COLIN CLOUT, the name Spenser assumes in the "Shepherd's Calendar."

COLIN TAMPON, the nickname of a Swiss, as John Bull of an

Englishman.

COLISE`UM, a magnificent amphitheatre in Rome, begun under Vespasian

and finished under Titus; it rose from the area by 80 tiers of seats, and

could contain 80,000 spectators; it was here the gladiators fought with

wild beasts, and also the early Christians.

COLLATINUS, the nephew of Tarquinius Priscus, the husband of

Lucretia, and with Brutus, her avenger, the first consul of Rome.

COLLECTIVISM, the Socialistic doctrine that industry should be

carried on by capital as the joint property of the community.

COLLÈGE DE FRANCE, an institution founded at Paris by Francis I. in

1530, where instruction is given to advanced students in several

departments of knowledge.

COLLIER, ARTHUR, an English metaphysician, born in Wilts; studied

Descartes and Malebranche, and who, anticipating Berkeley, published a

"Demonstration of the Non-Existence and the Impossibility of an External

World" (1680-1732). See BERKELEY.

COLLIER, JEREMY, an English non-juring divine, refused to take oath

at the Revolution; was imprisoned for advocating the rights of the

Stuarts; had to flee the country at length, and was outlawed; wrote with

effect against "The Profaneness and Immorality of the Stage," as well as

an "Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain," and a translation of the

"Meditations of Marcus Aurelius" (1650-1726).

COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE, a Shakespearian commentator and critic; wrote a

great deal on various subjects, but got into trouble by his emendations

of Shakespeare (1789-1883).

COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT, LORD, a celebrated English admiral, entered

the navy at 13; his career was intimately connected all along with that

of Nelson; succeeded in command when Nelson fell at Trafalgar, and when

he died himself, which happened at sea, his body was brought home and

buried beside Nelson's in St. Paul's Cathedral (1740-1810).

COLLINS, ANTHONY, an English deist, an intimate friend of Locke; his

principal works were "Discourse on Freethinking," "Philosophical Inquiry

into Liberty and Necessity," and "Grounds and Reasons of the Christian

Religion," which gave rise to much controversy; he was a necessitarian,

and argued against revelation (1676-1729).

COLLINS, MORTIMER, a versatile genius, born at Plymouth; wrote

poems, novels, and essays; was the author of "Who was the Heir?" and

"Sweet Anne Page"; was a tall, handsome man, fond of athletics, a

delightful companion, and dear to his friends (1827-1876).

COLLINS, WILKIE, English novelist, son of the succeeding, born in

London; tried business, then law, and finally settled to literature; his

novel "The Woman in White" was the first to take with the public, and was

preceded and succeeded by others which have ensured for him a high place

among the writers of fiction (1824-1889).

COLLINS, WILLIAM, a gifted and ill-fated English poet, born at

Chichester; settled in London; fell into dissipated habits and straitened

circumstances; had £2000 left him by an uncle, but both health and

spirits were broken, and he died in mental imbecility; his "Odes" have

not been surpassed, among which the most celebrated are the "Odes to the

Passions," to "Simplicity," and to "Evening" (1720-1756).

COLLINS, WILLIAM, R.A., a distinguished English painter, born in

London; he made his reputation by his treatment of coast and cottage

scenes, and though he tried his skill in other subjects, it was in the

subjects he started with that he achieved his greatest triumphs; among

his best-known works are "The Blackberry Gatherers," "As Happy as a

King," "The Fisherman's Daughter," and "The Bird-Catchers" (1788-1847).

COLLINSON, PETER, an English horticulturist, to whom we are indebted

for the introduction into the country of many ornamental shrubs

(1694-1768).

COLLOT D'HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE, a violent French Revolutionary,

originally a tragic actor, once hissed off the Lyons stage, "tearing a

passion to rags"; had his revenge by a wholesale butchery there; marched

209 men across the Rhône to be shot; by-and-by was banished beyond seas

to Cayenne, and soon died there (1750-1790).

COLLYER, JOSEPH, an eminent stipple engraver, born in London

(1768-1827).

COLMAN, GEORGE, an English dramatist, born at Florence; bred for and

called to the bar; author of a comedy entitled "The Jealous Wife," also

of "The Clandestine Marriage"; became manager of Drury Lane, then of the

Haymarket (1733-1794).

COLMAN, GEORGE, son of the preceding, and his successor in the

Haymarket; author of "The Iron Chest," "John Bull," "The Heir at Law,"

&c. (1762-1836).

COLMAR (30), the chief town of Upper Alsace, on the Lauch, on a

plain near the Vosges, 42 m. SW. of Strasburg; passed into the hands of

the French by treaty of Ryswick in 1697, was ceded to Germany in 1871.

COLOCETRONIS, a Greek patriot, born in Messina, distinguished

himself in the War of Independence, which he chiefly contributed to carry

through to a successful issue (1770-1843).

COLOGNE (282), in German KÖLN, capital of Rhenish Prussia, and

a fortress of first rank, on the left bank of the Rhine, 175 m. SE. of

Rotterdam; is a busy commercial city, and is engaged in eau-de-Cologne,

sugar, tobacco, and other manufactures. It has some fine old buildings,

and a picture gallery; but its glory is its great cathedral, founded in

the 9th century, burnt in 1248, since which time the rebuilding was

carried on at intervals, and only completed in 1880; it is one of the

masterpieces of Gothic architecture.

COLOGNE, THE THREE KINGS OF, the three Magi who paid homage to the

infant Christ, and whose bones were consigned to the archbishop in 1164;

they were called Gaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar.

COLOMBIA (4,000), a federal republic of nine States, occupying the

isthmus of Panama and the NW. corner of S. America, between Venezuela and

Ecuador. The country, nearly three times the size of France, though it

has only a ninth of the population, comprises in the W. three chains of

the Andes and the plateaus between them, in the E. plains well watered by

tributaries of the Orinoco. The upper valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca

are the centres of population, where the climate is delightful, and grain

grows. Every climate is found in Colombia, from the tropical heats of the

plains to the Arctic cold of the mountains. Natural productions are as

various: the exports include valuable timbers and dye-woods, cinchona

bark, coffee, cacao, cotton, and silver ore. Most of the trade is with

Britain and the United States. Manufactures are inconsiderable. The

mineral wealth is very great, but little wrought. The Panama Railway,

from Colon to Panama, connects the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, and

is a most important highway of commerce. The people are descendants of

Spaniards and Indians; education is meagre, but compulsory; the State

Church is Roman Catholic. The capital is Bogotá. Panama and Cartagena the

chief ports.

COLOMBO (126), the capital of Ceylon, and the chief port on the W.

coast; it is surrounded on three sides by the sea, and on the other by a

lake and moat; is supplied with water and gas; has many fine buildings;

has a very mixed population, and has belonged to Britain since 1796;

communicates with Kandy by railway.

COLON, a town at the Atlantic terminus of the Panama Railway. See

ASPINWALL.

COLONNA, an illustrious Italian family, to which belonged popes,

cardinals, and generals.

COLONNA, VICTORIA, a poetess, married to a member of the above

family, who consoled herself for his early death by cultivating her

poetic gift; one of her most devoted friends was Michael Angelo

(1490-1547).

COLONNE, EDOUARD, musical conductor, born at Bordeaux, conductor of

what are known as "Colonne Concerts"; _b_. 1838.

COLONUS, a demos of Attica, a mile NW. of Athens, the birthplace of

Sophocles.

COLOPHON, an Ionian city in Asia Minor, N. of Ephesus, is supposed

to give name to the device at the end of books, the cavalry of the place

being famous for giving the finishing stroke to a battle.

COLORA`DO (412), an inland State of the American Union, traversed by

the Rocky Mountains, and watered by the upper reaches of the S. Platte

and Arkansas Rivers, is twice as large as England. The mountains are the

highest in the States (13,000 to 14,000 ft.), are traversed by lofty

passes through which the railways run, have rich spacious valleys or

parks among them, and have great deposits of gold, silver, lead, and

iron. There are also extensive coal-beds; hence the leading industries

are mining and iron working. The eastern portion is a level, treeless

plain, adapted for grazing. Agriculture, carried on with irrigation,

suffers from insect plagues like the Colorado potato beetle. The climate

is dry and clear, and attracts invalids. Acquired partly from France in

1804, and the rest from Mexico in 1848; the territory was organised in

1861, and admitted to the Union in 1876. The capital is Denver (107).

There is a small Spanish-speaking population in the S.

COLOSSÆ, a city in the S. of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, and the site of

one of the earliest Christian churches.

COLOSSIANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE, by St. Paul, directed mainly against

two errors of that early date, that the fleshly nature of man is no

adequate vehicle for the reception and revelation of the divine nature,

and that for redemption recourse must be had to direct mortification of

the flesh.

COLOSSUS, any gigantic statue, specially one of Apollo in bronze,

120 ft. high, astride over the mouth of the harbour at Rhodes, reckoned

one of the seven wonders of the world, erected in 280 B.C., destroyed by

an earthquake 56 years after, and sold to a Jew centuries later for old

metal; besides this are celebrated the statue of Memnon at Thebes, the

Colossi of Athene in the Parthenon at Athens, and of Zeus at Olympia and

at Tarentum, as well as others of modern date; for instance, Germania,

112 ft. high, in the Niederwald, and Liberty enlightening the World, 160

ft. high, in New York harbour.

COLOT, the name of a family of French surgeons in the 16th and 17th

century, distinguished for their skill in operating in the case of stone.

