MACTURK, CAPTAIN HECTOR, "the man of peace" in "St. Ronan's Well."

MADAGASCAR (3,500), largest island in the world but two, in the

Indian Ocean, 300 m. off the Mozambique coast, SE. Africa; is nearly

three times the size of Great Britain, a plateau in the centre, with low,

fertile, wooded ground round about; has many extinct volcanoes and active

hot springs; the highest peak is Ankàratra (9000 ft.), in the centre; the

NW. coast has some good harbours; there are 300 m. of lagoons on the E.;

the biggest lake is Alaotra, and the rivers flow mostly W.; the climate

is hot, with copious rains, except in the S.; rice, coffee, sugar, and

vanilla are cultivated; many kinds of valuable timber grow in the

forests, and these, with cattle, hides, and india-rubber, constitute the

exports; gold, iron, copper, lead, and sulphur are found, and the natives

are skilled in working metals; the Malagasys possess civilised

institutions; slavery was abolished in 1879; a quarter of the population

is Christian; the heathen section, though untruthful and immoral, are

affectionate, courageous, and loyal; Antanànarìvo (100), the capital, is

situated in the interior, and has many fine buildings; chief ports,

Tamatave on the E. and Majunga on the NW. coasts; the island has been

under French protection since 1890, and is a French colony since 1896.

MADEIRA (140), the chief of a group of small volcanic islands with

precipitous coasts, in the Atlantic, 400 m. off Morocco; has peaks 6000

ft. high and deep picturesque ravines; the island is a favourite resort

for consumptives; the climate is very mild and equable, the rainfall

moderate, and the soil fertile; crops of cereals and potatoes are raised;

oranges, lemons, grapes, figs, and bananas abound; Madeira wine is

famous, and the chief export; Funchal (21) is the capital, with an

exposed harbour and some good buildings; the islands form a province of

Portugal.

MADEIRA RIVER (i. e. river of the wood), formed by the junction of

the Mamoré and Beni on the borders of Bolivia and Brazil, flows 900 m.

NE., and joins the Amazon, as an affluent its longest and largest, and

forms a magnificent navigable waterway.

MADELEINE, CHURCH OF THE, one of the principal and wealthiest

churches in Paris, erected in the style of a Greek temple, and the

building of which, began in 1764, was not finished till 1842, both the

interior and exterior of which has been adorned by the most distinguished

artists.

MADGE WILDFIRE, a pretty but giddy girl in the "Heart of

Midlothian," whom seduction and the murder of her child drove crazy.

MADISON, JAMES, American statesman and President, born at Port

Conway, Virginia, educated at Princeton; devoted himself to politics in

1776; he took part in framing the Virginia constitution, and subsequently

secured religious liberty in the State; with Jay and Hamilton he

collaborated to establish the federation of the States and to frame the

Federal Constitution; the "three-fifths" rule, which won the adhesion of

the slave-holding States, was his suggestion; elected to the first

Congress, he attached himself to Jefferson's party, and was Secretary of

State during Jefferson's Presidency, 1801-1809; he succeeded his former

leader and held office for two terms, during which the war of 1812-14

with England was waged; his public life closed with his term of office,

1817 (1751-1836).

MADMAN OF THE NORTH, Charles XII. of Sweden, so called from his

temerity and impetuosity.

MADOC, a Welshman who, according to Welsh tradition, discovered

America 300 years before Columbus, after staying in which for a time he

returned, gave an account of what he had seen and experienced, and went

back, but was never heard of more; his story has been amplified by

Southey in an epic.

MADONNA is the name given to pictures of the Virgin with the infant

Christ, and more generally to all sacred pictures in which the Virgin is

a prominent figure; the Virgin has been a favourite subject of art from

the earliest times, the first representation of her being, according to

legend, by St. Luke; different countries and schools have depicted their

Madonnas, each in its own characteristic style; the greatest of all are

the Sistine and Della Sedia of Raphael.

MADRAS (35,630), one of the three Indian Presidencies, occupies the

S. and E. of the peninsula, and is one-half as large again as Great

Britain; the chief mountains are the Ghâts, from which flow SE. the

Godavari, Kistna, and Kavari Rivers, which, by means of extensive

irrigation works, fertilise the plains; climate is various; on the W.

coast very hot and with a rainfall from June to October of 120 inches,

producing luxurious vegetation; on the E. the heat is also great, but the

rainfall, which comes chiefly between October and December, is only 40

inches; in the hill country, e. g. Ootacamund, the government summer

quarters, it is genial and temperate all the year, and but for the

monsoons the finest in the world; rice is everywhere the chief crop;

cotton is grown in the E., tobacco in the Godavari region, tea, coffee,

and cinchona on the hills, and sugar-cane in different districts; gold is

found in Mysore (native State), and diamonds in the Karnul; iron abounds,

but without coal; the teak forests are of great value; cotton,

gunny-bags, sugar, and tiles are the chief manufactures; English

settlements date from 1611; the population, chiefly Hindu, includes 2

million Mohammedans and ¾ million Christians; the chief towns are

Rujumahendri (28), Vizugapatam (34), Trichinopoli (91), of cheroot fame,

and Mangalore (41), on the W. coast, and the capital MADRAS (453),

on the E., Coromandel, coast, a straggling city, hot but healthy, with an

open roadstead, pier, and harbour exposed to cyclones, a university,

examining body only, colleges of science, medicine, art, and agriculture,

and a large museum; the chief exports are coffee, tea, cotton, and

indigo.

MADRID (522), since 1561 the capital of Spain, on the Manzanares, a

mere mountain torrent, on an arid plateau in New Castile, the centre of

the peninsula; is an insanitary city, and liable to great extremes of

temperature; it is regularly built, sometimes picturesque, with great

open spaces, such as the Prado, 3 m. long; fine buildings and handsome

streets. It contains the royal palace, parliament and law-court houses, a

university, magnificent picture-gallery, many charitable institutions,

and a bull-ring. The book-publishing, tapestry weaving, and tobacco

industries are the most important. It is a growing and prosperous city.

MADRIGAL, a short lyric containing some pleasant thought or sweet

sentiment daintily expressed; applied also to vocal music of a similar

character.

MADVIG, JOHAN NICOLAI, Danish scholar and politician, born at

Svaneke, Bornholm; studied at Copenhagen, where he became professor of

Latin in 1829; his studies of the Latin prose authors brought him

world-wide fame, and his Latin Grammar (1841) and Greek Syntax (1846)

were invaluable contributions to scholarship; he entered parliament, was

repeatedly its president, and was Liberal Minister of Education and

Religion 1848 to 1851; he died blind (1804-1886).

MÆANDER, a river in Phrygia, flowing through the Plain of Troy, and

noted for its numerous windings.

MÆCENAS, a wealthy Roman statesman, celebrated for his patronage of

letters; was the friend and adviser of Augustus Cæsar, and the patron of

Virgil and Horace; claimed descent from the ancient Etruscan kings; left

the most of his property to Augustus; _d_. 8 B.C.

MAELSTRÖM. See MALSTRÖM.

MÆNADES, the priestesses of Bacchus, who at the celebration of his

festivals gave way to expressions of frenzied enthusiasm, as if they were

under the spell of some demonic power.

MÆONIDES, a name given to Homer, either as the son of Mæon, or as

born, according to one tradition, in Mæonia.

MAESTRICHT (33), capital of Dutch Limburg, on the Maes, 57 m. E. of

Brussels; has manufactures of glass, earthenware, and carpets; near it

are the vast subterranean quarries of the Pietersberg, opened by the

Romans.

MAETERLINCK, MAURICE, Belgian dramatist, born at Ghent; earned his

fame by "La Princesse Maleine," produced in Paris 1890, and followed by

"L'Intruse," "Les Aveugles," and several other plays; his essays show

religious sympathies; _b_. 1864.

MAFEKING, a station in NE. of British Bechuanaland, on the Transvaal

frontier, on the railway from Cape Town.

MAFFIA, a Sicilian secret society which aims at boycotting the

law-courts, superseding the law, and ruling the island; its chief weapon

is the boycott; violence is only resorted to for vengeance; funds are

raised by blackmail; popular support enables it to control elections,

avoid legal proceedings, and influence industrial questions. The Italian

government try in vain to put it down.

MAGDALA, an Abyssinian hill fortress on a lofty plateau 300 m. S. of

Massowah; captured by Lord Napier, who had been sent in 1868 to rescue

certain British subjects held prisoners there, and which he succeeded in

doing.

MAGDALENE, MARY, a Galilæan, belonging to Magdala, on the Sea of

Galilee, who followed Christ, stood by the cross, prepared spices for His

sepulchre, to whom He first appeared after His resurrection, and who is

supposed by some recent critics to be the sole voucher for His rising

again.

MAGDEBURG (202), on the Elbe, 75 m. SW. of Berlin, is the capital of

Prussian Saxony, one of the most important fortresses, the chief sugar

market of Germany, and the seat of large iron manufactures; it has also

distilleries and cotton mills, and is a busy railway centre; it is a

place of ancient date and historical interest.

MAGELLAN, FERDINAND, Portuguese navigator; served his country first

in the East Indies and Morocco, but dissatisfied with King Manuel's

treatment of him, offered himself to Spain; under Charles V.'s patronage

he and Ruy Falero set out to reach the Moluccas by the west in 1519; he

reached the Philippines, and died in battle in Matan; on this voyage he

discovered the MAGELLAN STRAIT, 375 m. long and 15 m. wide, between

the South American mainland and Tierra del Fuego; he gave name to the

Pacific from the calm he exceptionally, it appears, experienced on

entering it (1470-1521).

MAGELLANIC CLOUDS, two masses of stars and nebulæ seen in the

southern hemisphere, not far from the South Pole.

MAGENDIE, FRANÇOIS, a celebrated French physiologist, born at

Bordeaux; was the author of several works on physiology, made important

discoveries in connection with the animal system, and was an unscrupulous

vivisectionist (1783-1855).

MAGENTA (6), Italian town, 15 m. W. of Milan, where Macmahon

defeated a superior Austrian force in 1859.

MAGGIORE, LAGO (i. e. the Greater Lake), a large lake in the N. of

Italy, partly in Switzerland, 37 m. in length, and 8 m. in greatest

breadth, the river Ticino flowing through it. THE BORROMEAN

ISLANDS (q. v.) occupy a western arm of the lake.

MAGI, a priestly caste in the East, constituting the "learned"

class, as the Druids in the West: the custodiers of religion and the

rites connected therewith, and who gave themselves up to the study of

sciences of a recondite character, but with a human interest, such as

astrology and magic, and who were held in great reverence by, and

exercised a great influence over, the people.

MAGI, THE THREE, the "wise men from the East" mentioned in Matt.

ii.--Melchior, an old man, who brought gold, the emblem of royalty;

Gaspar, a youth, who brought frankincense, the emblem of divinity;

Balthazar, a Moor, who brought myrrh, the emblem of humanity--and who

were eventually regarded as the patron saints of travellers.

MAGIC, the pretended art to which extraordinary and marvellous

effects are ascribed, of evoking and subjecting to the human will

supernatural powers, and of producing by means of them apparitions,

incantations, cures, &c., and the practice of which we find prevailing in

all superstitious ages of the world and among superstitious people. See

SUPERSTITION.

MAGINN, WILLIAM, a witty, generous-hearted Irishman, born in Cork; a

man of versatile ability, who contributed largely to _Blackwood_, and

became editor of _Fraser's Magazine_, in the conduct of which latter he

gathered round him as contributors a number of the most eminent literary

men; the stories and verses he wrote gave signs of something like genius

(1793-1842).

MAGLIABECCHI, an inordinate bookworm, born in Florence; became

librarian of the Grand-Duke; his book-knowledge was as unbounded as his

avidity for knowledge; his memory was extraordinary; he carried in his

head the page of a passage in a book as well as the passage itself in the

_ipsissima verba_, (1633-1714).

