as a man of quiet, clerical habit, not

averse to tea and coffee, and kind to children. He wore a sword when in

full velvet dress, and whenever he walked out carried a gold-headed

cane." This is Emerson's account in brief of his outer man, but for a

glimpse or two of his ways of thinking and his views the reader is

referred to Emerson's "Representative Men." The man was a seer; what he

saw only himself could tell, and only those could see, he would say, who

had the power of transporting themselves into the same spiritual centre;

to him the only real world was the spirit-world and the world of sense

only in so far as it reflected to the soul the great invisible

(1688-1772).

SWEDENBORGIANS, the members of the "New Jerusalem Church," founded

on the teaching of EMMANUEL SWEDENBORG (q. v.) on a belief in

direct communion with the world of spirits, and in God as properly

incarnate in the divine humanity of Christ.

SWEDISH NIGHTINGALE, name popularly given to JENNY LIND (q. v.).

SWERGA or SVARGA, the summit of Mount Meru, the Hindu Olympus,

the heaven or abode of INDRA (q. v.) and of the gods in general.

SWETCHINE, MADAME, a Russian lady, Sophie Soymanof, born at Moscow,

who married General Swetchine, and, after turning Catholic, became

celebrated in Paris during 1817-51 as the gracious hostess of a salon

where much religious and ethical discussion went on; plain and unimposing

in appearance, she yet exercised a remarkable fascination over her

"coterie" by the elevation of her character and eager spiritual nature

(1782-1857).

SWIFT, JONATHAN, born at Dublin, a posthumous son, of well-connected

parents; educated at Kilkenny, where he had Congreve for companion, and

at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was a somewhat riotous and a by no

means studious undergraduate, only receiving his B.A. by "special grace"

in 1686; two years later the Revolution drove him to England; became

amanuensis to his mother's distinguished relative Sir William Temple,

whose service, however, was uncongenial to his proud independent nature,

and after taking a Master's degree at Oxford he returned to Dublin, took

orders, and was presented to the canonry of Kilroot, near Belfast; the

quiet of country life palling upon him, he was glad to resume secretarial

service in Temple's household (1696), where during the next three years

he remained, mastering the craft of politics, reading enormously, and

falling in love with STELLA (q. v.); was set adrift by Temple's

death in 1699, but shortly afterwards became secretary to Lord Berkeley,

one of the Lord-Deputies to Ireland, and was soon settled in the vicarage

of Laracor, West Meath; in 1704 appeared anonymously his famous satires,

the "Battle of the Books" and the "Tale of a Tub," masterpieces of

English prose; various squibs and pamphlets followed, "On the

Inconvenience of Abolishing Christianity," &c.; but politics more and

more engaged his attention; and neglected by the Whigs and hating their

war policy, he turned Tory, attacked with deadly effect, during his

editorship of the _Examiner_ (1710-11), the war party and its leader

Marlborough; crushed Steele's defence in his "Public Spirit of the

Whigs," and after the publication of "The Conduct of the Allies" stood

easily the foremost political writer of his time; disappointed of an

English bishopric, in 1713 reluctantly accepted the deanery of St.

Patrick's, Dublin, a position he held until the close of his life; became

loved in the country he despised by eloquently voicing the wrongs of

Ireland in a series of tracts, "Drapier's Letters," &c., fruitful of good

results; crowned his great reputation by the publication (1726) of his

masterpiece "Gulliver's Travels," the most daring, savage, and amusing

satire contained in the world's literature; "Stella's" death and the slow

progress of a brain disease, ending in insanity, cast an ever-deepening

gloom over his later years (1667-1745).

SWILLY, LOUGH, a narrow inlet of the Atlantic, on the coast of

Donegal, North Ireland, running in between Dunaff Head (E.) and Fanad

Point (W.), a distance of 25 m.; is from 3 to 4 m. broad; the entrance is

fortified.

SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES, poet and prose writer, born in London,

son of Admiral Swinburne; educated at Balliol College, Oxford, went to

Florence and spent some time there; his first productions were plays, two

of them tragedies, and "Poems and Ballads," his later "A Song of Italy,"

essay on "William Blake," and "Songs before Sunrise," instinct with

pantheistic and republican ideas, besides "Studies in Song," "Studies in

Prose and Poetry," &c.; he ranks as the successor of Landor, of whom he

is a great admirer, stands high both as a poet and a critic, and is a man

of broad and generous sympathies; his admirers regard it as a reproach to

his generation that due honour is not paid by it to his genius; _b_.