COLOUR-BLINDNESS, inability, still unaccounted for, to distinguish

between colours, and especially between red and green, more common among

men than women; a serious disqualification for several occupations, such

as those connected with the study of signals.

COLOUR-SERGEANT, a sergeant whose duty is to guard the colours and

those who carry them.

COLQUHOUN, JOHN, a noted sportsman and writer on sport in Scotland,

born in Edinburgh (1805-1885).

COLSTON, EDWARD, an English philanthropist, founded and endowed a

school in Bristol for the education of 100 boys, as well as almshouses

elsewhere (1636-1721).

COLT, SAMUEL, the inventor of the revolver, born in Hartford,

Connecticut, U.S.; having difficulty in raising money to carry out his

invention it proved a commercial failure, but being adopted by the

Government in the Mexican war it proved a success, since which time it

has been everywhere in use (1814-1862).

COLUMBA, ST., the apostle of Christianity to the Scots, born in

Donegal; coming to Scotland about 563, in his forty-second year, founded

a monastery in Iona, and made it the centre of his evangelistic

operations, in which work he was occupied incessantly till 596, when his

health began to fail, and he breathed his last kneeling before the altar,

June 9, 597.

COLUMBAN, ST., an Irish missionary, who, with twelve companions,

settled in Gaul in 585; founded two monasteries, but was banished for the

offence of rebuking the king; went to Italy, founded a monastery at

Bobbio, where he died 616.

COLUMBIA, a district of 70 sq. m. in the State of Maryland, U.S.,

in which Washington, the capital of the Union, stands.

COLUMBIA, BRITISH (100), the most westerly province in Canada, lies

between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, the United States and

Alaska, and is four times the size of Great Britain. It is a mountainous

country, rugged and picturesque, containing the highest peaks on the

continent, Mount Hooker, 15,700 ft., and Mount Brown, 16,000 ft, with a

richly indented coast-line, off which lie Queen Charlotte Islands and

Vancouver. The chief river is the Frazer, which flows from the Lake

region southwards through the centre and then westward to the Gulf of

Georgia; the upper waters of the Columbia flow southward through the E.

of the State. The climate resembles that of northern England, but is in

some parts very rainy. The chief industries are lumbering--the forests

are among the finest in the world, fishing--the rivers abound in salmon

and sturgeon, and mining--rich deposits of gold, silver, iron, copper,

mercury, antimony, and many other valuable minerals are found; there are

great coal-fields in Vancouver. In Vancouver and in the river valleys of

the mainland are extensive tracts of arable and grazing land; but neither

agriculture nor manufactures are much developed. Made a Crown colony in

1858, it joined the Dominion as a province in 1871. The completion of the

Canadian Pacific Railway in 1885 joined it to the eastern provinces. The

capital is Victoria (17), in the S. of Vancouver.

COLUMBUS (125), capital of Ohio, U.S., a manufacturing town.

COLUMBUS, BARTHOLOMEW, cosmographer, brother of Christopher

Columbus; accompanied him to St. Domingo, and became governor; _d_. 1514.

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER, discoverer of America, on Oct. 12, 1492,

after two months of great peril and, in the end, mutiny of his men, born

in Genoa; went to sea at 14; cherished, if he did not conceive, the idea

of reaching India by sailing westward; applied in many quarters for

furtherance; after seven years of waiting, was provided with three small

vessels and a crew of 120 men; first touched land at the Bahamas, visited

Cuba and Hayti, and returned home with spoils of the land; was hailed and

honoured as King of the Sea; he made three subsequent visits, and on the

third had the satisfaction of landing on the mainland, which Sebastian

Cabot and Amerigo Vespucci had reached before him; he became at last the

victim of jealousy, and charges were made against him, which so cut him

to the heart that he never rallied from the attack, and he died at

Valladolid, broken in body and in soul; Carlyle, in a famous passage,

salutes him across the centuries: "Brave sea-captain, Norse sea-king,

Columbus my hero, royalist sea-king of all" (1438-1506).

COLUMELLA, JUNIUS, a Latin writer of the 1st century, born at Cadiz;

author of "De Re Rustica," in 12 books, on the same theme as Virgil's

"Georgics," viz., agriculture and gardening; he wrote also "De

Arboribus," on trees.

COLU`THUS, a Greek epic poet of 6th century, born in Egypt; wrote

the "Rape of Helen."

COLVIN, SIDNEY, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Slade

Professor of Art at Cambridge, born at Norwood; contributor to the

journals on art and literature; has written Lives of Keats and Landor;

friend of Robert Louis Stevenson, and his literary executor; _b_. 1845.

COMACCHIO (10), a walled town, 30 m. SE. of Ferrara; famous for

fish, specially eel-culture in a large lagoon adjoining, 90 in. in

circumference.

COMBE, ANDREW, M.D., a physician and physiologist, born in

Edinburgh; studied under Spurzheim in Edinburgh and Paris, but on his

return to his native city was seized with pulmonary consumption, which

rendered him a confirmed invalid, so that he had to spend his winters

abroad; was eminent as a physician; was a believer in phrenology;

produced three excellent popular works on Physiology, Digestion, and the

Management of Infancy (1797-1847).

COMBE, GEORGE, brother of the preceding, born in Edinburgh; trained

to the legal profession; like his brother, he became, under Spurzheim, a

stanch phrenologist and advocate of phrenology; but his ablest and

best-known work was "The Constitution of Man," to the advocacy of the

principles of which and their application, especially to education, he

devoted his life; he married a daughter of the celebrated Mrs. Siddons

(1788-1858).

COMBE, WILLIAM, born in Bristol; author of the "Three Tours of Dr.

Syntax"; inherited a small fortune, which he squandered by an irregular

life; wrote some 86 works (1741-1823).

COMBERMERE, VISCOUNT, a British field-marshal, born in Denbighshire;

served in Flanders, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in India; was present

at the siege of Seringapatam; was sent to Spain in 1808; distinguished

himself in the Peninsula, and particularly at Talavera; received a

peerage in 1827; was made commander-in-chief in India, and Constable of

the Tower in succession to Wellington in 1832 (1773-1865).

COMENIUS, JOHN AMOS, a Moravian educational reformer, particularly

as regards the acquisition of languages in their connection with the

things they denote; his two most famous books are his "Janua Linguarum"

and his "Orbis Sensualium Pictus"; his principle at bottom was, words

must answer to and be associated with things and ideas of things, a

principle still only very partially adopted in education, and that only

at the most elementary stages.

COMET, a member of the solar system under control of the sun,

consisting of a bright nucleus within a nebulous envelope, generally

extended into a tail on the rear of its orbit, which is extremely

eccentric, pursuing its course with a velocity which increases as it

approaches the sun, and which diminishes as it withdraws from it; these

bodies are very numerous, have their respective periods of revolution,

which have been in many cases determined by observation.

COMINES, a French town in the dep. of Nord, France, 15 m. SW. of

Courtrai.

COMINES, PHILIPPE DE, a French chronicler, born at Comines; was of

Flemish origin; served under Charles the Bold, then under Louis XI. and

Charles VIII.; author of "Memoires," in seven vols., of the reigns of

these two monarchs, which give a clear and faithful picture of the time

and the chief actors in it, but with the coolest indifference as to the

moral elements at work, with him the end justifying the means, and

success the measure of morality (1443-1509).

COMITIA, constitutional assemblies of the Roman citizens for

electing magistrates, putting some question to the vote of the people,

the declaration of war, &c.

COMITY OF NATIONS, the name given for the effect given in one

country to the laws and institutions of another in dealing with a native

of it.

COMMANDITE, SOCIÉTÉ EN, partnership in a business by a supply of

funds, but without a share in the management or incurring further

liability.

COMMELIN, ISAAC, Dutch historian; wrote the "Lives of the

Stadtholders William I. and Maurice" (1598-1676).

COMMENTARIES OF JULIUS CÆSAR, his memoirs of the Gallic and Civil

Wars, reckoned the most perfect model of narration that in such

circumstances was ever written, and a masterpiece.

COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY, a committee of nine created by the

French Convention, April 6, 1793, to concentrate the power of the

executive, "the conscience of Marat, who could see salvation in one thing

only, in the fall of 260,000 aristocrats' heads"; notable, therefore, for

its excesses in that line; was not suppressed till Oct. 19, 1796, on the

advent of the Directory to power.

COM`MODUS, LUCIUS AURELIUS, Roman emperor, son and successor of

Marcus Aurelius; carefully trained, but on his father's death threw up

the reins and gave himself over to every form of licentiousness; poison

administered by his mistress Marcia being slow in operating, he was

strangled to death by a hired athlete in 162.

COMMON LAW is law established by usage and confirmed by judicial

decision.

COMMON-SENSE, PHILOSOPHY OF, the philosophy which rests on the

principle that the perceptions of the senses reflect things as they

actually are irrespectively of them.

COMMUNE, THE, a revolutionary power installed in Paris after the

"admonitory" insurrection of March 18, 1871, and overthrown in the end of

May.

COMMUNISM, community of property in a State.

COMNE`NUS, name of a dynasty of six emperors of Constantinople.

COMO, LAKE OF, one of the chief lakes of Lombardy and the third in

size, at the foot of the Pennine Alps, 80 m. long and 2½ at greatest

breadth; is traversed by the Adda, and is famed for the beauty and rich

variety of its scenery.

COMORIN, CAPE, a low sandy point, the most southerly of India, from

which the seaman is beckoned off by a peak 18 m. inland.