MAGNA CHARTA, "the great charter," extorted from King John by the

barons of England at Runnymede on June 5, 1215, that guaranteed certain

rights and privileges to the subjects of the realm, which were pronounced

inviolable, and that established the supremacy of the law over the will

of the monarch.

MAGNA GRÆCA, the ancient name of the southern part of Italy, so

called in early times as it was extensively colonised by Greeks.

MAGNET, the name given to loadstone as first discovered in Magnesia,

a town in Asia Minor; also to a piece of iron, nickel, or cobalt having

similar properties, notably the power of setting itself in a definite

direction; also a coil of wire carrying an electric current, because such

a coil really possesses the properties characteristic of an iron magnet.

MAGNETIC INDUCTION, power in a magnet of imparting its qualities to

certain other substances.

MAGNETISM, the branch of science devoted to the study of the

properties of magnets, and of electric currents in their magnetic

relations; sometimes also used to denote the subtle influence supposed to

lie at the root of all magnetic phenomena, of the true nature of which

nothing is known. See ANIMAL MAGNETISM.

MAGNIFICAT, THE, a musical composition embracing the song of the

Virgin Mary in Luke I. 46-55, so called from the first word of the song

in the Vulgate; it belongs to, and forms part of, the evening service.

MAGNUSSEN, FINN, a Scandinavian scholar and archæologist, born in

Iceland; became professor of Literature at Copenhagen in 1815;

distinguished for his translation and exposition of the "Elder Edda"

(1781-1847).

MAGYARS, a people of Mongolian origin from the highlands of Central

Asia that migrated westward and settled in Hungary and Transylvania,

where they now form the dominant race.

MAHÂBHÂRATA, one of the two great epic poems of ancient India, a

work of slow growth, extending through ages, and of an essentially

encyclopædic character; one of the main sources of our knowledge of the

ancient Indian religions and their mythologies; it is said to consist of

upwards of 100,000 verses.

MAHÂDÊVA, the great god of the Hindus; an appellation of SIVA

(q. v.), as Mahâdêvi is of Durgâ, his wife.

MAHÁNADÉ, a great Indian river which, after flowing eastward for

over 500 m., the last 300 of which are navigable, falls into the Bay of

Bengal near Cape Palmyras; its volume in flood is enormous, and renders

it invaluable for irrigation.

MAHATMA, one who, according to the Theosophists, has passed through

the complete cycle of incarnation, has thereby attained perfection of

being, and acquired the rank of high priesthood and miraculous powers in

the spirit world, one, it would seem, of "the spirits of just men made

perfect."

MAHDI (i. e. religious leader), a name given to any Mohammedan

fanatic who arises in the interest of the Mohammedan faith, summons the

Moslems to war, and leads them to repel the infidel; a kind of Mohammed

Messiah armed with the sword for the conquest of the world to the faith.

MAHDI, MOHAMMED AHMED, a Mohammedan fanatic, born in Dongola, and

who, at the head of an army of dervishes, raised his standard for the

revival of Islam in the Soudan; he was unsuccessfully opposed by the

Egyptians, and Khartoum, occupied by them, fell into his hands, to the

sacrifice of General Gordon, just as the British relief army under Lord

Wolseley approached its walls in 1885, a few months after which he died

at Omdurman.

MAHDISM, a hope cherished by devout Moslems of a Mahdi to come who

will lead them on to victory against the infidel and to the conquest of

the world.

MAHMUD II., Sultan of Turkey; crushed a rebellion on his accession

by putting his brother to death, on whose behalf the janissaries had

risen, as they afterwards did to their annihilation at his hands by

wholesale massacre; by the victory of Navarino in 1827 he lost his hold

of Greece, which declared its independence, and was near losing his

suzerainty in Egypt when he died; his reign was an eventful one

(1785-1839).

MAHOMET. See MOHAMMED.

MAHON, LORD, EARL STANHOPE, statesman and historian; wrote "History

of the War of the Succession in Spain," "History of the Reign of Queen

Anne," and "History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of

Versailles" (1805-1875).

MAHONY, FRANCIS, an Irish priest, born in Cork, who took to

journalism, and is known by his _nom de plume_ of Father Prout;

contributed to _Fraser's Magazine_, and was foreign correspondent to the

_Daily News_ and the _Globe_; was famous for his elegant translations

(1804-1866).

MAHOUN, a contemptuous name for Mahomet, transferred in Scotland to

the devil, who was called Old Mahoun.

MAHRATTAS, a warlike Hindu race in Central India, occupying a

territory watered by the Nerbudda, Godavari, and Kistna, who at one time

kept up a struggle for the supremacy of India with the British, but were

finally subdued in 1843.

MAÏ, ANGELO, cardinal, distinguished scholar and editor; became

librarian of the Vatican; was distinguished for deciphering

PALIMPSESTS (q. v.), and thus disclosing lost classical works or

fragments of them; he edited a number of unedited MSS. which he found in

the Vatican, and in particular the Vatican codex of the Bible

(1782-1854).

MAIA, the daughter of Atlas, the eldest of the seven PLEIADES

(q. v.), and the mother by Zeus of Hermes or Mercury.

MAID MARIAN, a man dressed as a woman who grimaced and performed

antics in the morris dances.

MAID OF NORWAY, daughter of Eric II., king of Norway, and through

her mother heiress to the Scottish crown; died on her passage to Scotland

in 1240.

MAID OF ORLEANS, Joan of Arc, so called from her defence of Orleans

against the English. See JOAN.

MAIDEN, THE, a sort of guillotine that appears to have been in use

in Scotland during the 15th and 16th centuries, of which there is one in

the Antiquarian Museum, Edinburgh.

MAIDMENT, JAMES, antiquary and collector, born in London; passed

through Edinburgh University to the Scotch bar, and was chief authority

on genealogical cases; his hobby was the collection of literary rarities,

and he published editions of ancient literary remains; he died at

Edinburgh (1794-1879).

MAIDSTONE (32), county town of Kent, on the Medway, 30 m. SE. of

London; has several fine old churches and historical buildings, a grammar

school and a school of art and music, numerous paper-mills, and

breweries, and does a large trade in hops; Woollett the engraver and

Hazlitt the essayist were born here.

MAIMON, SOLOMON, philosopher, born, of Jewish parents, in a village

of Minsk; came to Berlin, where he studied, lived an eccentric, vagabond

life, dependent mostly on his friends; made the acquaintance of Kant and

Goethe, and attempted and published an eclectic system of philosophy in

1790, being Kant's system supplemented from Spinoza, Leibnitz, and Locke,

and even Hume; his last patron was Count Kalkreuth, at whose house in

Siegersdorf he died (1754-1800).

MAIMONIDES, MOSES, a Jewish rabbi, born at Cordova, whom the Jews

regarded as their Plato, and called the "Lamp of Israel" and the "Eagle

of the doctors"; was a man of immense learning, and was physician to the

Sultan of Egypt; in his relation to the Jews he ranks next to Moses, and

taught them to interpret their religion in the light of reason; he wrote

a "Commentary on the Mishna and the Second Law," but his chief work is

the "Moreh Nebochim," or "Guide to the Perplexed" (1135-1204).

MAINE (662), the most north-easterly State in the American Union,

lies between Quebec and New Hampshire on the W. and New Brunswick and the

Atlantic on the E., and is a little larger than Ireland, a picturesque

State with high mountains in the W., Katahdin (5000 ft), many large lakes

like Moosehead, numerous rivers, and a much indented rocky coast; the

climate is severe but healthy, the soil only in some places fertile, the

rainfall is abundant; dense forests cover the north; hay, potatoes,

apples, and sweet corn are chief crops; cotton, woollen, leather

manufactures, lumber working, and fruit canning are principal industries;

the fisheries are valuable; timber, building stone, cattle, wool, and in

winter ice are exported; early Dutch, English, and French settlements

were unsuccessful till 1630; from 1651 Maine was part of Massachusetts,

till made a separate State in 1820; the population is English-Puritan and

French-Canadian in origin; education is advancing; the State's Liquor Law

of 1851 was among the first of the kind: the capital is Augusta (11);

Portland (36) is the largest city and chief seaport; Lewiston (22) has

cotton manufactures.

MAINE, SIR HENRY, English jurist, legal member of the Council in

India, and professor of Jurisprudence at Oxford; wrote on "Ancient Law,"

and important works on ancient institutions generally; regarded the

social system as a development of the patriarchal system (1822-1888).

MAINTENANCE, CAP OF, an ermine-lined, crimson velvet cap, the

wearing of which was a distinction granted first to dukes but

subsequently to various other families.

MAINTENON, FRANÇOISE D'AUBIGNÉ, MARQUISE DE, born in the prison of

Niort, where her father was incarcerated as a Protestant; though well

inoculated with Protestant principles she turned a Catholic, married the

poet Scarron in 1652, became a widow in 1660; was entrusted with the

education of the children of Louis XIV. and Madame de Montespan;

supplanted the latter in the king's affections, and was secretly married

to him in 1684; she exercised a great influence over him, not always for

good, and on his death in 1715 retired into the Convent of St. Cyr, which

she had herself founded for young ladies of noble birth but in humble

circumstances (1635-1719).

MAINZ or MAYENCE (72), in Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Rhine,

opposite the mouth of the Main, is an important German fortress and one

of the oldest cities in Germany; it has a magnificent cathedral, restored

in 1878, and is a stronghold of Catholicism; a large transit trade is

done, and the making of furniture, leather goods, and machinery are

important industries; Gutenberg was a native.

MAISTRE, COUNT, JOSEPH DE, a keen and extreme Ultramontanist, born

at Chambéry, of a noble French family; accompanied the king of Sardinia

in his retreat while the French occupied Savoy in 1792; was ambassador at

St. Petersburg from 1803 to 1817, when he was recalled to the home

government at Turin; wrote numerous works, the chief "Du Pape" and

"Soirées de St. Petersbourg" (1753-1821).

MAITLAND, WILLIAM, Scottish politician and reformer, the Secretary

Lethington of Queen Mary's reign; played a prominent part in the various

movements of his time, but gained the confidence of no party; he adhered

to the party of Moray as against the extreme measures of Knox, and proved

a highly astute ambassador at the English Court; he connived at Rizzio's

murder, but regained Mary's favour, and when she fled to England he,

though joining with the new government, acted in her interest and formed

a party to restore her to power; he and Kirkcaldy of Grange were forced

to surrender, however, at Edinburgh in 1573, and Maitland afterwards died

in Leith prison (1525-1573).

MAJOLICA, a kind of enamelled pottery imported into Italy from

Majorca, known also as faience from its manufacture at Faenza, and

applied also to vessels made of coloured clay in imitation.

MAJORCA (234), the largest of the Balearic Isles, is 130 m. NE. of

Cape San Antonio, in Spain; mountains in the N. rise to 5000 ft., their

slopes covered with olives, oranges, and vines; the plains are extremely

fertile, and the climate mild and equable; manufactures of cotton, silk,

and shoes are the industries; the capital, PALMA (61), is on the S.

coast, at the head of a large bay of the same name.

MAJUSCULE, a capital letter found in old Latin MSS. in and before

the 6th century.

MAKRIZI, TAKI-ED-DIN AHMED EL-, greatest Arabic historian of Egypt,

born at Cairo; studied philosophy and theology, and in 1385 won the green

turban; occupied several political and ecclesiastical offices; went to

Damascus in 1408, but returning to Cairo devoted himself to history, and

published among other works an important "History of Egypt and Cairo"

(1364-1442).

MALABAR (2,653), a district in the W. of Madras, sloping from the

Ghâts down to the Indian Ocean, very rainy, covered with vast forests of

teak; produces rice, coffee, and pepper.