1837.

SWINDON (32), a town in Wiltshire, 77 m. W. of London; contains the

Great Western Company's engineering works, which cover 200 acres, and

employ 10,000 hands.

SWINEMÜNDE (9), a fortified seaport on the island of Usedom, in the

Baltic, near the mouth of the Swine, one of the outlets of the Oder.

SWISS CONFEDERATION, a league of the several Swiss cantons to resist

an attempt on the part of the Emperor Albrecht to incorporate certain of

the free towns into his family possessions.

SWISS GUARDS. See GARDES SUISSES.

SWITHIN, ST., bishop of Winchester from 852 to 862; was buried by

his own request in Winchester Churchyard, "where passers-by might tread

above his head, and the dews of heaven fall on his grave." On his

canonisation, a century after, the chapter resolved to remove his body to

a shrine in the cathedral, but their purpose was hindered on account of a

rain which lasted 40 days from the 15th July; hence the popular notion

that if it rained that day it would be followed by rain for 40 days

after.

SWITZERLAND (2,918), a republic of Central Europe, bounded by

Germany (N.), France (W.), Italy (S.), and Austria and Germany (E.); in

size is slightly more than one-half of Scotland, of semicircular shape,

having the Jura Alps on its French border, and divided from Italy by the

great central ranges of the Alpine system, whence radiate the Swiss

Alps--Pennine, Lepontine, Bernese, &c.--covering the E. and S., and

occupying with intervening valleys two-thirds of the country; the

remaining third is occupied by an elevated fertile plain, extending

between Lakes of Constance and Geneva (largest of numerous lakes), and

studded with picturesque hills; principal rivers are the Upper Rhône, the

Aar, Ticino, and Inn; climate varies with the elevation, from the high

regions of perpetual snow to warm valleys where ripen the vine, fig,

almond, and olive; about one-third of the land surface is under forest,

and one quarter arable, the grain grown forming only one-half of what is

required; flourishing dairy farms exist, prospered by the fine meadows

and mountain pastures which, together with the forests, comprise the

country's greatest wealth; minerals are exceedingly scarce, coal being

entirely absent. Despite its restricted arable area and lack of minerals

the country has attained a high pitch of prosperity through the thrift

and energy of its people, who have skilfully utilised the inexhaustible

motive-power of innumerable waterfalls and mountain streams to drive

great factories of silks, cottons, watches, and jewellery. The beauty of

its mountain, lake, and river scenery has long made Switzerland the

sanatorium and recreation ground of Europe; more than 500 health resorts

exist, and the country has been described as one vast hotel. The Alpine

barriers are crossed by splendid roads and railways, the great tunnels

through St. Gothard and the Simplon being triumphs of engineering skill

and enterprise. In 1848, after the suppression of the SONDERBUND

(q. v.), the existing league of 22 semi-independent States

(constituting since 1798 the Helvetic Republic) formed a closer federal

union, and a constitution (amended in 1874) was drawn up conserving as

far as possible the distinctive laws of the cantons and local

institutions of their communes. The President is elected annually by the

Federal Assembly (which consists of two chambers constituting the

legislative power), and is assisted in the executive government by a

Federal Council of seven members. By an institution known as the

"Referendum" all legislative acts passed in the Cantonal or Federal

Assemblies may under certain conditions be referred to the mass of the

electors, and this is frequently done. The public debt amounts to over

two million pounds. The national army is maintained by conscription; 71

per cent. of the people speak German, 22 per cent. French, and 5 per

cent. Italian; 59 per cent. are Protestants, and 41 per cent. Catholics.

Education is splendidly organised, free, and compulsory; there are five

universities, and many fine technical schools.

SYBARIS, an ancient city of Magna Græcia, on the Gulf of Tarentum,

flourished in the 17th century B.C., but in 510 B.C. was captured and

totally obliterated by the rival colonists of Crotona; at the height of

its prosperity the luxury and voluptuousness of the inhabitants was such

as to become a byword throughout the ancient world, and henceforth a

Sybaris city is a city of luxurious indulgence, and Sybarite a devotee of

pleasure.