COMORO ISLES (63), an archipelago of four volcanic islands at the N.

of the channel of Mozambique; under the protectorate of France since

1886; the people are Mohammedans, and speak Arabic.

COMPARETTI, an Italian philologist; his writings are numerous; _b_.

1835.

COMPIÈGNE (14), a quiet old town in the dep. of Oise, 50 m. NE. of

Paris; has some fine old churches, but the chief edifice is the palace,

built by St. Louis and rebuilt by Louis XIV., where the marriage of

Napoleon to Maria Louisa was celebrated; here Joan of Arc was made

prisoner in 1430, and Louis Napoleon had hunting ground.

COMPTON, HENRY, bishop of London, son of the Earl of Northampton;

fought bravely for Charles I.; was colonel of dragoons at the

Restoration; left the army for the Church; was made bishop; crowned

William and Mary when the archbishop, Sancroft, refused; _d_. 1713.

COMRIE (8), a village in Perthshire, on the Earn, 20 m. W. of Perth,

in a beautiful district of country; subject to earthquakes from time to

time; birthplace of George Gilfillan.

COMTE, AUGUSTE, a French philosopher, born at Montpellier, the

founder of POSITIVISM (q. v.); enough to say here, it consisted

of a new arrangement of the sciences into Abstract and Concrete, and a

new law of historical evolution in science from a theological through a

metaphysical to a positive stage, which last is the ultimate and crowning

and alone legitimate method, that is, observation of phenomena and their

sequence; Comte was first a disciple of St. Simon, but he quarrelled with

him; commenced a "Cours de Philosophie Positive" of his own, in six

vols.; but finding it defective on the moral side, he instituted a

worship of humanity, and gave himself out as the chief priest of a new

religion, a very different thing from Carlyle's hero-worship (1795-1857).

COMUS, the Roman deity who presided over festive revelries; the

title of a poem by Milton, "the most exquisite of English or any masks."

COMYN, JOHN (the Black Comyn), Lord of Badenoch, a Scottish noble of

French descent, his ancestor, born at Comines, having come over with the

Conqueror and got lands given him; was one of the competitors for the

Scottish crown in 1291, and lost it.

COMYN, JOHN (the Red Comyn), son of the preceding; as one of the

three Wardens of Scotland defended it against the English, whom he

defeated at Roslin; but in 1304 submitted to Edward I., and falling under

suspicion of Bruce, was stabbed by him in a monastery at Dumfries in

1306.

CONCEPCION (24), a town in Chile, S. of Valparaiso, with its port,

Talcahuano, 7 m. off, one of the safest and most commodious in the

country, and ranks next to Valparaiso as a trading centre.

CONCEPTION OF OUR LADY, an order of nuns founded in Portugal in

1484; at first followed the rule of the Cistercians, but afterwards that

of St. Clare.

CONCIERGERIE, a prison in the Palais de Justice, Paris.

CONCLAVE, properly the room, generally in the Vatican, where the

cardinals are confined under lock and key while electing a Pope.

CONCORD, a town in U.S., 23 m. NW. of Boston; was the residence of

Emerson, Thoreau, and Hawthorne; here the first engagement took place in

the American war in 1775.

CONCORD (17), capital of New Hampshire, U.S., a thriving trading

place.

CONCORDAT, THE, a convention of July 15, 1801, between Bonaparte and

Pius V., regulative of the relations of France with the Holy See.

CONCORDE, PLACE DE LA, a celebrated public place, formed by Louis

XV. in 1748, adorned by a statue of him; at the Revolution it was called

Place de la Revolution; here Louis XVI. and his queen were guillotined.

CONCORDIA, the Roman goddess of peace, to whom Camillus the dictator

in 367 B.C. dedicated a temple on the conclusion of the strife between

the patricians and plebeians.

CONDÉ, HENRY I., PRINCE OF, fought in the ranks of the Huguenots,

but escaped the massacre of St. Bartholomew by an oath of abjuration

(1552-1588).

CONDÉ, HOUSE OF, a collateral branch of the house of Bourbon, the

members of which played all along a conspicuous rôle in the history of

France.

CONDÉ, LOUIS I., PRINCE OF, founder of the house of Condé, a brave,

gallant man, though deformed; distinguished himself in the wars between

Henry II. and Charles V., particularly in the defence of Metz; affronted

at court, and obnoxious to the Guises, he became a Protestant, and joined

his brother the king of Navarre; became the head of the party, and was

treacherously killed after the battle of Jarnac; he had been party,

however, to the conspiracy of Amboise, which aimed a death-blow at the

Guises (1530-1569).

CONDÉ, LOUIS II., PRINCE OF, named "the Great Condé," born at Paris;

was carefully educated; acquired a taste for literature, which stood him

in good stead at the end of his career; made his reputation by his

victory over the Spaniards at Recroi; distinguished himself at Fribourg,

Nordlingen, and Lens; the settlement of the troubles of the Fronde

alienated him, so that he entered the service of Spain, and served

against his country, but was by-and-by reconciled; led the French army to

success in Franche-Comté and Holland, and soon after retired to

Chantilly, where he enjoyed the society of such men as Molière, Boileau,

and La Bruyère, and when he died Bossuet pronounced a funeral oration

over his grave (1621-1686).

CONDÉ, LOUIS JOSEPH, PRINCE DE, born at Chantilly; served in the

Seven Years' War; attended in the antechamber in the palace when Louis

XV. lay dying; was one of the first to emigrate on the fall of the

Bastille; seized every opportunity to save the monarchy; was declared a

traitor to the country, and had his estates confiscated for threatening

to restore Louis XVI.; organised troops to aid in the Restoration;

settled at Malmesbury, in England, during the Empire; returned to France

with Louis XVIII. (1736-1818).

CONDILLAC, ÉTIENNE BONNOT, a French philosopher, born at Grenoble,

of good birth; commenced as a disciple of Locke, but went further, for

whereas Locke was content to deduce empirical knowledge from sensation

and reflection, he deduced reflection from sensation, and laid the

foundation of a sensationalism which, in the hands of his successors,

went further still, and swamped the internal in the external, and which

is now approaching the stage of self-cancelling zero; he lived as a

recluse, and had Rousseau and Diderot for intimate friends (1715-1780).

CONDITIONAL IMMORTALITY, the doctrine that only believers in Christ

have any future existence, a dogma founded on certain isolated passages

of Scripture.

CONDORCET, MARQUIS DE, a French mathematician and philosopher, born

near St. Quentin; contributed to the "Encyclopédie"; was of the

Encyclopedist school; took sides with the Revolutionary party in the

interest of progress; voted with the Girondists usually; suspected by the

extreme party; was not safe even under concealment; "skulked round Paris

in thickets and stone-quarries; entered a tavern one bleared May morning,

ragged, rough-bearded, hunger-stricken, and asked for breakfast; having a

Latin Horace about him was suspected and haled to prison, breakfast

unfinished; fainted by the way with exhaustion; was flung into a damp

cell, and found next morning lying dead on the floor"; his works are

voluminous, and the best known is his "Exquisse du Progrès de l'Esprit

Humain"; he was not an original thinker, but a clear expositor

(1743-1794).

CONDOTTIE`RI, leaders of Italian free-lances, who in the 14th and

15th centuries lived by plunder or hired themselves to others for a share

in the spoils.

CONFEDERATE STATES, 11 Southern States of the American Union, which

seceded in 1861 on the question of slavery, and which occasioned a civil

war that lasted till 1865.

CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE, a confederation of 16 German States,

which in 1806 dissolved their connection with Germany and leagued with

France, and which lasted till disaster overtook Napoleon in Russia, and

then broke up; the Germanic Confederation, or union of all the States,

took its place, till it too was dissolved by the defeat of Austria in

1866, and which gave ascendency to Prussia and ensured the erection of

the German empire on its ruins.

CONFERENCE, a stated meeting of Wesleyan ministers for the

transaction of the business of their Church.

CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, are statements of doctrine very similar to

Creeds, but usually longer and polemical, as well as didactic; they are

in the main, though not exclusively, associated with Protestantism; the

16th century produced many, including the _Sixty-seven Articles_ of the

Swiss reformers, drawn up by Zwingli in 1523; the _Augsburg Confession_

of 1530, the work of Luther and Melanchthon, which marked the breach with

Rome; the _Tetrapolitan Confession_ of the German Reformed Church, 1530;

the _Gallican Confession_, 1559; and the _Belgic Confession_ of 1561. In

Britain the _Scots Confession_, drawn up by John Knox in 1560; the

_Thirty-nine Articles_ of the Church of England in 1562; the _Irish

Articles_ in 1615; and the _Westminster Confession of Faith_ in 1647;

this last, the work of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, has by its

force of language, logical statement, comprehensiveness, and dependence

on Scripture, commended itself to the Presbyterian Churches of all

English-speaking peoples, and is the most widely recognised Protestant

statement of doctrine; it has as yet been modified only by the United

Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which adopted a Declaratory Statement

regarding certain of its doctrines in 1879, and by the Free Church of

Scotland, which adopted a similar statement in 1890.

CONFESSIONS OF ROUSSEAU, memoirs published after his death in 1788,

in which that writer makes confession of much that was good in him and

much that was bad.

CONFESSIONS OF ST. AUGUSTINE, an account which that Father of the

Church gives of the errors of his youth and his subsequent conversion.