MALACCA is a name given to the whole Malay Peninsula, that

remarkable tongue of land 44 to 210 m. wide, stretching 800 m. SE. from

Burma between the Strait of Malacca and the Gulf of Siam; mountain ranges

7000 ft. high from the backbone; along the coast are deep mangrove

swamps; the plains between yield rice, sugar-cane, cotton, and tobacco;

there are forests of teak, camphor, ebony, and sandal-wood, and the

richest tin mines in the world; the climate is unhealthy; the northern

portion is Siamese, the southern constitutes the British Straits

Settlements, of which one, on the W. coast, is specifically called

MALACCA (92); it exports tin and tapioca; the capital, MALACCA

(20), 120 m. NW. of Singapore, was the scene of Francis Xavier's labours.

MALACHI, a prophetic book of the Old Testament, the author of which

is otherwise unknown, as the name, which means the "Messenger of

Jehovah," occurs nowhere else in the Bible, and it is a question whether

the name is that of a person or a mere appellative; the prophecy it

contains appears to have been uttered 420 B.C., and refers to abuses

which came to a head between the first and second visits of Nehemiah to

Jerusalem; it lacks the old prophetic fire, and gives the impression that

the prophetic office is ended.

MALACHY, ST., archbishop of Armagh in the 12th century; was a friend

of St. Bernard's, who wrote his Life and in whose arms he died at

Clairvaux; was renowned for his sanctity as well as learning; a book of

prophecies ascribed to him bearing on the Roman pontiffs is a forgery.

MALADETTA, MOUNT (i. e. the accursed), the name of the highest

summit of the Pyrenees, 11,168 ft. high, in NE. of Zaragoza.

MALAGA (132), Spanish seaport, 65 m. NE. of Gibraltar, an ancient

Phoenician town, is now an important but declining centre of commerce; it

exports olive-oil, wine, raisins, lead, &c., and manufactures cotton,

linen, machinery, fine-art pottery, &c.; its magnificent climate makes it

an excellent health resort.

MALAGROWTHER, an old courtier in the "Fortunes of Nigel" soured by

misfortune, and who would have every one be as discontented as himself.

MALAISE, an uneasy feeling which often precedes a serious attack of

some disease.

MALAPROP, MRS., a character in Sheridan's "Rivals," noted for her

blunders in the use of fine or learned words, as in the use of "allegory"

for "alligator."

MÄLAR LAKE, large and beautiful Swedish lake, stretching 80 m.

westward from Stockholm; its shores are deeply indented with bays, and

the surrounding hills as well as the thousand islands it contains are

well wooded.

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO or INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO is that group of many

hundred islands stretching from the Malay Peninsula SE. to Australia

between the North Pacific and the Indian Ocean, of which Borneo, Sumatra,

Java, and Celebes are the largest.

MALAYS, a branch of the human family now classed among the Mongols,

and which inhabit the Malay Peninsula, the islands of the Indian

Archipelago, as well as Madagascar, and many of the islands in the

Pacific; they are of a dark-brown or tawny complexion, short of stature,

have flat faces, black coarse hair, and high cheek-bones; there are three

classes of them, distinguished from each other in character and habits of

life; the more civilised of them are Mohammedans.

MALCOLM, SIR JOHN, Indian soldier and statesman, born in

Dumfriesshire; went as cadet to the Madras army in 1785, and for over 30

years was an important figure in Eastern affairs; he was ambassador to

Persia 1800, governor of Mysore 1803, again in Persia as plenipotentiary

in 1807 and 1810, political agent in the Deccan 1817, and governor of

Bombay 1827-30; he distinguished himself also in several wars; wrote "A

History of Persia" and other historical works, and returning to England

entered Parliament in 1831, opposed to the Reform Bill; two years later

he died in London (1769-1833).

MALCOLM CANMORE, son of Duncan, whom Macbeth slew, succeeded his

father in 1040 as king of Cumbria and Lothian, and in 1057, on Macbeth's

death, became king of all Scotland; till 1066 his reign was peaceful, but

thereafter it was one long conflict with the Normans in England; raids

and counter-raids succeeded each other till, in 1091, Malcolm was forced

to do homage to William Rufus; next year he lost his possessions S. of

the Solway, and in 1093 he was slain in battle at Alnwick; the influence

of his second wife, the saintly Margaret, did much to promote the

civilisation of Scotland and to bring the Scottish Church into harmony

with the rest of Christendom.

MALDIVE ISLANDS (20), a chain of several hundred tiny coral islands

in the Indian Ocean stretching 550 m. southward from a point 300 m. SW.

of Cape Comorin, 200 of which are inhabited; Malé is the residence of the

sultan, who is a tributary of the governor of Ceylon; the natives are

akin to the Singhalese, and occupy themselves gathering cowries,

cocoa-nuts, and tortoise-shell for exportation.

MALEBOLGE, the name given to the eighth circle in Dante's "Inferno,"

as consisting of "evil pits," which the name means, 10 in number, for

those guilty of frauds: contains (1) seducers, (2) flatterers, (3)

simonists, (4) soothsayers, (5) bribers and receivers of bribes, (6)

hypocrites, (7) robbers, (8) evil advisers, (9) slanderers, (10) forgers.

MALEBRANCHE, NICHOLAS, a French metaphysician, born in Paris;

determined to embrace a monastic life, entered the congregation of the

Oratory at the age of 22, and devoted himself to theological study, till

the treatise of Descartes on "Man" falling into his hands, he gave

himself up to philosophy; his famous work "De la Recherche de la Vérité"

was published in 1673, the main object of which was to bridge over the

gulf which separates mind from matter by the establishment of the thesis

that the mind immediately perceives God, and sees all things in God, who

in Himself includes the presumed irreconcilable antithesis (1638-1715).

MALESHERBES, LAMOIGNON DE, French statesman, born in Paris; a good

and upright man; was twice over called to be one of Louis XVI.'s

advisers, but his advice was not taken and he retired; defended Louis at

his trial; pled for him "with eloquent want of eloquence, in broken

sentences, in embarrassment and sobs," and was guillotined for it; he had

been censor of the press, and to his liberal-minded censorship the world

owes the publication of the "Encyclopédie" (1721-1794).

MALHERBE, FRANÇOIS DE, a French lyric poet and miscellaneous writer

of great industry, born at Caen, is, from his correct though affected

style, regarded as one of the reformers of the French language

(1555-1628).

MALIGNANTS, the advisers of Charles I., chief among whom were

Strafford and Laud; were so called by the Parliamentarians, who blamed

them for the evils of the country; the name was afterwards applied to the

whole Royalist party.

MALINES or MECHLIN (52), a Belgian city on the Dyle, 14 m. S.

of Antwerp; has lost its old commercial activity, and is now the quiet

ecclesiastical capital; masterpieces of Van Dyck and Rubens adorn its

churches.

MALINGERING, a name given in the army to the crime of feigning

illness to evade duty or obtain a discharge.

MALLET, DAVID, originally MALLOCH, Scottish littérateur, born

in Crieff; wrote several plays, and is remembered for his ballad entitled

"William and Margaret"; he was a friend of Thomson, and divided with him

the honour of the authorship of "Rule Britannia," the merit of which,

however, is more in the music than in the poetry, about which they

contested (1702-1765).

MALLOCK, WILLIAM HURRELL, author, born in Devonshire, educated at

Oxford; published "The New Republic," 1876, a masterly satire on

prominent contemporaries, which none of his subsequent work has excelled;

_b_. 1849.

MALMAISON, a historical château 10 m. W. of Paris; belonged

originally to Richelieu; saw the last days of Joséphine, whose favourite

residence it was, and was the scene of the repulse of Ducrot's sortie in

October 1870.

MALMESBURY, WILLIAM OF, an English chronicler of the 12th century;

his chief work "Gesta Regum Anglorum" and "Gesta Pontificum Anglorum,"

followed by his "Historia Novella."

MALMÖ (50), important seaport and third town of Sweden, opposite

Copenhagen; ships farm produce, cement, and timber; imports machinery,

textile fabrics, and coffee; has cigar and sugar factories, and some

shipbuilding.

MALONE, EDMUND, a Shakespearian critic and editor, born in Dublin,

was a stickler for literary accuracy and honesty (1741-1812).

MALORY, SIR THOMAS, flourished in the 15th century; was the author

of "Morte d'Arthur," being a translation in prose of a labyrinthine

selection of Arthurian legends, which was finished in the ninth year of

Edward IV., and printed fifteen years after by Caxton "with all care."

MALPIGHI, MARCELLO, Italian anatomist and professor of Medicine;

noted for his discovery of the corpuscles of the kidney and the spleen,

named after him (1628-1694).

MALSTRÖM, or MAELSTRÖM, a dangerous whirlpool off the coast of

Norway, caused by the rushing of the currents of the ocean in a channel

between two of the Loffoden Islands, and intensified at times by contrary

winds, to the destruction often of particularly small craft caught in the

eddies of it, and sometimes of whales attempting to pass through it.

MALTA (with Gozo) (177), a small British island in the Mediterranean,

80 m. S. of Sicily; is a strongly fortified and a most important naval

station, head-quarters of the British Mediterranean fleet, and

coaling-station for naval and mercantile marine; with a history of great

interest, Malta was annexed to Britain in 1814. The island is treeless,

and with few streams, but fertile, and has many wells. Wheat, potatoes,

and fruit are largely cultivated, and filigree work and cotton

manufactured. The people are industrious and thrifty; population is the

densest in Europe. The Roman Catholic Church is very powerful. There is a

university at Valetta, and since 1887 Malta has been self-governing.

MALTEBRUN, CONRAD, geographer, born in Denmark; studied in

Copenhagen, but banished for his revolutionary sympathies; settled in

Paris; was the author of several geographical works, his "Geographic

Universelle" the chief (1775-1826).

MALTHUS, THOMAS R., an English economist, born near Dorking, in

Surrey; is famous as the author of an "Essay on the Principle of

Population," of which the first edition appeared in 1798, and the final,

greatly enlarged, in 1803; the publication provoked much hostile

criticism, as it propounded a doctrine which was disastrous to the

accepted theory of perfectibility, and which aimed at showing how the

progress of the race was held in check by the limited supply of the means

of subsistence, a doctrine that admittedly anticipated that struggle for

life on a larger scale which the Darwinian hypothesis requires for its

"survival of the fittest" (1766-1834).

MALVERN, GREAT (6), a watering-place in Worcestershire, on the side

of the Malvern Hills, with a clear and bracing air, a plentiful supply of

water, and much frequented by invalids.

MAMBRINO, a Moorish king, celebrated in the romances of chivalry,

who possessed a helmet of pure gold which rendered the wearer of it

invulnerable, the possession of which was the ambition of all the

paladins of Charlemagne, and which was carried off by Rinaldo, who slew

the original owner; Cervantes makes his hero persuade himself that he has

found it in a barber's brass basin.

MAMELUKES, originally slaves from the regions of the Caucasus,

captured in war or bought in the market-place, who became the bodyguard

of the Sultan in Egypt, and by-and-by his master to the extent of ruling

the country and supplying a long line of Sultans of their own election

from themselves, many of them enlightened rulers, governing the country

well, but their supremacy was crushed by the Sultan of Turkey in 1517;

after this, however, they retained much of their power, and they offered

a brilliant resistance to Bonaparte at the battle of the Pyramids in

1798, who defeated them; but recovering their power after his withdrawal

and proving troublesome, they were by two treacherous massacres

annihilated in 1811 by Mehemet Ali, who became Viceroy of Egypt under the

Porte.

MAMMON, the Syrian god of riches, which has given name to the modern

passion for material wealth, specially conceived of as an abnegation of

Christianity, the profession of which is in flat antagonism to it.

MAMMOTH, an extinct species of elephant of enormous size found

fossilised in Northern Europe and Asia in deposits alongside of human

remains, and yielding a supply of fossil ivory.

MAMMOTH CAVE, a cave in Kentucky, U.S., about 10 m., the largest in

the world, and rising at one point to 300 ft. in height, with numerous

side branches leading into grottoes traversed by rivers, which here and

there collect into lakes; name also of another of smaller dimensions in

California.