SYBEL, HEINRICH VON, German historian, born at Düsseldorf; was a

pupil of RANKE'S (q. v.), and became professor of History at

Münich and Bonn; he was a Liberal in politics; his great works are a

"History of the Period of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1795, and

then to 1800," in five volumes, and the "History of the Founding of the

German Empire under William I.," in five volumes; he has also written a

"History of the First Crusade" (1817-1895).

SYCORAX, a hag in the "Tempest," the dam of Caliban.

SYDENHAM, a district of Kent and suburb of London, to the SE. of

which it lies 7 m., includes the Surrey parish of Lambeth, where in

1852-54 the Crystal Palace was erected and still stands, a far-famed

sight of London, containing valuable collections illustrative of the arts

and sciences, and surrounded by a magnificent park and gardens.

SYDENHAM, FLOYER, Greek scholar; translated some of the Dialogues of

Plato into English, and wrote a dissertation on Heraclitus, which failed

of being appreciated, and involved in embarrassment, he was thrown into

prison because he could not pay a small bill for provisions, and there

died; his sad fate led to the foundation of the Literary Fund

(1710-1787).

SYDENHAM, THOMAS, the "English Hippocrates," born in Dorsetshire,

educated at Oxford, and a Fellow of All Souls'; practised medicine in

London, where, though regarded with disfavour by the faculty, he stood in

high regard, and had an extensive practice, from his study of the

symptoms of disease, and the respect he paid to the constitution of the

patient; he used his own sense and judgment in each case, and his

treatment was uniformly successful; he commanded the regard of his

contemporaries Locke and Boyle, and his memory was revered by such

experts as Boerhaave, Stahl, Pinel, and Haller; he ranks as a great

reformer in the healing art (1624-1689).

SYDNEY (488), the capital of New South Wales, the oldest city in

Australia, and one of the first in the world, on the S. shore of the

basin of Port Jackson; and the entrance of a magnificent, almost

land-locked, harbour for shipping of the largest tonnage; the situation

of the city is superb, and it is surrounded by the richest scenery; the

shores of the basin are covered with luxuriant vegetation, studded with

islands and indented with pretty bays; it is well paved, has broad

streets, and some fine buildings, the principal being the university, the

two cathedrals, the post-office, and the town hall. It is a commercial

rather than a manufacturing city, though its resources for manufacture

are considerable, for it is in the centre of a large coal-field, in

connection with which manufacturing industries may yet develop.

SYDNEY, ALGERNON. See SIDNEY, ALGERNON.

SYLLOGISM, an argument consisting of three propositions, of which

two are called premises, major and minor, and the one that necessarily

follows from them the conclusion.

SYLPHS, elemental spirits of the air, as salamanders, are of fire,

of light figure with gliding movements and procreative power.

SYLVESTER, ST., the name of three popes: S. I., Pope from 314

to 335; S. II., Pope from 999 to 1003, alleged, from his recondite

knowledge as an alchemist, to have been in league with the devil; and S.

III., Anti-Pope from 1041 to 1046.

SYLVESTER, ST., the first Pope of the name, said to have converted

Constantine and his mother by restoring a dead ox to life which a

magician for a trial of skill killed, but could not restore to life; is

usually represented by an ox lying beside him, and sometimes in baptizing

Constantine.

SYMBOLISM has been divided into two kinds, symbolism of colour and

symbolism of form. Of colours, BLACK typifies grief and death; BLUE,

hope, love of divine works, divine contemplation, piety, sincerity; PALE

BLUE, power, Christian prudence, love of good works, serene conscience;

GOLD, glory and power; GREEN, faith, immortality, resurrection, gladness;

PALE GREEN, baptism; GREY, tribulation; PURPLE, justice, royalty; RED,

martyrdom for faith, charity, divine love; ROSE-COLOUR, martyrdom;

SAFFRON, confessors; SCARLET, fervour and glory; SILVER, chastity and

purity; VIOLET, penitence; WHITE, purity, temperance, innocence,

chastity, and faith in God. Instances of form: ANCHOR typifies hope;

PALM, victory; SWORD, death or martyrdom; the LAMB, christ; UNICORN,

purity. Of stones, moreover, the AMETHYST typifies humility; DIAMOND,

invulnerable faith; SARDONYX, sincerity; SAPPHIRE, hope, &c.