CONFUCIUS, the Latin form of the name of the great sage of China,

Kung Futsze, and the founder of a religion which is based on the worship

and practice of morality as exemplified in the lives and teachings of the

wise men who have gone before, and who, as he conceived, have made the

world what it is, and have left it to posterity to build upon the same

basis; while he lived he was held in greater and greater honour by

multitudes of disciples, till on his death he became an object of

worship, and even his descendants came to be regarded as a kind of sacred

caste; he flourished about 550 B.C.

CONGÉ D'ÉLIRE, a warrant granted by the Crown to the dean and

chapter of a cathedral to elect a particular bishop to a vacant see.

CONGO, the second in length and largest in volume of the African

rivers, rises NE. of the Muchinga Mountains in Rhodesia, flows SW.

through Lake Bangueola, then N. to the equator; curving in a great

semicircle it continues SW., passes in a series of rapids through the

coast range, and enters the S. Atlantic by an estuary 6 m. broad. It

brings down more water than the other African rivers put together. The

largest affluents are the Kassai on the left, and the Mobangi on the

right bank; 110 m. are navigable to ocean steamers, then the cataracts

intervene, and 250 m. of railway promote transit; the upper river is 2 to

4 m. broad, and navigable for small craft up to Stanley Falls, 1068 m.

The name most associated with its exploration is H. M. Stanley; during

its course of 3000 m. it bears several names.

CONGO, FRENCH (5,000), a continuous and connected territory

extending westward along the right bank of the Congo from Brazzaville to

the mouth of the Mobangi, and as far as 4° N. run N. behind the

Cameroons, and along the E. of Shari to Lake Tchad.

CONGO FREE STATE embraces most of the basin of the Congo, touching

British territory in Uganda and Rhodesia, with a very narrow outlet to

the Atlantic at the river mouth. It is under the sovereignty of Leopold

II. of Belgium, who, in 1890, made over his rights to Belgium with power

to annex the State in 1900. It is nine times the size of Great Britain,

and continual native unrest gives great trouble to its administrators.

Its waters are open to all nations, and traders exchange manufactured

goods for ivory, palm-oil, coffee and caoutchouc, bees-wax and fruits.

The climate is tropical, on the lower levels malarial. The population is

from 20 to 40 millions. The centre of administration is Boma, 80 m. from

the sea.

CONGREGATIONALISM, the ecclesiastical system which regards each

congregation of believers in Christ a church complete in itself, and free

from the control of the other Christian communities, and which extends to

each member equal privileges as a member of Christ's body. It took its

rise in England about 1571, and the most prominent name connected with

its establishment is that of ROBERT BROWN (q. v.), who seceded

from the Church of England and formed a church in Norwich in 1580. The

body was called Brownists after him, and Separatists, as well as

"Independents." The several congregations are now united in what is

called "The Congregational Union of England and Wales."

CONGRESS is a diplomatic conference at which the representatives of

sovereign States discuss matters of importance to their several

countries, the most celebrated of which are those of Münster and

Osnabrück, which issued in the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, at the end

of the Thirty Years' War; of Rastadt, at the end of Spanish Succession

War, in 1797; of Vienna, at the end of Napoleon's wars, in 1815; of

Paris, in 1856, at the end of Russian War; and of Berlin, in 1878, at the

end of Russo-Turkish war; but the name has come to be applied in federal

republics to the legislative assembly which directs national as distinct

from State concerns. In the United States, Congress consists of the

Senate, elected by the State legislatures and the House of

Representatives, elected directly by the people. It meets on the first

Monday in December, and receives the President's message for the year. It

imposes taxes, contracts loans, provides for national defence, declares

war, looks after the general welfare, establishes postal communication,

coins money, fixes weights and measures, &c. &c., but it is prohibited

from preferential treatment of the several States, establishing or

interfering with religion, curtailing freedom of speech, or pursuing

towards any citizen, even under legal forms, a course of conduct which is

unjust or even oppressive.

CONGRESS, the Belgian Constituent Assembly, 1830-1831.

CONGREVE, RICHARD, author of political tracts, was a pupil of Dr.

Arnold's, and a disciple of Comte in philosophy; _b_. 1818.

CONGREVE, WILLIAM, English comic dramatist, born near Leeds; entered

a student of the Middle Temple, but soon abandoned law for literature;

the "Old Bachelor" first brought him into repute, and a commissionership

of substantial value; the production of "Love for Love" and the "Mourning

Bride," a stilted tragedy, added immensely to his popularity, but his

comedy "The Way of the World" being coldly received, he gave up writing

plays, and only wrote a few verses afterwards; he was held in great

esteem by his contemporaries, among others Dryden, Pope, and Steele

(1670-1729).

CONGREVE, SIR WILLIAM, an English artillery officer, inventor of the

rocket which bears his name (1772-1828).

CONINGSBY, a novel by Disraeli.

CONINGTON, JOHN, classical scholar and professor of Latin at Oxford,

born at Boston, translator of the "Æneid" of Virgil, "Odes, Satires, and

Epistles" of Horace, and 12 books of the "Iliad" into verse, as well as

of other classics; his greatest work is his edition of "Virgil"

(1823-1869).

CONISBURGH CASTLE, an old round castle referred to in "Ivanhoe," 5

in. SW. of Doncaster.

CONISTON WATER, a lake 5 m. long and ½ m. broad, at the foot of

Coniston Fells, in Lancashire, with Brantwood on the E. side of it, the

residence of John Ruskin.

CONKLING, ROSCOE, an American politician, a leading man on the

Republican side; was a member of the House of Representatives, and also

of the Senate; retired from politics, and practised law at New York

(1828-1888).

CONNAUGHT (724), a western province of Ireland, 105 m. long and 92

m. broad, divided into five counties; is the smallest and most barren of

the provinces, but abounds in picturesque scenery; the people are pure

Celts.

CONNAUGHT, DUKE OF, the third son of Queen Victoria, bred for the

army, has held several military appointments; was promoted to the rank of

general in 1893, and made commander-in-chief at Aldershot; _b_. 1850.

CONNECTICUT (746), southernmost of the New England States, is washed

by Long Island Sound, has New York on the W., Rhode Island on the E., and

Massachusetts on the N. It is the third smallest State, rocky and uneven

in surface, unfertile except in the Connecticut River valley. Streams

abound, and supply motive-power for very extensive manufactures of

clocks, hardware, india-rubber goods, smallwares, textiles, and firearms.

There are iron-mines in the NW., stone-quarries, lead, copper, and cobalt

mines. Climate is healthy, changeable, and in winter severe. Education is

excellently provided for. Yale University, at New Haven, is thoroughly

equipped; there are several divinity schools, Trinity College at

Hartford, and the Wesleyan University at Middleton. The capital is

Hartford (53); New Haven (81) is the largest town and chief port. The

original colony was a democratic secession from Massachusetts in 1634.

The constitution of 1639 was the first written democratic constitution on

record. Its present constitution as a State dates from 1818.

CONNECTICUT, a river in the United States which rises on the

confines of Canada, and, after a course of 450 m., falls into the

Atlantic at Long Island.

CONNEMARA, a wild district with picturesque scenery in W. of co.

Galway, Ireland.

CONOLLY, JOHN, physician, born in Lincolnshire, studied at

Edinburgh, settled in London, distinguished for having introduced and

advocated a more rational and humane treatment of the insane (1794-1866).

CONRAD, CADET OF THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN, served under the

illustrious Barbarossa; proved a capable young fellow under him; married

the heiress of the Vohburgs; was appointed Burggraf of Nürnberg, 1170,

and prince of the empire; "he is the lineal ancestor of Frederick the

Great, twentieth in direct ascent, let him wait till nineteen

generations, valiantly like Conrad, have done their part, Conrad will

find he has come to this," that was realised in Frederick and his time.

CONRAD, MARQUIS OF TYRE, threw himself into Tyre when beset by

Saladin, and held it till Richard Coeur de Lion and Philip Augustus

arrived; was assassinated by emissaries of the Old Man of the Mountain in

1192.

CONRAD I., count of Franconia, elected on the extinction of the

Carlovingian line Emperor of the Germans, which he continued to be from

911 to 915; fell wounded in battle with the Huns, egged on by a rival.

CONRAD II., the Salic, of the same family as the preceding; elected

Emperor of Germany in 1024; reigned 15 years, extending the empire,

suppressing disorders, and effecting reforms.

CONRAD III., founder of the Hohenstaufen dynasty; elected Emperor of

Germany in 1138; had Henry the Proud, as head of the German Guelfs, for

rival; crushed him at Weinsberg; joined Louis VII. of France on a third

crusade, and returning, overthrew the Guelfs again, leaving Barbarossa as

his heir; _d_. 1152.

CONRAD OF THÜRINGIA, a proud, quick, fiery-tempered magnate, seized

the archbishop of Mainz once, swung him round, and threatened to cut him

in two; stormed, plundered, and set fire to an imperial free town for an

affront offered him; but admonished of his sins became penitent, and

reconciled himself by monastic vow to the Pope and mankind about 1234.

CONRADIN THE BOY, or CONRAD V., the last representative of the

Hohenstaufen dynasty of Romish Kaisers, had fallen into the Pope's

clutches, who was at mortal feud with the empire, and was put to death by

him on the scaffold at Naples, October 25, 1265, the "bright and brave"

lad, only 16, "throwing out his glove (in symbolic protest) amid the dark

mute Neapolitan multitudes" that idly looked on. See CARLYLE'S

"FREDERICK THE GREAT" FOR THE CONRADS.