MAN, ISLE OF (56), a small island in the Irish Sea, 35 m. W. of

Cumberland and about the same distance E. of Co. Down; from its equable

climate and picturesque scenery is a favourite holiday resort; it has

important lead mines at Laxey and Foxdale; fishing and cattle-grazing are

profitable industries; the people are Keltic, with a language and

government of their own; the island is a bishopric, with the title Sodor

and Man.

MAN OF DESTINY, name given to Napoleon Bonaparte as reflecting his

own belief, for he was a fatalist.

MAN OF FEELING, the title of a novel by Henry Mackenzie, frequently

applied to himself as well as his hero.

MAN OF ROSS, John Kyrle, a public-spirited gentleman, immortalised

by Pope from the name of his parish in Hereford. See KYRLE.

MAN OF SIN, name given in 2 Thess. ii. 3 to the incarnation at the

height of its pride of the spirit of Antichrist, synchronous with the day

of its fall.

MANASSEH-BEN-ISRAEL, a Jewish rabbi, born at Lisbon; settled at

Amsterdam; wrote several works in the interest of Judaism (1604-1659).

MANBY, CAPTAIN, a militia officer, born in Norfolk; was inventor of

the apparatus for saving shipwrecked persons, and by means of which he

saved the lives of nearly a thousand persons himself (1765-1854).

MANCHA, LA, an ancient province of Spain, afterwards included in New

Castile, the greater part of which is occupied by Ciudad-Real; it is

memorable as the scene of Don Quixote's adventures.

MANCHE, LA, the French name for the English Channel, so called from

its resemblance to a sleeve, which the word in French means.

MANCHESTER (505), on the Irwell, in the SE. of Lancashire, 30 m. E.

of Liverpool, the centre of the English cotton manufacturing district,

with many other textile and related industries, is an ancient, rich, and

prosperous city; it has many fine buildings, including a Gothic Town Hall

and Assize Court-House by Waterhouse; there is a picture-gallery,

philosophic and other institutions, and technical school; Owens College

is the nucleus of Victoria University; the substitution of steam for hand

power began here about 1750; the industrial struggles in the beginning of

the 19th century were severe, and included the famous "Peterloo

massacre"; the Anti-Corn-Law League originated in Manchester, and

Manchester has given its name to a school of Liberal politicians

identified with the advocacy of peace abroad, free trade, no government

interference with industry, and _laissez-faire_ principles at home; the

Bridgewater Canal 1762, the railway 1830, and the Ship Canal to the mouth

of the Mersey 1894, mark steps in the city's progress; since 1888

Manchester with Salford (198), on the opposite bank of the Irwell, have

formed a county.

MANCHESTER, EDWARD MONTAGU, EARL OF, English statesman and general,

eldest son of the first earl; sided with the Parliament in the Civil War,

and commanded in the army, but was censured by Cromwell for his slackness

at Newbury, which he afterwards resented by opposing the policy of the

Protector; he contributed to the restoration of Charles II., and was in

consequence made Lord Chamberlain (1602-1671).

MANCHURIA (21,000), a Chinese province lying between Mongolia and

Corea, with the Amur River on the N. and the Yellow Sea on the S., is

five times the size of England and Wales; the northern, central, and

eastern parts are mountainous; the Sungari is the largest river; the soil

is fertile, producing large crops of millet, maize, hemp, &c., but the

climate in winter is severe; pine forests abound; the country is rich in

gold, silver, coal, and iron, but they are little wrought; beans, silk,

skins and furs are exported; the imports include textiles, metals, paper,

and opium; the Manchus are the aristocracy of the province; Chinese

settlers are industrious and prosperous; the chief towns are Moukden

(250) in the S., Kirin (75) on the Sungari, and New-Chwang (60) on the

Liao River, a treaty-port since 1858; Russian influence predominates in

the province since 1890.

MANDÆANS, a community found working as skilled artisans in the

Persian province of Khuzistan, and in Basra on the Euphrates; are a

religious sect; called also Sabians, and holding tenets gathered from

Christian, Jewish, and heathen sources, resembling those of the ancient

Gnostics; their priesthood admits women; their chief rite is baptism, and

hence their old name, Christians of St. John the Baptist.

MANDALAY (189), capital of Upper Burma, on the Irawadi, in the

centre of the country, 360 m. N. of Rangoon; was seized by the British in

1885. The Aracan Pagoda, with a brazen image of the Buddha, attracts many

pilgrims, and Buddhist monasteries cluster outside the town. There are

silk-weaving, gold, silver, ivory, and wood work, gong-casting and

sword-making industries. Great fires raged in it in 1886 and 1892.

MANDARIN, the name given by foreigners, derived from the Portuguese,

signifying to "command," to Chinese official functionaries, of which

there are some nine orders, distinguished by the buttons on their caps,

and they are appointed chiefly for their possession of the requisite

qualifications for the office they aspire to.

MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE, a cynical writer, born at Dordrecht,

Holland; bred to medicine; came to London to practise; wrote in racy

English the "Fable of the Bees," intended to show, as Stopford Brooke

says, how the "vices of society are the foundation of civilisation," or

as Professor Saintsbury says, how "vice makes some bees happy, and virtue

makes them miserable"; the latter calls him "The Diogenes of English

Philosophy"; he affirmed that "private vices are public benefits," and

reduced virtue into a form of selfishness; his satire is directed against

the ethics of SHAFTESBURY (q. v.) (1670-1733).

MANDEVILLE, SIR JOHN, English adventurer, named of St. Albans, who

from his own account travelled over thirty years in the East, and wrote a

narrative of the marvels he experienced in a book of voyages and travels

published in 1356; the authorship of this book has been questioned, but

on this point there is no doubt that, as Professor Saintsbury says, "it

is the first book of belles-lottres in English prose."

MANDINGOES, a negro race in Senegambia, and farther inland around

the Quorra; are numerous and powerful, and arranged in separate

nationalities so to speak.

MANES, the general name given by the Romans to the departed spirits

of good men, who are conceived of as dwelling in the nether world, and as

now and again ascending to the upper.

MANES, MANI, or MANICHÆANS, the founder of the

MANICHÆANS (q. v.), a native of Persia, and who died A.D. 274.

MANETHO, an Egyptian priest and historian, of the 3rd century B.C.;

wrote a history of Egypt in Greek, derived from study of sacred

monumental inscriptions, which is extant only in fragments.

MANFRED, king of the Two Sicilies, son of the Emperor Frederick II.,

who had to struggle for his birthright with three Popes, Innocent IV.,

Alexander IV., and Urban IV., the last of whom having excommunicated him,

as his predecessors had done, and bestowed his dominions on Charles of

Anjou, in conflict with whom at Benevento he fell, and who denied him

Christian burial, though his nobles pled with him to grant it

(1231-1266).

MANFRED, COUNT, hero of a poem of Byron's; sold himself to the

Prince of Darkness; lived in solitude on the Alps, estranged from all

sympathy with others, and was carried off in the end by the master whom

he had served.

MANHATTAN, a long island at the mouth of the Hudson, on which a

great part of New York stands.

MANICHÆISM, the creed which ascribes the created universe to two

antagonistic principles, the one essentially good--God, spirit, light;

the other essentially evil--the devil, matter, darkness; and this name is

applied to every system founded on the like dualism. Mani, the founder of

it, appears to have borrowed his system in great part from Zoroaster.

MANILA (270), capital of the Philippine Islands; at the head of a

great bay on the W. coast of Luzon; is hot, but not unhealthy; suffers

severely from storms and earthquakes, and is largely built of wood. It

has a cathedral, university, and observatory. Its only industry is

cigar-making, but the exports include also manila hemp, sugar, and

coffee. The population, chiefly Tagals, includes 25,000 Chinese, many

Spaniards and Europeans. In the Spanish-American War of 1898 Admiral

Dewey captured the city.

MANIN, DANIEL, an illustrious Italian patriot, born at Venice, of

Jewish birth; bred for the bar, and practised at it; became President of

the Venetian Republic in 1848, and was one of the most distinguished

opponents of the domination of Austria; died at Paris, a teacher of

Italian (1804-1857).

MANITO`BA (193), a partially developed inland province of Canada,

somewhat larger than England and Wales; is square in shape, with the

United States on its S. border, Assiniboia on the W., Saskatchewan and

Keewatin on the N., and Ontario on the E.; a level prairie and arable

country, scantily wooded but well watered, having three large lakes,

Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, and Manitoba, and three large rivers,

Assiniboine, Souris, and Red River. The climate is dry and healthy,

though subject to great extremes of temperature; comparatively little

snow falls; the soil is very fertile; mixed farming, dairy, cattle, and

sheep farming are carried on successfully. Land is cheap, and the

government still makes free grants of 160-acre lots. There is no mineral

wealth; coal is found in the S.; fishing is pursued on the lakes and

rivers. Constituted a province in 1870, Manitoba was the scene of the

Riel rebellion, quelled that same year. The government is vested in a

lieutenant-governor, an executive council, and a single chamber of 40

members. In the Dominion Government the province is represented by four

members of Senate and five members of the Commons. The capital is

Winnipeg (26), the seat of a university and of extensive flour-mills. The

other chief towns are Brandon (4), a market town, and Portage-la-Prairie

(4), with a brewery, flour, and paper mills.

MANITOU, among the North American Indians an animal revealed to the

head of a tribe as the guardian spirit of it, and an object of sacred

regard. See TOTEMISM.

MANLIUS, CAPITOLINUS, a Roman hero who, in 390 B.C., saved Rome

from an attack of the Gauls, and who was afterwards for treason thrown

down the Tarpeian Rock.

MANN, HORACE, American educationist, born in Massachusetts; was

devoted to the cause of education as well as that of anti-slavery

(1790-1859).

MANNA, the food with which the Israelites were miraculously fed in

the wilderness, a term which means "What is this?" being the expression

of surprise of the Israelites on first seeing it.

MANNHEIM (79), on the right bank of the Rhine, 55 m. above Mainz;

the chief commercial centre of Baden; has manufactures of tobacco,

india-rubber, and iron goods, and a growing river trade. An old

historical city, it was formerly capital of the Rhenish Palatinate, and a

resort of Protestant refugees.

MANNING, HENRY EDWARD, cardinal, born in Hertfordshire; Fellow of

Merton, Oxford, and a leader in the Tractarian Movement there; became

rector in Sussex; married, and became Archdeacon of Chichester; his wife

being dead, and dissatisfied with the state of matters in the Church of

England, in 1851 joined the Church of Rome, became Archbishop of

Westminster in 1865, and Cardinal in 1875; took interest in social

matters as well as the Catholic propaganda; a too candid "Life" has been

written of him since his decease, which has created much controversy

(1808-1892).

MANS, LE (53), capital of French department of Sarthe, on the river

Sarthe, 170 m. SW. of Paris; has a magnificent cathedral; is an important

railway centre, and has textile and hosiery factories. It was the scene

of a great French defeat in January 1871.

MANSARD, the name of two French architects, born in

Paris--FRANÇOIS, who constructed the Bank of France (1598-1666), and

JULES HARDOUN, his grand-nephew, architect of the dome of the

Invalides and of the palace and chapel of Versailles (1645-1708).

MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE, dean of St. Paul's, born in

Northamptonshire; wrote admirably on philosophical and religious

subjects, and was a doughty adversary in controversy both with Mill and

Maurice; he was a follower in philosophy of SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON

(q. v.) (1820-1871).

MANSFIELD (16), market-town of Notts, 14 m. N. of Nottingham, in the

centre of a mining district, with iron and lace-thread manufactures.

MANSFIELD, WILLIAM MURRAY, EARL OF, Lord Chief-Justice of England,

born in Perth, called to the bar in 1730; distinguished himself as a

lawyer, entered Parliament in 1743, and became Solicitor-General,

accepted the chief-justiceship in 1756; was impartial as a judge, but

unpopular; raised to the peerage in 1776, and resigned his judgeship in

1789 (1704-1793).