SYME, JAMES, a great surgeon, born in Edinburgh; was demonstrator

under Liston; was elected to the chair of Clinical Surgery in 1833; gave

up the chair to succeed Liston in London in 1848, but returned a few

months after; was re-elected to the chair he had vacated; he was much

honoured by his pupils, and by none more than Dr. John Brown, who

characterised him as "the best, ablest, and most beneficent of men"; he

wrote treatises and papers on surgery (1799-1870).

SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON, English man of letters, born at Bristol;

educated at Harrow and Oxford; author of "The Renaissance in Italy," a

work which shows an extensive knowledge of the subject, and is written in

a finished but rather flowery style, and a number of other works of a

kindred nature showing equal ability and literary skill; his translation

of Benvenuto Cellini's autobiography is particularly noteworthy; was

consumptive, and spent his later years at Davos, in the Engadine

(1840-1893).

SYMPHLAGADES, two fabulous floating rocks at the entrance of the

Euxine, which, when driven by the winds, crushed every vessel that

attempted to pass between them; the ship ARGO (q. v.) managed to

pass between them, but with the loss of part of her stern, after which

they became fixed.

SYMPHONY, an elaborate orchestral composition consisting usually of

four contrasted and related movements; began to take distinctive shape in

the 17th century, and was for long merely a form of overture to operas,

&c., but as its possibilities were perceived was elevated into an

independent concert-piece, and as such exercised the genius of Mozart and

Haydn, reaching its perfection of form in the symphonies of Beethoven.

SYNAGOGUE, a Jewish institution for worship and religious

instruction which dates from the period of the Babylonian Captivity,

specially to keep alive in the minds of the people a knowledge of the

law. The decree ordaining it required the families of a district to meet

twice every Sabbath for this purpose, and so religiously did the Jewish

people observe it that it continues a characteristic ordinance of Judaism

to this day. The study of the law became henceforth their one vocation,

and the synagogue was instituted both to instruct them in it and to

remind them of the purpose of their separate existence among the nations

of the earth. High as the Temple and its service still stood in the

esteem of every Jew, from the period of the Captivity it began to be felt

of secondary importance to the synagogue and its service. With the

erection and extension of the latter the people were being slowly trained

into a truer sense of the nature of religious worship, and gradually made

to feel that to know the will of God and do it was a more genuine act of

homage to Him than the offering of sacrifices upon an altar or the

observance of any religious rite. Under such training the issue between

the Jew and the Samaritan became of less and less consequence, and he and

not the Samaritan was on the pathway which led direct to the final

worship of God in spirit and in truth (John iv. 22).

SYNAGOGUE, THE GREAT, the name given to a council at Jerusalem,

consisting of 120 members, there assembled about the year 410 B.C. to

give final form to the service and worship of the Jewish Church. A Jewish

tradition says Moses received the law from Sinai; he transmitted it to

Joshua, Joshua to the elders, the elders to the prophets, to the men of

the Great Assembly, who added thereto these words: "Be circumspect in

judgment, make many disciples, and set a hedge about the law." To them

belong the final settlement and arrangement of the Jewish Scriptures, the

introduction of a new alphabet, the regulation of the synagogue worship,

and the adoption of sundry liturgical forms, as well as the establishment

of the FEAST OF PURIM (q. v.), and probably the "schools" of the

Scribes.

SYNCRETISM, name given to an attempted blending of different, more

or less antagonist, speculative or religious systems into one, such as

Catholic and Protestant or Lutheran and Reformed.

SYNDICATE, in commercial parlance is a name given to a number of

capitalists associated together for the purpose of carrying through some

important business scheme, usually having in view the controlling and

raising of prices by means of a monopoly or "corner."

SYNERGISM, the theological doctrine that divine grace requires a

correspondent action of the human will to render it effective, a doctrine

defended by Melanchthon when he ascribes to the will the "power of

seeking grace," the term "synergy" meaning co-operation.