CONSALVI, Italian cardinal and statesman, born at Rome, secretary of

Pius VII.; concluded the Concordat with Napoleon in 1801; represented the

Pope at the Congress of Vienna; was a liberal patron of literature,

science, and arts; continued minister of the Pope till his death

(1757-1824).

CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK, a brilliant Flemish novelist, born at Antwerp;

rose to popularity among his countrymen by his great national romance the

"Lion of Flanders," a popularity which soon extended all over Europe; his

writings display great descriptive power and perfect purity of sentiment

(1812-1883).

CONSCRIPT FATHERS, the collective name of members of the Roman

Senate, and addressed as such, fathers as seniors and conscripts as

enrolled.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY, the doctrine that, however it may be

transformed or dissipated, no fraction of energy is ever lost, that the

amount of force, as of matter, in the universe, under all mutation

remains the same.

CONSERVATISM, indisposition to change established laws and customs

that have wrought beneficially in the past and contributed to the welfare

of the country; in practical politics often a very different thing, and

regarded by Carlyle in his time "a portentous enbodied sham; accursed of

God, and doomed to destruction, as all lies are."

CONSIDÉRANT, VICTOR PROSPER, a French Socialist and disciple of

Fourier; founded a colony in Texas on Fourier's principles, which proved

a failure; wrote much in advocacy of his principles, of which the most

important is "La Destinée Sociale"; _b_. 1808.

CONSOLS, the Consolidated Fund, loans to Government made at

different times and at different rates of interest, consolidated for

convenience into one common loan, bearing interest at 3 per cent.,

reduced in 1830 to 2¾, and in 1893 to 2½.

CONSTABLE, a high officer of State in the Roman empire, in France,

and in England, charged at one time with military, judicial, and

regulative functions.

CONSTABLE, ARCHIBALD, Edinburgh publisher, born in Carnbee, Fife;

started as a bookseller near the Cross in Edinburgh; published the _Scots

Magazine_, the _Edinburgh Review_, and the "Encyclopædia Britannica," and

from 1802 to 1826 the works of Sir Walter Scott, when the bankruptcy

connected with the publication of these so affected him that it ruined

his health, though he lived after the crash came to start the

"Miscellany" which bears his name (1774-1827).

CONSTABLE, HENRY, English poet, author of sonnets, 28 in number,

under the title of "Diana" (1560-1612).

CONSTABLE, JOHN, an eminent landscape-painter, born in Suffolk; his

works were more generously appreciated in France than in his own country,

as they well might be, where they had not, as in England, to stand

comparison with those of Turner; but he is now, despite the depreciation

of Ruskin, becoming recognised among us as one of our foremost

landscapists, and enormous prices have been given of late for his best

pictures; some of his best works adorn the walls of the National Gallery;

Ruskin allows his art is original, honest, free from affectation, and

manly (1776-1837).

CONSTABLE DE BOURBON, Charles, Duc de Bourbon, a brilliant military

leader, and a powerful enemy of Francis I.; killed when leading the

assault on Rome (1489-1527).

CONSTANCE (16), a city of the Grand-Duchy of Baden, on the S. bank

of the Rhine, at its exit from the lake; famous for the seat of the

council (1414-1418) which condemned John Huss and Jerome of Prague to

death; long famous for its linen manufacture.

CONSTANCE, LAKE, or BODENSEE, partly in Germany and partly in

Switzerland; is about 44 m. long and 9 m. broad at most; is traversed by

the Rhine from W. to E., is 1306 ft. above sea-level; is surrounded by

vineyards, cornfields, and wooded slopes; its waters are hardly ever

frozen, and often rise and fall suddenly.

CONSTANT, BENJAMIN, a highly popular French painter of the Realistic

school, born at Paris; his first picture was "Hamlet and the King";

afterwards he took chiefly to Oriental subjects, which afforded the best

scope for his talent; occupies a high place in the modern French school,

and has been promoted to the rank of Officer of the Legion of Honour;

_b_. 1845.

CONSTANT DE REBECQUE, HENRY BENJAMIN DE, a French politician, of

liberal constitutional principles, born at Lausanne, of Huguenot parents;

settled in Paris at the commencement of the Revolution, where he

distinguished himself by his political writings and speeches; was

expelled from France in 1802, along with Mme. de Staël, for denouncing

the military ascendency of Napoleon; lived for a time at Weimar in the

society of Goethe and Schiller; translated Schiller's "Wallenstein";

returned to France in 1814; declared for the Bourbons, and pled in favour

of constitutional liberty; he was a supporter of Louis Philippe, and a

rationalist in religion, and declared himself opposed to the supernatural

element in all religions (1760-1830).

CONSTANTIA, a wine district of Cape Colony under E. flank of Table

Mountain.

CONSTANTINE (50), inland city of Algeria, on a rocky height;

leather-working its staple industry.

CONSTANTINE, the name of 13 emperors who reigned at Rome or

Byzantium between 306 and 1453.

CONSTANTINE I., called the Great, born in Moesia, son of Constantius

Chlorus by Helena; on the death of his father at York, where he

accompanied him, was proclaimed Emperor by the troops; this title being

challenged by Maximian, his father-in-law, and Maxentius, his

brother-in-law, he took up arms against first the one and then the other,

and defeated them; when one day he saw a cross in the sky with the words

_By this Conquer_ in Greek, under this sign, known as the _labarum_,

which he adopted as his standard, he accordingly marched straight to

Rome, where he was acknowledged Emperor by the Senate in 312; and

thereafter an edict was issued named of Milan, granting toleration to the

Christians; he had still to extend his empire over the East, and having

done so by the removal of Lucinius, he transferred the seat of his empire

to Byzantium, which hence got the name of Constantinople, i. e.

Constantine's city; had himself baptized in 337 as a Christian, after

having three years before proclaimed Christianity the State religion

(274-337).

CONSTANTINE NICOLAIEVITCH, second son of the Czar Nicholas I.; was

appointed grand-admiral while but a boy; had command of the Baltic fleet

during the Crimean war; came under suspicion of sinister intriguing;

became insane, and died in seclusion (1827-1892).

CONSTANTINE PAULOVITCH, Grand-duke of Russia, son of Paul I.;

distinguished himself at Austerlitz; was commander-in-chief in Poland,

where he ruled as despot; waived his right to the throne in favour of his

brother Nicholas (1779-1831).

CONSTANTINE XIII., Palæologus, the last of the Greek emperors; had

to defend Constantinople against a besieging force of 300,000 under

Mahomet II., and though he defended it bravely, the city was taken by

storm, and the Eastern empire ended in 1543.

CONSTANTINOPLE (1,000), capital of the Turkish empire, on the

Bosphorus, situated on a peninsula washed by the Sea of Marmora on the S.

and by the Golden Horn on the N., on the opposite side of which creek lie

the quarters of Galata and Pera, one of the finest commercial sites in

the world; it became the capital of the Roman empire under Constantine

the Great, who gave name to it; was capital of the Eastern empire from

the days of Theodosius; was taken by the crusaders in 1204, and by

Mahomet II. in 1452, at which time the Greek and Latin scholars fled the

city, carrying the learning of Greece and Rome with them, an event which

led to the revival of learning in Europe, and the establishment of a new

era--the Modern--in European history.

CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS, or THE PALE, Roman emperor; after a

struggle of three years reunited Britain with the empire, which had been

torn from it by Allectus; was equally successful against the Alemanni,

defeating them with great loss; died at York, on an expedition against

the Picts; was succeeded by Constantine, his son (250-305).

CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY, the legislative body which the National

Assembly of France resolved itself into in 1789, a name it assumed from

the task it imposed on itself, viz., of making a constitution, a task

which, from the nature of it proved impossible, as a constitution is an

entity which grows, and is not made, _nascitur, non fit_.

CONSUELO, the heroine of George Sand's novel of the name, her

masterpiece; the impersonation of the triumph of moral purity over

manifold temptations.

CONSUL, (1) one of the two magistrates of Rome elected annually

after the expulsion of the kings, and invested with regal power; (2) a

chief magistrate of the French Republic from 1799 to 1804; (3) one

commissioned to protect, especially the mercantile rights of the subjects

of a State in foreign country.

CONSULATE, name given to the French Government from the fall of the

Directory till the establishment of the Empire. At first there were three

provisional consuls, Bonaparte, Siéyès, and Roger Ducos; then three

consuls for ten years, Bonaparte, Cambacérès, and Lebrun, which was

dissolved with the establishment of the Empire on the 20th May 1804.

CONTARI`NI, an illustrious Venetian family, which furnished eight

Doges to the Republic, as well as an array of men eminent in the Church,

statecraft, generalship, art, and letters.

CONTE, NICOLAS JACQUES, a French painter; distinguished for his

mechanical genius, which was of great avail to the French army in Egypt

(1755-1805).

CONTI, an illustrious French family, a younger branch of the house

of Bourbon-Condé, all more or less distinguished as soldiers; FRANÇOIS

LOUIS especially, who was a man of supreme ability both in war and

science, and had the merit to be elected king of Poland (1664-1709).

CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, Napoleon's scheme for interdicting all commerce

between the Continent and Great Britain, carried out with various issues

till the fall of Napoleon. See BERLIN and MILAN DECREES.

CONTRAT, SOCIAL, Rousseau's theory of society that it is based on

mere contract, each individual member of it surrendering his will to the

will of all, under protection of all concerned, a theory which led to the

conclusion that the rule of kings is an usurpation of the rights of the

community, and which bore fruit as an explosive in the Revolution at the

end of the century.