MANSFIELD COLLEGE, Oxford, a theological college established there

for the education of students intended for the Nonconformist ministry,

though open to other classes; the buildings were opened in 1889.

MANSION HOUSE, the official residence of the Lord Mayor of London,

erected in 1739 at a cost of £42,638, with a banqueting-room capable of

accommodating 400 guests.

MANTEGNA, ANDREA, an Italian painter and engraver, born at Padua;

his works were numerous, did atlas pieces and frescoes, his greatest "The

Triumph of Cæsar"; he was a man of versatile genius, was sculptor and

poet as well as painter, and his influence on Italian art was great

(1430-1504).

MANTELL, GIDEON, an eminent English geologist and palæontologist,

born at Lewes, in Sussex; wrote "The Wonders of Geology," "Thoughts on a

Pebble," &c.; he was a voluminous author, and distinguished for his study

of fossils (1790-1852).

MANTEUFFEL, BARON VON, field-marshal of Germany, born in Dresden;

entered the Prussian army in 1827, rose rapidly, and took part in all the

wars from 1866 to 1872, and was appointed viceroy at the close of the

last in Alsace-Lorraine, a rather unhappy appointment, as it proved

(1809-1885).

MANTRA, the name given to hymns from the Veda, the repetition of

which are supposed to have the effect of a charm.

MANTUA (28), the strongest fortress in Italy, in SE. Lombardy, on

two islands in the river Mincio, 83 m. E. of Milan, is a somewhat gloomy

and unhealthy town, with many heavy mediæval buildings; there are

saltpetre refineries, weaving and tanning industries. Virgil was born

here in 70 B.C. The town was Austrian in the 18th century, but ceded to

Italy 1866.

MANTUAN SWAN, a name given to the Roman poet Virgil, from his having

been a native of Mantua, in N. Italy.

MANU, CODE OF, one of the sacred books of the Hindus, in which is

expounded the doctrine of Brahminism, inculcating "sound, solid, and

practical morality," and containing evidence of the progress of

civilisation among the Aryans from their first establishment in the

valley of the Ganges. Manu, the alleged author, appears to have been a

primitive mythological personage, conceived of as the ancestor and

legislator of the human race, and as having manifested himself through

long ages in a series of incarnations.

MANZONI, ALESSANDRO, Italian poet and novelist, born at Milan; began

a sceptic, but became a devout Catholic; wrote a volume of hymns,

entitled "Inni Sacri," and a tragedy, "Adelchi," his masterpiece, and

admired by Goethe, as also a prose fiction, "I Promessi Sposi," which

spread his name over Europe; in 1860 was made a senator of the kingdom of

Italy, and was visited by Garibaldi in 1862; he was no less distinguished

as a man than as an author (1780-1875).

MAORIS, the natives of New Zealand, a Polynesian race numbering

40,000, who probably displaced an aboriginal; are distinguished for their

bravery; are governed by chiefs, and speak a rich sonorous language; they

are the most vigorous and energetic of all the South Sea islanders.

MAR, a district in S. Aberdeenshire, between the Don and the Dee,

has given a title to many earls; one was regent of Scotland in 1572,

another, nicknamed "Bobbing Joan," led the Jacobite rising of 1715; on

the death without issue of the earl in 1866 the question of succession

was at issue; the Committee of Privileges granted it to his cousin, the

Earl of Kellie, thereafter Mar and Kellie, and a Bill in Parliament

awarding it to his nephew, who is thus Earl of Mar.

MARABOUTS, a sect of religious devotees of a priestly order much

venerated in North Africa, believed to possess supernatural power,

particularly in curing diseases, and exercising at times considerable

political influence; their supernatural power appears to come to them by

inheritance.

MARACAYBO (34), a Venezuelan town and fortress on the W. shore of

the outlet of Lake Maracaybo; has handsome streets and buildings, and

exports coffee and valuable woods; the lake of Maracaybo is a large

fresh-water lake in the W. of Venezuela, connected with the Gulf of

Maracaybo by a wide strait, across which stretches an effective bar.

MARANATHA (lit. the Lord cometh to judge), a form of anathema in

use among the Jews.

MARAÑON, one of the head-waters of the Amazon, rising in Lake

Lauricocha, Peru, and flowing N. and E. till it joins the Ucayali and

forms the Amazon; the name is sometimes given to the whole river.

MARAT, JEAN PAUL, a fanatical democrat, born in Neuchâtel, his

father an Italian, his mother a Genevese; studied and practised medicine,

came to Paris as horse-leech to Count d'Artois; became infected with the

revolutionary fever, and had one fixed idea: "Give me," he said, "two

hundred Naples bravoes, armed each with a good dirk, and a muff on his

left arm by way of shield, and with them I will traverse France and

accomplish the Revolution," that is, by wholesale massacre of the

aristocrats; he had more than once to flee for his life, and one time

found shelter in the sewers of Paris, contracting thereby a loathsome

skin disease; he was assassinated one evening as he sat in his bath by

CHARLOTTE CORDAY (q. v.), but his body was buried with honours

in the Pantheon by a patriot people, "that of Mirabeau flung out to make

room for him," to be some few months after himself cast out with

execration (1743-1793).

MARATHON, a village, 22 m. NE. of Athens, on the sea border of a

plain where the Greeks under Miltiades on a world-famous occasion

defeated the Persians under Darius in 480 B.C.; the plain on which the

battle was fought extends between mountains on the W. and the sea on the

E.

MARBURG (13), quaint university town of Hesse-Nassau, on the Lahn,

40 m. NE. of Limburg; has many old buildings; its Gothic church contains

St. Elizabeth's tomb; Luther and Zwingli held a conference in the castle,

1529; William Tyndale and Patrick Hamilton were students at its

university, which has now 97 teachers, 1000 students, and a fine library.

MARCEAU, French general, born at Chartres; distinguished himself in

the Republican army in La Vendée and Fleurus, and was killed at

Altenkirchen when covering a retreat of the French army (1760-1796).

MARCELLO, BENEDETTO, an Italian musical composer; composed music for

an Italian version of the Psalms (1686-1739).

MARCELLUS, CLAUDIUS, Roman general; in a war with the Gauls killed

their chief Viridomarus with his own hands, whose spoils he dedicated as

_SPOLIA OPIMA_ (q. v.) to Jupiter; took Syracuse, which long

baffled him through the skill of Archimedes, and fell fighting against

Hannibal 208 B.C.; he was five times consul though but of plebeian

birth.

MARCELLUS, MARCUS, son of Octavia, the sister of Augustus, who had

named him his heir; his decease at 20 was mourned as a public calamity,

and inspired Virgil to pen his well-known lament over his death in the

sixth book of the "Æneid."

MARCET, MRS. JANE, authoress, born at Geneva; married a Swiss doctor

settled in London; wrote elementary text-books on chemistry (from which

Faraday gained his first knowledge), political economy, natural

philosophy, &c., under the title "Conversations," and her best work,

"Stories for very Little Children" (1769-1858).

MARCH, the third month of our year; was before 1752 reckoned first

month as in the Roman calendar, the legal year beginning on the 25th; it

is proverbially dusty and stormy, and is the season of the spring

equinox; it was dedicated to the Roman god Mars, whence the name.

MARCHAND, MAJOR, a French emissary in Africa; was sent in 1890 to

explore the sources of the Niger and other districts, and was afterwards

appointed to push on to the Nile, where he arrived in 1898, hoisting the

French flag by the way, and finally at Fashoda, from which he was

recalled; with extreme disgust he was obliged to retire and find his way

back to France; _b_. 1863.

MARCION, a heretic of the 2nd century, born at Sinope, in Pontus,

who, convinced that the traditional records of Christianity had been

tampered with, sought to restore Christianity to its original purity,

taking his stand on the words of Christ and the interpretation of St.

Paul as the only true apostle; he held that an ascetic life was of the

essence of Christianity, and he had a following called Marcionites.

MARCUS AURELIUS. See ANTONINUS.

MAREMMA, a malarial coast district of Italy, N. of the Campagna,

stretching from Orbitello to Guardistallo, with few villages or roads.

Part of it was improved by draining and planting (1824-44), and the

inhabitants come down from the neighbouring Apennine slopes in summer to

cultivate it; healthier in winter, it affords good pasturage.

MARENGO, a village of N. Italy, SE. of Alessandria, where Napoleon

defeated the Austrians on 14th June 1800.

MAREOTIS, LAKE, a lagune in the N. of Egypt, 40 m. long by 18 m.

broad, separated from the Mediterranean by a tongue of land on which part

of Alexandria is situated.

MARGARET, queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, was the daughter of

Waldemar IV. of Denmark, whose crown, on his death in 1375, she received

in trust for her son Olaf; her husband, Hacon VIII. of Norway, died in

1380, and left her queen; Olaf died 1387, when she named her

grand-nephew, Eric of Pomerania, her heir; the Swedes deposed their king

next year, and offered Margaret the throne; she accepted it, put down all

resistance, and ultimately brought about the Union of Calmar (1397),

which provided for the perpetual union of the three crowns; her energy

and force of character won for her the title of "Semiramis of the North"

(1353-1412).

MARGARET, a simple, innocent girl in Goethe's "Faust," who is the

victim of a tragic fatality; Faust meets her as she comes from church,

falls in love with her, and seduces her; she slays the infant born, is

convicted and condemned to death, and loses her reason; Faust would fain

save her, but he is hurried away by Mephistopheles, and she is left to

her fate.

MARGARET, ST., the type of female innocence, represented as a

beautiful young maiden bearing the palm and crown of a martyr and

attended by a dragon; is patron saint against the pains of childbirth.

Festival, July 20.

MARGARET, ST., queen of Scotland, wife of Malcolm Canmore, and

sister of Edgar Atheling, born in Hungary; brought up at the court of

Edward the Confessor; after the conquest sought refuge in Scotland, and

winning the heart of the Scotch king, was married to him at Dunfermline;

was a woman of beautiful character and great piety, and did much to

civilise the country by her devotion and example; she died in Edinburgh

Castle, and was in 1250 canonised by Innocent IV.; Lanfranc had been her

spiritual instructor (1047-1093).

MARGARET OF ANGOULÊME, queen of Navarre, Sister of Francis I.,

married in 1527 Henri d'Albret, king of Navarre, by whom she became the

mother of JEANNE D'ALBRET (q. v.); protected the Protestants,

and encouraged learning and the arts; she left a collection of novels,

under the name of "Heptameron," and a number of interesting letters, as

well as some poems (1492-1549).

MARGARET OF ANJOU, queen of Henry VI. of England, and daughter of

the good King René of Anjou; was distinguished for the courage she

displayed during the Wars of the Roses, though, after a struggle of

nearly twenty years, she was defeated at Tewkesbury and committed to the

Tower, from which, after four years of incarceration, she was afterwards

released by ransom (1429-1482).

MARGARET OF VALOIS, third daughter of Henry II. of France and

Catherine de' Medicis; married Henry IV., by whom she was divorced for

her immoral conduct (1552-1615).

MARGATE (18), seaport and watering-place, 3 m. W. of the North

Foreland, Kent, is with its firm sands, bathing facilities, and various

attractions a favourite resort of London holiday-makers. Its

church-tower, 135 ft., is a prominent landmark. There are large

almshouses and orphanages, and other charitable institutions; J. M. W.

Turner was at school here.

MARHEINECKE, a German theologian, born at Hildesheim; professor

successively at Erlangen, Heidelberg, and Berlin; was a Hegelian in

philosophy; his chief works, a "System of Catholicism" and a "History of

the German Reformation" (1780-1846).

MARIA LOUISA, empress of France, daughter of Francis I., Emperor of

Austria; was married to Napoleon in 1810 after the divorce of Joséphine,

and bore him a son, who was called King of Rome; after Napoleon's death

she became the wife of Count von Neipperg (1791-1847).