SYNESIUS, BISHOP PTOLEMAIS, born at Cyrene; became a pupil of

HYPATIA (q. v.) and was to the last a disciple, "a father of the

Church without having been her son," and is styled by Kingsley "the

squire bishop," from his love of the chase; "books and the chase," on one

occasion he writes, "make up my life"; wrote one or two curious books,

and several hymns expressive of a longing after divine things (375-414).

SYNOD, name given to any assembly of bishops in council, and in the

Presbyterian Church to an assembly of a district or a general assembly.

SYNOPTIC GOSPELS, the first three Gospels, so called because they

are summaries of the chief events in the story, and all go over the same

ground, while the author of the fourth follows lines of his own.

SYRA (31), an island of the Cyclades group, in the Ægean Sea, 10 m,

by 5 m., with a capital called also Hermoupolis; on the E. coast is the

seat of the government of the islands, and the chief port.

SYRACUSE, 1, one of the great cities of antiquity (19), occupied a

wide triangular tableland on the SE. coast of Sicily, 80 m. SW. of

Messina, and also the small island Ortygia, lying close to the shore;

founded by Corinthian settlers about 733 B.C.; amongst its rulers were

the tyrants DIONYSIUS THE ELDER and DIONYSIUS THE YOUNGER

(q. v.) and Hiero, the patron of Æschylus, Pindar, &c.; successfully

resisted the long siege of the Athenians in 414 B.C., and rose to a

great pitch of renown after its struggle with the Carthaginians in 397

B.C., but siding with Hannibal in the Punic Wars, was taken after a two

years' siege by the Romans (212 B.C.), in whose hands it slowly

declined, and finally was sacked and destroyed by the Saracens in 878 A.D.

Only the portion on Ortygia was rebuilt, and this constitutes the

modern city, which has interesting relics of its former greatness, but is

otherwise a crowded and dirty place, surrounded by walls, and fortified;

exports fruit, olive-oil, and wine. 2, A city (108) of New York State,

United States, 148 m. W. of Albany, in the beautiful valley of Onondaga;

is a spacious and handsomely laid-out city, with university, &c.; has

flourishing steel-works, foundries, rolling-mills, &c., and enormous salt

manufactures.

SYRIA (2,000), one of three divisions of Asiatic Turkey, slightly

larger than Italy, forms a long strip of mountains and tableland

intersected by fertile valleys, lying along the eastern end of the

Mediterranean from the Taurus range in the N. to the Egyptian border on

the 8., and extending to the Euphrates and Arabian desert The coastal

strip and waters fall within the LEVANT (q. v.). In the S. lies

Palestine, embracing Jordan, Dead Sea, Lake of Tiberias (Sea of Galilee),

Jerusalem, Gaza, &c.; in the N., between the parallel ranges of Lebanon

and Anti-Lebanon, lies the valley of Coele-Syria, through which flows the

Orontes. Important towns are Aleppo, Damascus, Beyrout (chief port), &c.;

principal exports are silk, wool, olive-oil, and fruits. Four-fifths of

the people are Mohammedans of Aramæan (ancient Syrian) and Arabic stock.

Once a portion of the ASSYRIAN EMPIRE (q. v.), it became a

possession successively of the Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs,

Egyptians, and finally fell into the hands of the Ottoman Turks in 1516,

under whose rule it now languishes. For further particulars see various

names and places mentioned.

SYRIANUS, a Greek Neoplatonic philosopher of the 5th century; had

PROCLUS (q. v.) for a disciple; left a valuable commentary on

the metaphysics of Aristotle.

SYRINX, an Arcadian nymph, who, being pursued by Pan, fled into a

river, was metamorphosed into a reed, of which Pan made his flute.

SYRTIS, MAJOR AND MINOR, the ancient names of the Gulfs of Sidra and

Cabes on the N. coast of Africa, the former between Tripoli and Barca,

the latter between Tunis and Tripoli.

SYRUS, PUBLIUS, a slave brought to Rome, and on account of his wit

manumitted by his master; made his mark by composing memoirs and a

collection of pithy sayings that appear to have been used as a

school-book; flourished in 45 B.C.

SYSTÈME DE LA NATURE, a book, the authorship of which is ascribed to

BARON HOLBACH (q. v.), which appeared in 1770, advocating a

philosophical materialism and maintaining that nothing exists but matter,

and that mind is either naught or only a finer kind of matter; there is

nowhere anything, it insists, except matter and motion; it is the

farthest step yet taken in the direction of speculative as opposed to

political nihilism.