CONVENTION, NATIONAL, a revolutionary convention in France which, on

September 20, 1792, succeeded the Legislative Assembly, proclaimed the

Republic, condemned the king to death, succeeded in crushing the

royalists of La Vendée and the south, in defeating all Europe leagued

against France, and in founding institutions of benefit to France to this

day; it was dissolved on October 26, 1795, to make way for the Directory.

CONVERSATIONS LEXICON, a popular German encyclopædia of 16 vols.,

started in 1796, and since 1808 published by Brockhaus, in Leipzig.

CONVERSION, "the grand epoch for a man," says Carlyle, "properly the

one epoch; the turning-point, which guides upwards, or guides downwards,

him and his activities for evermore."

CONVOCATION, an assemblage of the English clergy, with little or no

legislative power, summoned and prorogued by an archbishop under

authority of the Crown; one under the Archbishop of Canterbury, held at

Canterbury, and one under the Archbishop of York, held at York,

consisting each of two bodies, an Upper of bishops, and an Under of

lesser dignitaries and inferior clergy, in separate chambers, though they

originally met in one.

CONWAY, a port in Carnarvon, on the river Conway, with a massive

castle, one of those built by Edward I. to keep Wales in check; is a

favourite summer resort, and is amid beautiful scenery.

CONWAY, HUGH, the _nom de plume_ of Frederick Fargus, born in

Bristol; bred to the auctioneer business; author of "Called Back," a

highly sensational novel, and a success; gave up his business and settled

in London, where he devoted himself to literature, and the production of

similar works of much promise, but caught malarial fever at Monte Carlo

and died (1847-1885).

CONWAY, MONCURE, an American writer, born in Virginia; began life as

a Unitarian preacher; came to England as a lecturer on war; became leader

of the advanced school of thought, so called; was a great admirer of

Emerson, and wrote, among other works, "Emerson at Home and Abroad"; _b_.

1832.

CONYBEARE, WILLIAM DANIEL, an English clergyman, devoted to the

study of geology and palæontology, and a Bampton lecturer (1787-1857).

CONYBEARE, WILLIAM JOHN, son of the preceding; author, along with

Dean Howson, of the "Life and Epistles of St. Paul," and of an "Essay on

Church Parties" (1815-1857).

COOK, DUTTON, novelist, dramatic author, and critic; born in London,

and bred a solicitor; contributed to several periodicals, and the

"Dictionary of National Biography" (1822-1883).

COOK, EDWARD T., journalist, born at Brighton; educated at Oxford;

had been on the editorial staff of the _Pall Mall Gazette_ and the

_Westminster Gazette_, became, in 1893, editor of the _Daily News_; is an

enthusiastic disciple of Ruskin; wrote "Studies on Ruskin"; _b_. 1857.

COOK, ELIZA, a writer of tales, verses, and magazine articles; born

in Southwark; daughter of a merchant; conducted, from 1849 to 1854, a

journal called by her name, but gave it up from failing health; enjoyed a

pension of £100 on the Civil List till her death; was the authoress of

"The Old Arm-Chair" and "Home in the Heart," both of which were great

favourites with the public, and did something for literature and

philanthropy by her _Journal_ (1818-1889).

COOK, JAMES, the distinguished English navigator, born at Marton,

Yorkshire; was the son of a farm labourer; began sea-faring on board a

merchantman; entered the navy in 1755, and in four years became a master;

spent some nine years in survey of the St. Lawrence and the coasts of

Newfoundland; in 1768, in command of the _Endeavour_, was sent out with

an expedition to observe the transit of Venus, and in 1772 as commander

of two vessels on a voyage of discovery to the South Seas; on his return,

receiving further promotion, he set out on a third voyage of farther

exploration in the Pacific, making many discoveries as far N. as Behring

Strait; lost his life, on his way home, in a dispute with the natives, at

Owhyhee, in the Sandwich Islands, being savagely murdered, a fate which

befell him owing to a certain quickness of temper he had displayed,

otherwise he was a man of great kindness of heart, and his men were

warmly attached to him (1728-1779).

COOK, JOSEPH, a popular lecturer, born near New York; delivered

Monday Lectures at Boston in the discussion of social questions, and the

alleged discrepancy between science and religion or revelation; _b_.

1838.

COOK, MOUNT, the highest point, 12,350 ft., in the Southern Alps,

Canterbury Island, New Zealand.

COOK STRAIT, strait between the North and the South Island, New

Zealand.

COOKE, SIR ANTONY, an eminent scholar, tutor to Edward VI.; of his

daughters, one was married to Lord Burleigh and another to Sir Nicholas

Bacon, who became the mother of Lord Bacon (1506-1576).

COOKE, BENJAMIN, composer, born in London; organist in Westminster

Abbey; author of "How Sleep the Brave," "Hark! the Lark," and other

glees, as well as some excellent church music (1739-1793).

COOKE, GEORGE FREDERICK, an actor, famous for his representation of

Richard III.; stood in his day next to Kemble in spite of his intemperate

habits (1756-1811).

COOKE, T. P., an actor in melodrama; began life at sea; took to the

stage; his most popular representations were William in "Black-eyed

Susan" and Long Tom Coffin in the "Pilot" (1786-1864).

COOLGARDIE, a mining district and head-quarters of rich gold-fields

in W. Australia.

COOLIES, labourers from India and China, who now emigrate in large

numbers, especially from China, often to where they are not wanted, and

where they, as in the British Colonies and the United States, are much

disliked, as they bring down the wages of native labourers.

COOMASSIE, the capital of the negro kingdom of Ashanti, 130 m. NNW.

of Cape Coast Castle; once a large populous place; was much reduced after

its capture by Wolseley in 1874, though it is being rebuilt.

COOPER, ANTHONY ASHLEY. See SHAFTESBURY.

COOPER, SIR ASTLEY, English surgeon, born in Norfolk; was great in

anatomy and a skilful operator, stood high in the medical profession;

contributed much by his writings to raise surgery to the rank of a

science; was eminent as a lecturer as well as a practitioner (1768-1841).

COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE, an American novelist, born in Burlington,

New Jersey; having a passion for the sea, he entered the navy as a

midshipman in 1808, but in three years resigned his commission, married,

and settled to literature; his novels, which are well known, achieved

instant popularity, made him a great favourite with boys, in which he

showed himself an expert in the narration of events, the description of

scenes, as well as in the delineation of character; he came to

loggerheads with the newspaper press, had recourse to actions for libel,

conducted his own cases himself, and was always successful (1789-1851).

COOPER, THOMAS, a self-taught man, born in Leicester; bred a

shoemaker; became a schoolmaster, a Methodist preacher, and then a

journalist; converted to Chartism; was charged with sedition, and

committed to prison for two years; wrote here "Purgatory of Suicides";

after liberation went about lecturing on politics and preaching

scepticism; returning to his first faith, he lectured on the Christian

evidences, and wrote an autobiography (1805-1892).

COOPER, THOMAS SIDNEY, a distinguished animal-painter, born in

Canterbury; struggled with adversity in early life: rose to be supreme in

his own department of art; he has written an account of his career; _b_.

1803.

COOPERAGE, a system of barter which has for some time gone on in the

North Seas, consisting of exchange of spirits and tobacco for other goods

or money, a demoralising traffic, which endeavours are now being made to

suppress.

COOPER'S HILL, a hill of slight elevation near Runnymede, with a

Government civil engineering college, originally for the training for the

service in India, now for education in other departments of the

Government service, forestry especially.

COORG (173), an inland high-lying province, about the size of Kent,

on the eastern slope of the W. Ghâts, on the SW. border of Mysore, under

the Indian Government; it is covered with forests, infested with wild

animals; the natives, a fine race, are distinguished for their loyalty to

the British.

COOTE, SIR EYRE, a general, born in co. Limerick, Ireland;

distinguished himself at Plassey; gained victories over the French in

India; afterwards routed Hyder Ali at Porto Novo; died at Madras

(1726-1783).

COPE, CHARLES WEST, a painter, born at Leeds; his pictures have for

subjects historical or dramatic scenes, and were very numerous; executed

the frescoes that adorn the Peers' corridor at Westminster; was professor

of Painting to the Royal Academy (1811-1890).

COPE, SIR JOHN, a British general; was in command at Prestonpans,

and defeated by the Pretender there in 1745, in connection with which his

name is remembered in Scotland as not having been ready when the

Highlanders attacked him, by the song "Heigh! Johnnie Cowp, are ye wauken

yet?" _d_. 1760.

COPENHAGEN (380), the capital of Denmark, and the only large town in

it; lies low, and is built partly on the island of Seeland and partly on

the island of Amager, the channel between which forms a commodious

harbour; is a thriving place of manufacture and of trade, as its name

"Merchants' Haven" implies; has also a university, an arsenal, and

numerous public buildings.

COPERNICUS, NICOLAS, founder of modern astronomy, born at Thorn, in

Poland, and educated at Cracow and Bologna; became canon of Frauenburg,

on the Frisches Haff; studied medicine; was doctor to a wealthy uncle,

with whom he lived, and became his heir when he died; his chief interest

lay in the heavenly bodies, and his demonstrations regarding their

movements, which yet he deferred publishing till he was near his end; and

indeed it was only when he was unconscious and dying that the first

printed copy of the work was put into his hands; it was entitled "De

Orbium Revolutionibus," and was written in proof of the great first

principle of astronomy, that the sun is the centre of the solar system,

and that the earth and planets circle round it; the work was dedicated to

Pope Paul III., and was received with favour by the Catholic Church,

though, strange to say, it was denounced by Luther and Melanchthon as

contrary to the Scriptures of truth (1473-1543).