MARIA THERESA, empress of Austria, daughter of the Emperor Charles

VI., a queenly woman; was in 1736 married to Francis of Lorraine;

ascended the throne in 1740 on the death of her father, associating her

husband with her in the government under the title of Francis I.; no

sooner had she done so than, despite the PRAGMATIC SANCTION (q. v.),

which assured her of her dominions in their integrity, she was

assailed by claimants one for this and one for another portion of them,

in particular by Frederick the Great, who by force of arms wrenched

Silesia from her and kept it fast; the war thus occasioned is known as

the war of the Austrian Succession, which lasted seven years, and was

concluded by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748; this peace, however,

was soon broken, and Maria, backed by France and counselled by Kaunitz,

renewed hostilities in the hope of compelling Frederick to restore what

he had taken; all in vain, for the end of this war, known as the Seven

Years' War, was to leave Frederick still in possession of the territory

which he had sliced from her empire as in the former; in the interim of

these wars Maria devoted her attention to the welfare of her subjects,

who were conspicuously loyal to her, and before the end of her reign she

saw what she had lost made up to her in a measure by the partition of

Poland, in which she took part (1717-1780).

MARIAMNE, the wife of Herod the Great, whom he put to death on

suspicion of her unfaithfulness.

MARIANA, JUAN, Spanish historian and political philosopher, born at

Talavera; joined the Jesuits in 1554, and taught in their colleges in

Rome, Sicily, and Paris; returning to Toledo he gave himself to

literature; his "History of Spain" appeared in 1592 and 1605, theological

writings incurred persecution, and his greatest work, "De Rege et Regis

Institutione," in which he defended the right of the people to cast out a

tyrant, was condemned by the general of his order (1536-1624).

MARIE ANTOINETTE, queen of France, fourth daughter of Maria Theresa;

was married in 1770 to the dauphin of France, who in 1774 succeeded to

the throne as Louis XVI.; was a beautiful woman, but indiscreet in her

behaviour; had made herself unpopular and impotent for good when the

Revolution broke out; when matters became serious the queenliness of her

nature revealed itself, but it was in haughty defiance of the

million-headed monster that was bellowing at her feet; the heroism she

showed at this crisis the general mass of the people could not

appreciate, though it won the homage of such men as Mirabeau and Barnave;

all she wanted was a wise adviser, for she had courage to follow any

course which she could be persuaded to see was right; in Mirabeau she had

one who could have guided her, but by his death in 1791 she was left to

herself, and the course she took was fatal to all the interests she had

at heart; fatality followed fatality: first she saw her husband hurried

off to the guillotine, and then she followed herself; hers, if any, was

the most tragic of fates, and any one who has read that heart-moving

apostrophe to her by Carlyle on the way to her doom must know and feel

that it was her fate; she and her husband suffered as the representatives

of the misgovernment of France for centuries before they were born, and

were left a burden on their shoulders which they could not bear and under

which they were crushed to death (1756-1793).

MARIE DE FRANCE, a poetess and fabulist of Henry III.'s time; her

fables are translations into French from an English version of old Greek

tales; a greater work was her "Laïs," consisting of 12 or 14 beautiful

narratives in French verse.

MARIE DE' MEDICI, daughter of the Grand-Duke of Tuscany, born at

Florence; was married to Henry IV. of France in 1600, with whom she lived

unhappily till his murder in 1610; she was then regent for seven years;

in 1617 her son assumed power as Louis XIII.; she was for two years

banished from the court, and on her return so intrigued as to bring about

her imprisonment in 1631; though a lover of art she was neither good wife

nor good queen, and escaping from confinement she died in destitution at

Cologne (1573-1642).

MARIENBAD, a high-lying Bohemian watering-place, 18 m. S. of

Carlsbad; it is much frequented for its saline springs.

MARIETTE PASHA, FRANÇOIS AUGUSTE FERDINAND, Egyptologist, born at

Boulogne; became professor in the college there in 1841, entered the

Egyptian department of the Louvre in 1849, and next year set out for

Egypt; eight years later he was made keeper of the monuments to the

Egyptian government, and in 1879 was made a pasha; he died at Cairo; he

made many valuable discoveries and excavations, among which were the

burial-place of the Apis bulls, the Sphinx monument, and many temples

(1821-1881).

MARIO, GIUSEPPE, a celebrated tenor, born in Cagliari; acquired a

large fortune as a professional singer, but lost it through unsuccessful

speculations; in the circumstances a concert was given in London for his

benefit which realised £1000; he was a handsome man and of charming

manners (1808-1883).

MARIOTTE, EDME, a French physicist, born at Dijon; discoverer of the

law named after him, that the volume of a gas is inversely as the

pressure; called also Boyle's; it bears the name of Mariotte's law on the

Continent, and Boyle's in England (1620-1684).

MARIUS, CAIUS, a celebrated Roman general, born near Arpinum, uncle

by marriage to Julius Cæsar and head of the popular party, and the rival

of Sulla; conquered the Teutons and the Cimbri in Gaul, and made a

triumphal entry into Rome; having obtained command of the war against

Mithridates, Sulla marched upon the city and drove his rival beyond the

walls; having fled the city, he was discovered hiding in a marsh, cast

into prison, and condemned to die; to the slave sent to execute the

sentence he drew himself haughtily up and exclaimed, "Caitiff, dare you

slay Caius Marius?" and the executioner fled in terror of his life and

left his sword behind him; Marius was allowed to escape; finding his way

to Africa, he took up his quarters at Carthage, but the Roman prætor

ordered him off; "Go tell the prætor," he said to the messenger sent,

"you saw Caius Marius sitting a fugitive on the ruins of Carthage"; upon

this he took courage and returned to Rome, and along with Cinna made the

streets of the city run with the blood of the partisans of Sulla; died

suddenly (156-88 B.C.).

MARIVAUX, a French dramatist and novelist, born in Paris; was a man

of subtle wit, and his writings reveal it as well as an affectation of

style named _Marivaudage_ after him; his fame rests on his novels rather

than his dramas (1688-1763).

MARK, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO, is mainly a narrative of the doings of

Christ and of the events of His life in their historical sequence; moves

on at an even pace, abounds in graphic touches, and adds minute traits as

if by an eye-witness; it represents Christ as the Son of man, but

manifesting Himself by such signs and wonders as to show that He was also

the Son of God; it is written for Gentile Christians and not for Jewish,

and hence little stress is laid on Old Testament fulfilments or reference

made to those antagonisms to Christianity which had a merely Jewish root.

MARK, JOHN, the author of the second Gospel, the son of Mary,

Barnabas' sister, who ministered to Christ, and whose house in Jerusalem

was a place of resort for the disciples of Christ after the resurrection;

accompanied Paul and his uncle on their first missionary journey,

afterwards accompanied Peter, who calls him "my son," and to him it is

thought he is indebted for his Gospel narrative; he is regarded as the

founder of the Coptic Church, and his body is said to have been buried in

Venice, of which he is the patron saint, and the cathedral of which is

named St. Mark's after him; he is represented in Christian art as a man

in the prime of life accompanied by a winged lion, with his Gospel in his

left hand and a pen in his right.

MARK ANTONY. See ANTONIUS, MARCUS.

MARK TWAIN. See CLEMENS.

MARKHAM, CLEMENTS ROBERT, traveller and author, born near York, son

of a clergyman; served in the navy from 1844 to 1851, taking part in the

Franklin search expedition; 1852-1854 he spent exploring Peru; he

introduced the cinchona plant to India 1860, became secretary to the

Royal Geographical Society 1863, served as geographer to the Abyssinian

Expedition of 1867-68, and was then put at the head of the Geographical

department of the India Office; among many books of travels may be named

"The Threshold of the Unknown Region" 1874, and among biographies

"Columbus," 1892; _b_. 1830.

MARLBOROUGH (9), on the Kennet, 38 m. E. of Bristol, a Wiltshire

market-town, with sack and rope making, brewing, and tanning industries;

has an old Norman church, the remains of an old royal residence, and a

college, chiefly for sons of clergymen, founded in 1845.

MARLBOROUGH, JOHN CHURCHILL, DUKE OF, soldier and statesman, born in

Devonshire; joined the Guards as ensign, and served in Tangiers in 1667;

sent in command of a company to help Louis XIV. in his Dutch wars, his

courage and ability won him a colonelcy; he married Sarah Jennings in

1678, and seven years later became Baron Churchill on James II.'s

succession; as general he was employed in putting down Monmouth's

rebellion; he seceded to William of Orange in 1688, and received from him

the earldom of Marlborough; he was in disfavour from 1694 till the

outbreak of the Spanish Succession War, in which he gained his great

renown; beginning by driving the Spaniards from the Netherlands in 1702,

he won a series of important victories--Blenheim 1704, Ramillies 1706,

Oudenard 1708, and Malplaquet 1709, contributed to enhance the military

glory of England; Queen Anne loaded him with honours; large sums of

money, Woodstock estate, Blenheim Palace, and a dukedom were bestowed on

him; his wife was the Queen's closest friend, and the duke and duchess

virtually governed the country, till in 1711 the Queen threw off their

influence, and charges of misappropriation of funds forced him into

retirement; he was restored to many of his offices by George I. in 1714,

but for the last six years of his life he sank into imbecility; one of

England's greatest generals, he was also one of her meanest men

(1650-1722).

MARLOWE, CHRISTOPHER, English dramatist and poet, precursor of

Shakespeare; son of a shoemaker at Canterbury; besides a love poem

entitled "Hero and Leander," he was the author of seven plays,

"Tamburlaine," in two parts, "Doctor Faustus," "The Jew of Malta,"

"Edward the Second," "The Massacre of Paris," and "Dido," the first four

being romantic plays, the fifth a chronicle play, and the last two

offering no particular talent; he dealt solely in tragedy, and was too

devoid of humour to attempt comedy; "In Marlowe," says Prof. Saintsbury,

"two things never fail him long--a strange, not by any means impotent,

reach after the infinite, and the command of magnificent verse"; his life

was a short one (1564-1593).

MARMONT, Duke of Ragusa and marshal of France, served under

Napoleon, and distinguished himself on many a battlefield; received the

title of duke for his successful defence of Ragusa against the Russians;

was present at Wagram, Lützen, Bautzen, and Dresden, but came to terms

with the allies after the taking of Paris, which led to Napoleon's

abdication in 1814; obliged to flee on Napoleon's return, he came back to

France and gave his support to the Bourbons; left Memoirs (1774-1852).

MARMONTEL, JEAN FRANÇOIS, French writer, born at Bort; author of

"Les Incas," "Bélesaire," and "Contes Moraux;" "was," says Ruskin, "a

peasant's son, who made his way into Parisian society by gentleness, wit,

and a dainty and candid literary power; he became one of the humblest yet

honestest, placed scholars at the court of Louis XV., and wrote pretty,

yet wise, sentimental stories in finished French, the sayings and

thoughts in them, in their fine tremulous way, perfect like the

blossoming heads of grass in May" (1723-1799).

MARMORA, SEA OF, 175 m. long and 50 broad, lies between Europe and

Asia Minor, opening into the Ægean through the Dardanelles and into the

Baltic through the Bosphorus; the Gulf of Ismid indents the eastern

coasts; Marmora, the largest island, has marble and alabaster quarries.

MARNE (435) and HAUTE-MARNE (244), contiguous departments in

the N.E. of France, in the upper basin of the Marne River; in both

cereals, potatoes, and wine are the chief products, the best champagne

coming from the N. In the former, capital Châlons-sur-Marne, building

stone is quarried; there are metal works and tanneries; in the latter,

capital Chaumont, are valuable iron mines and manufactures of cutlery and

gloves.

MAROCHETTI, BARON, Italian sculptor, born in Turin; after working in

Paris, came to this country in 1848, and executed several public statues,

one of the Queen among others (1805-1867).