SYZYGY, the point on the orbit of a planet, or the moon when it is

in conjunction with, or in opposition to, the sun.

SZECHUAN (71,000), the largest province of China, lies in the W.

between Thibet (NW.) and Yunnan (SW.); more than twice the size of Great

Britain; a hilly country, rich in coal, iron, &c., and traversed by the

Yangtse-kiang and large tributaries; Chingtu is the capital; two towns

have been opened to foreign trade, opium, silk, tobacco, musk, white wax,

&c., being chief exports.

SZEGEDIN (89), a royal free city of Hungary, situated at the

confluence of the Maros and Theiss, 118 m. SE. of Budapest, to which it

ranks next in importance as a commercial and manufacturing centre; has

been largely rebuilt since the terribly destructive flood of 1879, and

presents a handsome modern appearance.

T

TABARD, a tunic without sleeves worn by military nobles over their

arms, generally emblazoned with heraldic devices. "Toom Tabard," empty

king's cloak, nickname given by the Scotch to John Balliol as nothing

more.

TABERNACLE, a movable structure of the nature of a temple, erected

by the Israelites during their wanderings in the wilderness; it was a

parallelogram in shape, constructed of boards lined with curtains, the

roof flat and of skins, while the floor was the naked earth, included a

sanctum and a sanctum sanctorum, and contained altars for sacrifice and

symbols of sacred import, especially of the Divine presence, and was

accessible only to the priests. See FEASTS, JEWISH.

TABLE MOUNTAIN, a flat-topped eminence in the SW. of Cape Colony,

rising to a height of 3600 ft. behind Cape Town and overlooking it, often

surmounted by a drapery of mist.

TABLES, THE TWELVE, the tables of the Roman laws engraven on brass

brought from Athens to Rome by the decemvirs.

TABLETS, name given to thin boards coated with wax and included in a

frame for writing on with a stylus.

TABLE-TURNING, movement of a table ascribed to the agency of spirits

or some recondite spiritual force acting through the media of a circle of

people standing round the edge touching it with their finger-tips in

contact with those of the rest.

TABOO or TABU, a solemn prohibition or interdict among the

Polynesians under which a particular person or thing is pronounced

inviolable, and so sacred, the violation of which entails malediction at

the hands of the supernatural powers.

TABOR, MOUNT, an isolated cone-shaped hill, 1000 ft. in height and

clothed with olive-trees, on the NE. borders of ESDRAËLON (q. v.),

7 m. E. of Nazareth. A tradition of the 2nd century identifies it

as the scene of the Tranfiguration, and ruins of a church, built by the

Crusaders to commemorate the event, crown the summit.

TABRIZ (170), an ancient and still important commercial city of

Persia, 320 m. SE. of Tiflis, 4500 ft. above sea-level; occupies an

elevated site on the Aji, 40 m. E. of its entrance into Lake Urumiah;

carries on a flourishing transit trade and has notable manufactures of

leather, silk, and gold and silver ware; has been on several occasions

visited by severe earthquakes.

TACITUS, CORNELIUS, Roman historian, born presumably at Rome, of

equestrian rank, early famous as an orator; married a daughter of

Agricola, held office under the Emperors Vespasian, Domitian, and Nerva,

and conducted along with the younger Pliny the prosecution of Marius

Priscus; he is best known and most celebrated as a historian, and of

writings extant the chief are his "Life of Agricola," his "Germania," his

"Histories" and his "Annals"; his "Agricola" is admired as a model

biography, while his "Histories" and "Annales" are distinguished for

"their conciseness, their vigour, and the pregnancy of meaning; a single

word sometimes gives effect to a whole sentence, and if the meaning of

the word is missed, the sense of the writer is not reached"; his great

power lies in his insight into character and the construing of motives,

but the picture he draws of imperial Rome is revolting; _b_. about A.D.

54.

TACNA (14), capital of a province (32) in North Chile, 38 m. N. of

Arica, with which it is connected by rail; trades in wool and minerals;

taken from Peru in 1883.

TACOMA (38), a flourishing manufacturing town and port of Washington

State, on Puget Sound; has practically sprung into existence within the

last 15 years, and is the outlet for the produce of a rich agricultural

and mining district.