COPIAPÓ, a river, a village, a city, and a district in Chile.

COPLEY, JOHN SINGLETON, portrait and historical painter, born in

Boston, U.S.; painted Washington's portrait at the age of eighteen; came

to England in 1776, having previously sent over for exhibition sundry of

his works; painted portraits of the king and the queen; began the

historical works on which his fame chiefly rests, the most widely known

perhaps of which is the "Death of Chatham," now in the National Gallery

(1737-1815).

COPPÉE, FRANÇOIS, a poet, born in Paris; has produced several

volumes of poetry, excellent dramas in verse, and tales in prose; his

poetry is the poetry of humble life, and "has given poetic pleasure," as

Professor Saintsbury says, "to many who are not capable of receiving it

otherwise, while he has never sought to give that pleasure by unworthy

means"; _b_. 1842.

COPPER CAPTAIN, a Brummagem captain; the name given to Percy in

Beaumont and Fletcher's play, "Rule a Wife and Have a Wife."

COPPER NOSE, name given to Oliver Cromwell, from a brownish tinge on

his nose.

COPPERHEADS, secret foes in one's own camp, so called from a set of

serpents which conceal their purpose to attack.

COPPERMINE, a river in NW. Canada which falls into the Arctic Ocean

after a broken course of 250 m.

COPPET, a Swiss village in the Canton de Vaud, on the Lake of

Geneva; celebrated as the abode of Mme. de Staël, her burial-place and

that of Necker, her father.

COPTS, the Christian descendants of the ancient Egyptians, who are

Monophysites in belief, some regarding the Patriarch of Alexandria and

some the Pope as their head; they adhere to the ancient ritual, are

prelatic, sacramentarian, and exclusive; they speak Arabic, their

original Coptic being as good as dead, though the grammar is taught in

the schools.

COPYRIGHT, the sole right of an author or his heirs to publish a

work for a term of years fixed by statute, a book for 42 years, or the

author's lifetime and 7 years after, whichever is longer; copyright

covers literary, artistic, and musical property. By the Act an author

must present one copy of his work, if published, to the British Museum,

and one copy, if demanded, to the Bodleian Library, Oxford; the

University Library, Cambridge; the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh; and

Trinity College Library, Dublin.

COQUELIN, BENOIT CONSTANT, a noted French actor, born at Boulogne;

played in classical pieces and others, composed for himself in the

Théâtre Français from 1860 to 1886; since then in London, S. America, and

the United States; without a rival in the broader aspects of comedy; _b_.

1841.

COQUEREL, ATHANASE, a pastor of the French Reformed Church, born in

Paris, where he preached eloquently from 1830 till his death; was elected

in 1848 deputy for the Seine to the national Assembly, but retired from

political life after the _coup d'état_; wrote a reply to Strauss

(1795-1858).

COQUEREL, ATHANASE, a Protestant pastor, son of preceding, born at

Amsterdam; celebrated for his liberal and tolerant views, too much so for

M. Guizot; edited Voltaire's letters on toleration; his chief work, "Jean

Calas et sa Famille" (1820-1875).

COQUIMBO (14), capital of a mining province of Chile (176) of the

name; exports minerals and cattle.

CORAÏS, a distinguished Hellenist, born in Smyrna, of the mercantile

class; settled in Paris, where he devoted himself to awakening an

interest in Greek literature and the cause of the Greeks (1748-1833).

CORAM, THOMAS, English philanthropist, the founder of the Foundling

Hospital, born at Lyme Regis; a man of varied ventures by sea and land;

settled in London; was touched by the sufferings of the poor, where, with

warm support from Hogarth, he founded the said institution; his charity

so impoverished him that he ended his days as an object of charity

himself, being dependent on a small annuity raised by subscription

(1667-1751).

CORATO (30), a town in a fertile region in S. Italy, 25 m. W. of

Bari.

CORBLE-STEPS, or CROW-STEPS, steps ascending the gable of a

house, common in old Scotch gables as well as in the Netherlands and

elsewhere in old towns.

COR`BULO, a distinguished general under Claudius and Nero, who

conquered the Parthians; Nero, being jealous of him, invited him to

Corinth, where he found a death-warrant awaiting him, upon which he

plunged his sword into his breast and exclaimed, "Well deserved!" in 72

A.D.

CORCY`RA, an Ionian island, now CORFU (q. v.).

CORDAY, CHARLOTTE, a French heroine, born at St. Saturnin, of good

birth, granddaughter of Corneille; well read in Voltaire and Plutarch;

favoured the Revolution, but was shocked at the atrocities of the

Jacobins; started from Caen for Paris as an avenging angel; sought out

Marat, with difficulty got access to him, stabbed him to the heart as he

sat "stewing in slipper-bath," and "his life with a groan gushed out,

indignant, to the shades below"; when arrested, she "quietly

surrendered"; when questioned as to her motive, she answered, "I killed

one man to save a hundred thousand"; she was guillotined next day

(1763-1793).

CORDELIA, the youngest and favourite daughter of King Lear.

CORDELIERS, (1) the strictest branch of the Franciscan Order of

Monks, so called from wearing a girdle of knotted cord; (2) also a club

during the French Revolution, founded in 1789, its prominent members,

Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and Marat; was a secession from the Jacobin

Club, which was thought lukewarm, and met in what had been a convent of

the Cordeliers monks; it expired with Danton.

CORDERIUS, a grammarian, born in Normandy; being a Protestant

settled in Geneva and taught; author of Latin "Colloquies," once very

famous (1478-1567).

CORDILLERAS, the name of several chains of mountains in S. America.

CORDITE, a smokeless powder, invented by Sir F. A. Abel, being

composed principally of gun-cotton and glycerine.

CORDON BLUE, formerly the badge of the Order of the Holy Ghost, now

the badge of highest excellence in a cook.

CORDOUAN, a lighthouse at the mouth of the Gironde.

COR`DOVA (70), a city on the Paraná, in the Argentine; also a town

(48) in Andalusia, Spain, on the right bank of the Guadalquivir, in a

province of the name, 80 m. NE. of Seville; once a Moorish capital, and

famous for its manufacture of goat leather; has a cathedral, once a

magnificent mosque.

COREA (6,511), an Eastern Asiatic kingdom occupying the mountainous

peninsula between the Yellow and Japan Seas, in the latitude of Italy,

with Manchuria on its northern border, a country as large as Great

Britain. The people, an intelligent and industrious race, are Mongols,

followers of Confucius and Buddha. After being for 300 years tributary to

China, it passed under Japanese influence, and by the Chinese defeat in

the war with Japan, 1894-95, was left independent. The climate is

healthy, but subject to extremes; rivers are ice-bound for four months.

Wheat, rice, and beans are grown. There are gold, silver, iron, and coal

mines, and great mineral wealth. There are extensive manufactures of

paper, and some silk industry. Three ports are open to foreigners; but

most of the trade is with Japan; exports hides, beans, and paper; imports

cotton goods. The capital is Seoul (193).

CORELLI, ARCANGELO, an Italian musical composer, celebrated for his

skill on the violin; his compositions mark a new musical epoch; he has

been called the father of instrumental music (1653-1713).

CORELLI, MARIE, a novelist, a prolific authoress, and very popular;

her first work "The Romance of Two Worlds," one of her latest "The

Sorrows of Satan"; _b_. 1864.

CORFE CASTLE, a village in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire, round a

castle now in ruins, and the scene of martyrdoms and murders not a few in

its day.

CORFU (78), the most northerly of the Ionian Islands and the

largest, 40 m. long, from 4 to 18 broad; was under the protection of

Britain, 1815-64; has since belonged to Greece; has a capital (79) of the

same name.

CORIN`NA, a poetess of ancient Greece, born in Boeotia; friend and

rival of Pindar; only a few fragments of her poetry remain.

CORINNE, the heroine and title of a novel of Mme. de Staël's, her

principal novel, in which she celebrates the praises of the great men and

great masterpieces of Italy; her heroine is the type of a woman inspired

with poetic ideas and the most generous sentiments.

CORINTH, an ancient city of Greece, and one of the most flourishing,

on an isthmus of the name connecting the Peloponnesus with the mainland;

a great centre of trade and of material wealth, and as a centre of luxury

a centre of vice; the seat of the worship of Aphrodité, a very different

goddess from Athene, to whom Athens was dedicated.

CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO THE, two epistles of St. Paul to the Church

he had established in Corinth, the chief object of which was to cleanse

it of certain schisms and impurities that had arisen, and to protest

against the disposition of many in it to depart from simple gospel which

they had been taught.

CORIOLA`NUS, a celebrated Roman general of patrician rank, who

rallied his countrymen when, in besieging Corioli, they were being driven

back, so that he took the city, and was in consequence called Coriolanus;

having afterwards offended the plebs, he was banished from the city; took

refuge among the people he had formerly defeated; joined cause with them,

and threatened to destroy the city, regardless of every entreaty to spare

it, till his mother, his wife, and the matrons of Rome overcame him by

their tears, upon which he withdrew and led back his army to Corioli,

prepared to suffer any penalty his treachery to them might expose him.

CORIOLI, a town of ancient Latium, capital of the Volsci.

CORK (73), a fine city, capital of a county (436) of the same name

in Munster, Ireland, on the Lee, 11 m. from its mouth; with a magnificent

harbour, an extensive foreign trade, and manufactures of various kinds.