MARONITES, a sect of Syrian Christians, numbering 200,000, dwelling

on the eastern slopes of Lebanon, where they settled in the 7th century,

and who joined the Roman Catholic Church in 1445, while they retain much

of their primitive character; they maintained a long sanguinary rivalry

with their neighbours the DRUSES (q. v.).

MAROONS, the name given to wild negro bands in Jamaica and Guiana;

those in Jamaica left behind by the Spaniards on the conquest of the

island by the English, 1655, escaped to the hills, and continued

unsubdued till 1795; in Guiana they still maintain independent

communities. To MAROON a seaman is to leave him alone on an

uninhabited island, or adrift in a boat.

MAROT, CLEMENT, French poet, born at Cahors; was valet-de-chambre of

Margaret of Valois; was a man of ready wit and a satirical writer, the

exercise of which often brought him into trouble; his poems, which

consist of elegies, epistles, rondeaux, madrigals, and ballads, have left

their impress on both the language and the literature of France

(1495-1544).

MARPRELATE TRACTS, a series of clever but scurrilous tracts

published under the name of Martin Marprelate, but which are the work of

different writers in the time of Elizabeth against prelacy, and which

gave rise to great excitement and some inquisition as to their

authorship.

MARQUE. See LETTER OF MARQUE.

MARQUESAS ISLANDS (5), a group of 13 small volcanic mountainous

islands in the S. Pacific, 3600 m. W. of Peru, under French protection

since 1842, are peopled by a handsome but savage race, which is rapidly

dying out; Chinese immigrants grow cotton; the more southerly were

discovered by Mendaña in 1595, the more northerly by Ingraham, an

American, in 1791.

MARROW CONTROVERSY, a theological controversy which arose in

Scotland in the 18th century over the teaching of a book entitled "The

Marrow of Modern Divinity," and which led to a secession from the

Established Church on the part of the "Marrow men," as the supporters of

the doctrine of the book were called. It contained an assertion of the

evangelical doctrine of free grace, which was condemned by the Assembly,

and for maintaining which the "Marrow men," headed by the Erskines, were

deposed in 1733, to the formation of the Secession Church.

MARRYAT, FREDERICK, novelist, born at Westminster; after service in

the royal navy, which he entered in 1806, and in which he attained the

rank of commandant, he retired in 1830, and commenced a series of novels;

"Frank Mildmay," the first, proving a success, he resolved to devote the

rest of his life to literature; his novels were numerous, all of interest

for their character sketches and adventures, and "Peter Simple" and

"Midshipman Easy" are reckoned the best; it was by recourse to Marryat's

stories of sea life that Carlyle solaced himself after the burning of the

MS. volume of his "French Revolution," and that he put himself in tune to

repair the loss (1792-1848).

MARS, the exterior planet of the Solar system, nearest the earth, of

one-half its diameter, with a mean distance from the sun of 141,000,000

m., round which it takes 686 days to revolve, in a somewhat centric

orbit, and 24½ hours to revolve on its own axis, which inclines to its

equator at an angle of 29°; examination of it shows that there is four

times as much land as water in it; it is accompanied by two moons, an

outer making a revolution round it in 30 hours 18 minutes, and an inner

in 7 hours and 38 minutes; they are the smallest heavenly bodies known to

science.

MARS, the Roman god of war, the reputed father of Romulus, and the

recognised protector of the Roman State, identified at length with the

Greek Ares.

MARSEILLAISE, THE, the hymn or march of the French republicans,

composed, both words and music, at Strasburg by Rouget de Lisle one night

in April 1792, and singing which the 600 volunteers from Marseilles

entered Paris on the 30th July thereafter. "Luckiest musicial

composition," says Carlyle, "ever promulgated. The sound of which will

make the blood tingle in men's veins, and whole armies and assemblages

will sing it, with eyes weeping and burning, with hearts defiant of

death, despot, and devil."

MARSEILLES (321), third city and first seaport of France, on the

shore of the Gulf of Lyons, 27 m. E. of the mouth of the Rhône; has

extensive dock accommodation; does great trade in wheat, oil, wine,

sugar, textiles, and coal, and manufactures soap, soda, macaroni, and

iron; there is a cathedral, picture-gallery, museum, and library, schools

of science and art; founded by colonists from Asia Minor in 600 B.C., it

was a Greek city till 300 B.C.; after the days of Rome it had many

vicissitudes, falling finally to France in 1575, and losing its privilege

as a free port in 1660; always a Radical city, it proclaimed the Commune

in 1871; a cholera plague devastated it in 1885; six years later great

sanitary improvements were begun; Thiers and Puget were born here.

MARSHAL FORWARDS, a name given to BLÜCHER (q. v.) for the

celerity of his movements and the dash of his attack.

MARSHALL, JOHN, an American judge; served in the army during the

first years of the American War; afterwards entered the legal profession

and became Chief-Justice of the United States; was an authority on

constitutional law (1755-1835).

MARSTON, JOHN, English dramatist, so called, was more of a poet than

a dramatist, and his dramas are remembered chiefly for the poetic

passages they contain; his masterpiece is a comedy entitled "What You

Will" (1575-1634).

MARSTON, JOHN WESTLAND, dramatist, born at Boston, Lincolnshire;

wrote several dramas, "Strathmore" and "Marie de Méranie" among the

number (1819-1890).

MARSTON, PHILIP BOURKE, poet, son of preceding; wrote three volumes

of verse, admired by Rossetti and Swinburne; was blind from boyhood

(1850-1887).

MARSTON MOOR, 7 m. W. of York; here Cromwell and Fairfax defeated

the Royalists under Prince Rupert, July 2, 1644, and so won the north of

England for the Parliament.

MARSYAS, a Phrygian peasant, who, having found a flute which Athena

had thrown away because playing on it disfigured her face, and which, as

still inspired by the breath of the goddess, yielded sweet tones when he

put his lips to it, one day challenged Apollo to a contest, the condition

being that the vanquished should pay whatever penalty the victor might

impose on him; Apollo played on the lyre and the boor on the flute, when

the Muses, who were umpires, assigned the palm to the former; upon this

Apollo caught his rival up, bound him to a tree, and flayed him alive for

his temerity.

MARTELLO TOWERS, round towers of strong build, erected as a defence

at one time off the low shores of Sussex and Kent; they are of Italian

origin; there is one off the harbour of Leith.

MARTENS, FREDERICK DE, German diplomatist and publicist, born at

Hamburg; author of a "Précis du Droit des Gens" (1756-1821).

MARTENSEN, HANS LASSEN, bishop of Copenhagen, a distinguished

theologian; author of "Meister Eckhart," a study of mediæval mysticism,

"Christliche Dogmatic" and "Christliche Ethic"; was a Hegelian of a

conservative type (1808-1884).

MARTHA, ST., the sister of Mary and Lazarus, the patron saint of

good housewives, is represented, in homely costume, with a bunch of keys

at her girdle, and a pot in her hand. Festival, July 20.

MARTIAL, a Latin poet, born at Bilbilis, in Spain; went to Rome,

stayed there, favoured of the emperors Titus and Domitian, for 35 years,

and then returned to his native city, where he wrote his Epigrammata, a

collection of short poems over 1500 in number, divided into 14 books,

books xiii. and xiv. being entitled respectively Xenia and Apophoreta;

these epigrams are distinguished for their wit, diction, and indecency,

but are valuable for the light they shed on the manners of Rome at the

period (43-104).

MARTIAL LAW, law administered by military force, to which civilians

are amenable during an insurrection or riot.

MARTIN, the name of five popes: M. I., ST., Pope from 649 to

655; M. II., pope from 882 to 884; M. III., Pope from 942 to

946; M. IV., pope from 1281 to 1285; M. V., Pope from 1417 to

1431, distinguished for having condemned Huss to be burned.

MARTIN, AIMÉ, a French writer, born at Lyons, repaired to Paris,

became the pupil and friend of Bernardin de St. Pierre; collected his

works and married his widow; his letters to Sophia on "Natural History,"

&c., highly popular (1781-1844).

MARTIN, HENRI, celebrated French historian, born at Saint-Quentin;

devoted his life to the study of the history of France; wrote an account

of it, entitled "Histoire de France," a magnificent work in 19 volumes;

brought the history down to 1789, and received from the Institute 20,000

francs as a prize (1810-1885).

MARTIN, JOHN, English painter, born near Hexham; was an artist of an

ardent temperament and extraordinary imaginative power; his paintings,

the first "Sadak in Search of the Waters of Oblivion," characterised as

"sublime" and "gorgeous," were 16 in number, and made a great impression

when produced; engravings of some of them are familiar, such as the "Fall

of Babylon" and "Belshazzar's Feast" (1789-1854).

MARTIN, LADY. See FAUCIT, HELEN.

MARTIN, ST., bishop of Tours, was in early life a soldier, and

meeting with a naked beggar one cold day in winter divided his military

cloak in two, and gave him the half of it; was conspicuous both as a monk

and bishop for his compassion on the poor; seated at a banquet on one

occasion between the king and queen, hobnobbed with a poor beggar looking

on, and extended his goblet of wine to him; he is the patron saint of

topers; _d_. 397. Festival, November 11.

MARTIN, SARAH, a philanthropist, born at Great Yarmouth; lived by

dressmaking, and devoted much of her time among criminals in the jails

(1791-1843).

MARTIN, SIR THEODORE, man of letters, born in Edinburgh; acquired

his first fame under the pseudonym of Bon Gaultier; is author of the

"Life of the late Prince Consort"; wrote along with Aytouna "Book of

Ballads," and translated the Odes of Horace, Dante's "Vita Nuova" and

Goethe's "Faust"; _b_. 1816.

MARTINEAU, HARRIET, English authoress, born at Norwich; a lady with

little or no genius but with considerable intellectual ability, and not

without an honest zeal for the "progress of the species"; she was what is

called an "advanced" thinker, and was a disciple of Auguste Comte; wrote

a number of stories bearing on social questions, and had that courage of

her opinions which commanded respect; it was she who persuaded Carlyle to

try lecturing when his finances were low, and she had a real pride at the

success of the scheme (1802-1876).

MARTINEAU, JAMES, rationalistic theologian, born in Norwich, brother

of the preceding; began life as an engineer, took to theology, and

became a Unitarian minister; was at first a follower of Bentham and then

a disciple of Kant; at one time a materialist he became a theist, and a

most zealous advocate of theistic beliefs from the Unitarian standpoint;

he is a thinker of great power, and has done much both to elevate and

liberate the philosophy of religion; his views are liberal as well as

profound, and he is extensively known as the author of the "Endeavours

after the Christian Life" and "Hours of Thought on Sacred Things"; _b_.

1805.

MARTINIQUE (176, of which a few are white), a West Indian French

possession, one of the Lesser Antilles; has a much-indented precipitous

coast; a mountain range in the centre is densely wooded; the plains are

fertile, and produce sugar, coffee, and cotton, which with fruit are the

exports; the climate is hot and not salubrious; the island has been

French, with three short intervals, since 1635.

MARTYN, HENRY, a Christian missionary, born at Truro, in Cornwall;

was a Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge; went to India as a

chaplain, settled in various stations and in Persia; translated the New

Testament into Hindi and Persian, as well as the Prayer-book; fell into

broken health; did more than he was able for, caught fever and died

(1781-1812).

MARVELL, ANDREW, poet and politician, born at Worcester; was first a

lyric poet, and in politics much of a Royalist, at last a violent

politician on the Puritan side, having become connected with Milton and

Cromwell; he wrote a tract "On the Growth of Popery and Arbitrary

Government in England" after the Restoration, which brought him into

trouble; being a favourite with the king, the king sought to bribe him,

but he could not be caught; he died suddenly, and an unfounded rumour was

circulated that he had been poisoned (1621-1678).