TADMOR. See PALMYRA.

TAEL, a Chinese money of account of varying local value, and rising

and falling with the price of silver, but may be approximately valued at

between 6s. and 5s. 6d. The customs tael, equivalent in value to about 4s

9d., has been superseded by the new dollar of 1890, which is equal to

that of the United States.

TAGANROG (50), a Russian seaport on the N. shore of the Sea of Azov;

is the outlet for the produce of a rich agricultural district, wheat,

linseed, and hempseed being the chief exports. Founded by Peter the Great

in 1698.

TAGLIONI, MARIA, a famous ballet-dancer, born at Stockholm, the

daughter of an Italian ballet-master; made her _début_ in Paris in 1827

and soon became the foremost _danseuse_ of Europe; married Count de

Voisins in 1832; retired from the stage in 1847 with a fortune, which she

subsequently lost, a misfortune which compelled her to set up as a

teacher of deportment in London (1804-1884).

TAGUS, the largest river of the Spanish peninsula, issues from the

watershed between the provinces of Guadalajara and Teruel; follows a more

or less westerly course across the centre of the peninsula, and, after

dividing into two portions below Salvaterra, its united waters enter the

Atlantic by a noble estuary 20 m. long; total length 566 m., of which 190

are in Portugal; navigable as far as Abrantes.

TAHITI (11), the principal island of a group in the South Pacific;

sometimes called the Society Islands, situated 2000 m. NE. of New

Zealand; are mountainous, of volcanic origin, beautifully wooded, and

girt by coral reefs; a fertile soil grows abundant fruit, cotton, sugar,

&c., which, with mother-of-pearl, are the principal exports; capital and

chief harbour is Papeete (3); the whole group since 1880 has become a

French possession.

TAILLANDIER, SAINT-RENÉ, French littérateur and professor, born at

Paris; filled the chair of Literature at the Sorbonne from 1863; wrote

various works of literary, historical, and philosophical interest, and

did much by his writings to extend the knowledge of German art and

literature in France; was a frequent contributor to the _Revue des Deux

Mondes_, and in 1873 was elected a member of the Academy (1817-1879).

TAILORS, Carlyle's humorsome name in "Sartor" for the architects of

the customs and costumes woven for human wear by society, the inventors

of our spiritual toggery, the truly _poetic_ class.

TAILORS, THE THREE, OF TOOLEY STREET, three characters said by

Canning to have held a meeting there for redress of grievances, and to

have addressed a petition to the House of Commons beginning "We, the

people of England."

TAIN (2), a royal burgh of Ross-shire, on the S. shore of the

Dornoch Firth, 44 m. NE. of Inverness; has interesting ruins of a

13th-century chapel, a 15th-century collegiate church, an academy, &c.

TAINE, HIPPOLYTE ADOLPHE, an eminent French critic and historian,

born at Vouziers, in Ardennes; after some years of scholastic drudgery in

the provinces returned to Paris, and there, by the originality of his

critical method and brilliancy of style soon took rank among the foremost

French writers; in 1854 the Academy crowned his essay on Livy; ten years

later became professor of Æsthetics at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris,

and in 1878 was admitted to the French Academy; his voluminous writings

embrace works on the philosophy of art, essays critical and historical,

volumes of travel-impressions in various parts of Europe; but his finest

work is contained in his vivid and masterly studies on "Les Origines de

la France Contemporaine" and in his "History of English Literature"

(1833-4; Eng. trans, by Van Laun), the most penetrative and sympathetic

survey of English literature yet done by a foreigner; he was a disciple

of Sainte-Beuve, but went beyond his master in ascribing character too

much to external environment (1828-1893).

TAI-PINGS, a name bestowed upon the followers of Hung Hsiû-ch`wan, a

village schoolmaster of China, who, coming under the influence of

Christian teaching, sought to subvert the religion and ruling dynasty of

China; he himself was styled "Heavenly King," his reign "Kingdom of

Heaven," and his dynasty "Tai-Ping" (Grand Peace); between 1851 and 1855

the rising assumed formidable dimensions, but from 1855 began to decline;

the religious enthusiasm died away; foreign auxiliaries were called in,

and under the leadership of GORDON (q. v.) the rebellion was

stamped out by 1865.