MARX, KARL, a German Socialist, born at Trèves, of Jewish descent;

was at first a student of philosophy and a disciple of Hegel, but soon

abandoned philosophy for social economy on a democratic basis and in a

materialistic interest, early adopted socialistic opinions, for his zeal

in which he was driven from Germany, France, and finally Belgium, to

settle in London, where he spent the last 30 years of his life; founded

the "INTERNATIONAL" (q. v.), and wrote a work "Das Kapital,"

which has become the text-book of Socialism, a remarkable book, and one

that has materially promoted the cause it advocates (1818-1866).

MARY, THE VIRGIN. Of her we know nothing for certain except what is

contained in the Gospel history, and that almost exclusively in her

relation to her Son, in connection with whom, and as His mother, she has

become an object of worship in the Roman Catholic and Greek Churches.

MARY I., queen of England, was born at Greenwich, daughter of Henry

VIII. and Catharine of Aragon; at first the king's favourite, on her

mother's divorce she was treated with aversion; during her brother Edward

VI.'s reign she lived in retirement, clinging to her Catholic faith; on

her accession in 1553 a Protestant plot to put Lady Jane Grey on the

throne failed; she began cautiously to restore Catholicism, imprisoning

Reformers and reinstating the old bishops; on her choosing Philip of

Spain for her husband a revolt broke out under Sir Thomas Wyatt, and

though easily put down was the occasion for the execution of Lady Jane

Grey and the imprisonment of Elizabeth; after her marriage in 1554 the

religious reaction gained strength, submission was made to Rome, and a

persecution began in which 300 persons, including Latimer, Ridley, and

Cranmer, perished in three years; ill-health, Philip's cruelty, and her

childlessness drove her to melancholy; a war with France led to the loss

of Calais in 1558, and she died broken-hearted, a virtuous and pious, but

bigoted and relentless woman (1516-1558).

MARY II., queen of England, daughter of the Duke of York (afterwards

James II.) and Anne Hyde; was married to her cousin William of Orange in

1677, ascended the English throne along with him on her father's

abdication in 1688, and till her death was his much loved, good, and

gentle queen; Greenwich Hospital for disabled sailors, which she built,

is her memorial (1662-1694).

MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS, daughter of James V. and Mary of Lorraine,

born at Linlithgow, became by her father's death queen ere she was a week

old; her early childhood was spent on an island in the Lake of Menteith;

she was sent to France in 1548, brought up at court with the royal

princes, and married to the dauphin in 1558, who for a year, 1559-60, was

King Francis II.; on his death she had to leave France; she returned to

assume the government in Scotland, now in the throes of the Reformation;

refraining from interference with the Protestant movement she retained

her own Catholic faith, but chose Protestant advisers; out of many

proposed alliances she elected, against all advice, to be married to her

cousin Darnley 1565, and easily quelled the insurrection that broke out

under Moray; Darnley, granted the title king, tried to force her to

settle the succession in the event of her dying childless on him and his

heirs; deeming her favourite Rizzio to stand in the way, he plotted with

the Protestant Lords to have him murdered, and Mary was reduced to agree

to his demands; the murder was done; the queen was for a time a prisoner

in Holyrood, but she succeeded in detaching Darnley, and the scheme fell

through; her only son, afterwards James VI., was born three months later

in 1566; the murder of Darnley took place in February 1567, being

accomplished by Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, almost certainly with Mary's

connivance; her marriage with Bothwell in May alienated the nobles; they

rose, took the queen prisoner at Carberry, carried her to Edinburgh, then

to Loch Leven, where they forced her to abdicate in July; next year,

escaping, she fled to England, and was there for many years a prisoner;

Catholic plots were formed to liberate her and put her in place of

Elizabeth on the English throne (she was next in order of succession,

being great-granddaughter of Henry VII.); at last she was accused of

complicity in Babbington's conspiracy, tried, found guilty, and executed

in Fotheringhay Castle, February 8, 1587; faithful to her religion to the

end; she was a woman of great beauty and charm, courage and ability, warm

affection and generous temper (1542-1587).

MARYLAND (1,042), a State of the American Union, occupying the basin

of the Potomac and of Chesapeake Bay, with Pennsylvania on the N.,

Delaware on the E., and the Virginias on the W. and S.; has a much

indented coast-line affording great facilities for navigation; the soil

is throughout fertile; on the level coast plains tobacco and fruit,

chiefly peaches, are grown; in the undulating central land wheat; the

mountains in the W. are well wooded with pine; there are coal-mines in

the W., copper and chrome in the midland, and extensive marble quarries;

the shad and herring fisheries are valuable; the manufactures of clothing

stuffs, flour, tobacco, and beer are extensive; the climate of Maryland

is temperate and genial; education is free, and advanced; the John

Hopkins University is in Baltimore; there is a State college in every

county, and schools for blind, deaf, and feeble-minded children;

colonisation began in 1634, and a policy of religious toleration and

peace with the Indians led to prosperity; the State was active in the War

of Independence, and remained with the North in the Civil War; the

capital is Annapolis (8), but the largest city is Baltimore (434), a

great wheat-shipping port and centre of industry; Cumberland (13) has

brick and cement works, and Hagerstown (10) has machine, farm implement,

and furniture factories.

MASACCIO, an Italian painter, born in Florence; went when very young

to Rome, where he painted in the church of St. Clement a series of

frescoes, his greatest work being the frescoes in the Brancacci chapel of

the Carmine church; he was a great master of perspective and colour

(1402-1443).

MASAI, a warlike tribe in Africa, between the coast of Zanzibar and

Victoria Nyanza, of the race of the Gallas, men of powerful physique,

though far from prepossessing in appearance; when their warlike spirit

and prowess are spent they settle down to cattle-breeding.

MASANIELLO, a fisherman of Amalfi, who headed a revolt against the

Spanish viceroy in Naples, which proved successful, but turned his head

and led to his assassination (1623-1647).

MASHONALAND, a plateau 4000 ft. high crossed by the Umvukwe

Mountains, lying to the NE. of Matabeleland and S. of the Zambesi River,

of which its streams are tributaries; is a fertile country, and being

traversed continually by cold SE. winds is healthy and bracing; the

natives, of Bantu stock, are peaceful and industrious, growing rice,

maize, tobacco, and cotton, which they also weave, and working with skill

in iron; they live in dread of the fierce Matabele tribes; the country is

very rich in iron, copper, and gold, and has traces of ancient scientific

gold-mining; it has been under British protection since 1888.

MASK, IRON. See IRON MASK.

MASKELYNE, NEVIL, astronomer-royal, born in London; determined the

method of finding longitude at sea, and the density of the earth by

experiments at Schiehallion, and commenced the "National Almanack," and

produced the first volume of "Astronomical Observations at Greenwich"

(1732-1811).

MASON, SIR JOSIAH, Birmingham manufacturer and philanthropist, born

at Kidderminster; made his fortune by split rings, steel pens,

electro-plating; founded an orphanage at Erdington at the cost of nearly

£300,000, and the college at Birmingham which bears his name (1795-1881).

MASON, WILLIAM, a minor poet, a friend of poet Gray; the author of

two tragedies, "Elfrida" and "Caractacus" (1724-1797).

MASON AND DIXON'S LINE, so called after English engineers who

surveyed it 1764-67; is the boundary separating Maryland from

Pennsylvania and Delaware; during the Civil War it was inaccurately

regarded as dividing the slave-holding from the free States, Maryland and

Delaware both recognising slavery.

MASPERO, GASTON CAMILLE CHARLES, French Egyptologist, born at Paris;

made extensive explorations and important discoveries in Egypt; has

written, among works bearing on Egypt, "Histoire Ancienne des Peuples

d'Orient"; _b_. 1846.

MASSACHUSETTS (2,239), a New England State of the American Union,

lies on the Atlantic seaboard between New Hampshire and Vermont on the N.

and Rhode Island and Connecticut on the S., with New York on its western

border; has a long irregular coast-line and an uneven surface, rising to

the Green Mountains in the W.; the scenery is of great beauty, but the

soil is in many places poor, the farms raising chiefly hay and dairy

produce; the winters are severe; Massachusetts is the third manufacturing

State of the Union; its industries include cotton, woollen, worsted,

clothing, leather and leather goods, iron and iron goods; school

education throughout the State is free and of a high standard; there are

several universities and colleges, including Harvard, Boston, Williams,

and Amherst; founded in 1620 by the Pilgrim Fathers, Massachusetts had

many hardships in early days, and was long the scene of religious

intolerance and persecution; the War of Independence began at Bunker's

Hill and Lexington in 1776; the capital and chief seaport is Boston

(448); Worcester (85) has machinery factories, Springfield (44) paper,

and Lowell (78) cotton mills; Concord was for long a literary centre.

MASSAGE, in medicine a process of kneading, stroking, and rubbing,

with the fingers and palms of the hands, applied to the body as a whole

or to locally affected parts, to allay pain, promote circulation, and

restore nervous and vital energy; it was practised in very early times in

China and India; was known to the Greeks and Romans, and was revived by

Dr. Mezger of Amsterdam in 1853.

MASSAGETÆ, a Scythian people on the NE. of the Caspian Sea, who used

to kill and eat the aged among them, in an expedition against whom, it is

said, Cyrus the Great lost his life.

MASSENA, Duc de Rivoli, Prince of Essling, one of the most

illustrious marshals of France, born at Nice; he distinguished himself at

Rivoli in 1796, at Zurich in 1799, at the siege of Genoa in 1800, at

Eckmühl and at Wagram in 1809, and was named by Napoleon _L'enfant chéri

de la Victoire_, i. e. the favoured child of victory; he was recalled

from the Peninsula by Napoleon for failing to expel Wellington, and it

appears he never forgot the affront (1758-1817).

MASSEY, GERALD, English democratic poet, born in Hertfordshire;

wrote "Poems and Charms," "Voices of Freedom and Lyrics of Love"; has

written for the reviews, and taken a great interest in spiritualism; _b_.

1828.

MASSILLON, JEAN BAPTISTE, celebrated French pulpit orator, born at

Hières, in Provence; entered the congregation of the Oratory, and became

so celebrated for his eloquence that he was called to Paris, where he

gathered round him hearers in crowds; Bourdaloue, when he heard him,

said, "He must increase, but I must decrease," and Louis XIV. said to

him, "When I hear others preach I go away much pleased with them, but

when I hear you I feel displeased with myself"; he was made bishop of

Clermont, and next year preached before Louis XV., now king, his famous

"Petit Carême," a series of ten sermons for Lent; he was a devoted

bishop, and the idol of his flock; his style was perfect, and his

eloquence was winning, and went home to the heart (1663-1742).

MASSINGER, PHILIP, English dramatist; little is known of his

personal history except that he studied at Oxford without taking a

degree, that he lived in London, and was buried as "a stranger" in St.

Saviour's, Southwark; of his 37 plays only 18 remain, and of these the

most famous is the comedy entitled "New Way to Pay Old Debts," the chief

character in which is Sir Giles Overreach, and the representation of

which still holds its place on the stage (1583-1640).

MASSON, DAVID, man of letters, born in Aberdeen; elected literature as

his profession in preference to theology, with the study of which he

commenced; joined the staff of the Messrs. Chambers; settled in London,

and became professor of English Literature in University College, from

the chair of which he removed to the corresponding one in Edinburgh in

1865; edited _Macmillan's Magazine_ from 1859 to 1868; his great work,

the "Life of Milton," in 6 vols., a thorough book, and of great

historical value; has written on "British Novelists and their

Styles," "Life of Drummond of Hawthornden," &c.; became in 1893

Historiographer-Royal of Scotland; _b_. 1822.

MASSO`RAH, a body of Biblical references, chiefly handed down by

tradition, and calculated to be of great service in verifying the

original text of the Hebrew Scriptures.

MASSORETIC POINTS, the vowel points and accents in Hebrew; invented

by the Massorites, or authors of the Massorah.