CORMENIN, a French statesman and jurist, born at Paris; had great

influence under Louis Philippe; his pamphlets, signed _Timon_, made no

small stir; left a work on administrative law in France (1788-1886).

CORMONTAIGNE, a celebrated French engineer, born at Strasburg;

successor of Vauban (1696-1752).

CORNARO, an illustrious patrician family in Venice, from which for

centuries several Doges sprung.

CORN-CRACKER, the nickname of a Kentucky man.

CORNEILLE, PIERRE, the father of French tragedy, born at Rouen, the

son of a government legal official; was bred for the bar, but he neither

took to the profession nor prospered in the practice of it, so gave it up

for literature; threw himself at once into the drama; began by

dramatising an incident in his own life, and became the creator of the

dramatic art in France; his first tragedies are "The Cid," which indeed

is his masterpiece, "Horace," "Cinna," "Polyeucte," "Rodogune," and "Le

Menteur"; in his verses, which are instinct with vigour of conception as

well as sublimity of feeling, he paints men as they should be, virtuous

in character, brave in spirit, and animated by the most exalted

sentiments. Goethe contrasts him with Racine: "Corneille," he says,

"delineated great men; Racine, men of eminent rank." "He rarely provokes

an interest," says Professor Saintsbury, "in the fortunes of his

characters; it is rather in the way that they bear their fortune, and

particularly in a kind of haughty disdain for fortune itself... He shows

an excellent comic faculty at times, and the strokes of irony in his

serious plays have more of true humour in them than appears in almost any

other French dramatist" (1606-1684).

CORNEILLE, THOMAS, younger brother of the preceding, a dramatist,

whose merits were superior, but outshone by those of his brother

(1625-1709).

CORNELIA, the daughter of Scipio Africanus and the mother of the

GRACCHI (q. v.), the Roman matron who, when challenged by a

rival lady to outshine her in wealth of gems, proudly led forth her sons

saying, "These are my jewels"; true to this sentiment, it was as the

mother of the Gracchi she wished to be remembered, and is remembered, in

the annals of Rome.

CORNELIUS, PETER VON, a distinguished German painter, born at

Düsseldorf; early gave proof of artistic genius, which was carefully

fostered by his father; spent much time as a youth in studying and

copying Raphael; before he was 20 he decorated a church at Neuss with

colossal figures in chiaroscuro; in 1810 executed designs for Goethe's

"Faust"; in the year after went to Rome, where, along with others, he

revived the old art of fresco painting, in which he excelled his rivals;

the subjects of these were drawn from Greek pagan as well as Christian

sources, his "Judgment" being the largest fresco in the world; the

thought which inspires his cartoons, critics say, surpasses his power of

execution; it should be added, he prepared a set of designs to illustrate

the "Nibelungen" (1787-1867).

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, a university in Ithaca, New York State, founded

in 1868 at a cost of £152,000, named after its founder, Ezra Cornell; it

supports a large staff of teachers, and gives instruction in all

departments of science, literature, and philosophy; it provides education

to sundry specified classes free of all fees, as well as means of earning

the benefits of the institution to any who may wish to enjoy them.

CORN-LAWS, laws in force in Great Britain regulating the import and

export of corn for the protection of the home-producer at the expense of

the home-consumer, and which after a long and bitter struggle between

these two classes were abolished in 1846.

CORN-LAW RHYMER, THE, EBENEZER ELLIOTT (q. v.) who, in a

volume of poems, denounced the corn-laws and contributed to their

abolition.

CORNO, MONTE, the highest peak of the Apennines, 9545 ft.

CORNWALL (322), a county in the SW. extremity of England, forming a

peninsula between the English and the Bristol Channels, with a rugged

surface and a rocky coast, indented all round with more or less deep bays

inclosed between high headlands; its wealth lies not in the soil, but

under it in its mines, and in the pilchard, mackerel, and other fisheries

along its stormy shores; the county town is Bodmin (5), the largest

Penzance (12), and the mining centre Truro (11).

CORNWALL, BARRY, the _nom de plume_ of B. W. PROCTER (q. v.).

CORNWALLIS, LORD, an English general and statesman; saw service in

the Seven Years' and the American Wars; besieged in the latter at York

Town, was obliged to capitulate; became Governor-General of India, and

forced Tippoo Sahib to submit to humiliating terms; as Lord-Lieutenant of

Ireland crushed the rebellion of '98; re-appointed Governor-General of

India; died there (1738-1805).

COROMANDEL COAST, E. coast of Hindustan, extending from the Krishna

to Cape Comorin.

CORONATION CHAIR, a chair inclosing a stone carried off by Edward I.

from Scone in 1296, on which the sovereigns of England are crowned.

COROT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a celebrated French landscape-painter, born at

Paris; was 26 years of age before he began to apply himself to art, which

he did by study in Italy and Rome, returning to Paris in 1827, where he

began to exhibit, and continued to exhibit for nearly 50 years; it was

long before his pieces revealed what was in him and the secret of his

art; he appeared also as a poet as well as a painter, giving free play to

his emotions and moving those of others (1796-1875).

CORPS LÉGISLATIF, the lower house of the French legislature,

consisting of deputies.

CORPUSCULAR PHILOSOPHY, the philosophy which accounts for physical

phenomena by the position and the motions of corpuscles.

CORR, ERIN, an eminent engraver, born in Brussels, of Irish descent;

spent 10 years in engraving on copper-plate Rubens's "Descent from the

Cross" (1793-1862).

CORRECTOR, ALEXANDER THE, Alexander Cruden, who believed he had a

divine mission to correct the manners of the world.

CORREGGIO, ANTONIO ALLEGRI DA, an illustrious Italian painter, born

at Correggio, in Modena; founder of the Lombard school, and distinguished

among his contemporaries for the grace of his figures and the harmony of

his colouring; he has been ranked next to Raphael, and it has been said

of him he perfected his art by adding elegance to truth and grandeur; he

is unrivalled in chiaroscuro, and he chose his subjects from pagan as

well as Christian legend (1494-1534).

CORRIB, LOUGH, an irregularly shaped lake in Galway and Mayo, 25 m.

long and from 1 to 6 m. broad, with stone circles near it.

CORRIENTES (300), a province of the Argentine Republic, between the

Paraná and the Uruguay; also its capital (18), surrounded by

orange-groves; so called from the currents that prevail in the river,

along which steamers ply between it and Buenos Ayres.

CORRUGATED IRON, in general, sheet-iron coated with zinc.

CORSAIR, THE, a poem of Byron's, in which the author paints himself

in heroic colours as an adventurer who drowns reflection in the

intoxication of battle.

CORSICA (288), an island belonging to France, in the Mediterranean,

ceded to her by Genoa in 1768, but by position, race, and language

belongs to Italy; has been subject by turns to the powers that in

succession dominated that inland sea; is 116 m. long and 52 broad; it

abounds in mountains, attaining 9000 ft.; covered with forests and

thickets, which often serve as shelter for brigands; it affords good

pasturage, and yields olive-oil and wine, as well as chesnuts, honey, and

wax.

CORSICA PAOLI, a native of Corsica, who vainly struggled to achieve

the independence of his country, and took refuge in England, where he

enjoyed the society of the Johnson circle, and was much esteemed. See

PAOLI.

CORSSEN, WILLIAM PAUL, a learned German philologist, born at Bremen;

made a special study of the Latin languages, and especially the Etruscan,

which he laboured to prove was cognate with that of the Romans and of the

races that spoke it (1820-1875).

CORT, an eminent Dutch engraver, went to Venice, lived with Titian;

engraved some of his pictures; went to Rome and engraved Raphael's

"Transfiguration"; executed over 150 plates, all displaying great

accuracy and refinement (1536-1578).

CORTES, the name given in Spain and Portugal to the National

Assembly, consisting of nobles and representatives of the nation.

CORTES, a Spanish soldier and conqueror of Mexico, born in

Estremadura; went with Velasquez to Cuba; commanded the expedition to

conquer Mexico, and by burning all his ships that conveyed his men, cut

off all possibility of retreat; having conquered the tribes that he met

on landing, he marched on to the capital, which, after a desperate

struggle, he reduced, and laid waste and then swept the country, by all

which he added to the wealth of Spain, but by his cruelty did dishonour

to the chivalry of which Spain was once so proud (1485-1547).

CORTONA, PIETRO DA, an Italian painter, born at Cortona, in Tuscany,

and eminent as an architect also; decorated many of the finest buildings

in Rome (1596-1669).

CORUÑA (34), a fortified town on NW. of Spain, with a commodious

harbour, where Sir John Moore fell in 1809 while defending the

embarkation of his army against Soult, and where his tomb is.

CORVÉE, obligation as at one time enforced in France to render

certain services to Seigneurs, such as repairing of roads, abolished by

the Contituent Assembly.

CORYAT, THOMAS, an English traveller and wit, who, in his

"Crudities," quaintly describes his travels through France and Italy

(1577-1617).

CORYBANTES, priests of CYBELE (q. v.), whose religious

rites were accompanied with wild dances and the clashing of cymbals.

CORYDON, a shepherd in Virgil, name for a lovesick swain.

CORYPHÆUS, originally the leader of the chorus in a Greek drama, now

a leader in any dramatic company, or indeed in any art.

COS (10), an island in the Ægean Sea, birthplace of Hippocrates and

Apelles.

COSENZA (18), a town in Calabria, in a deep valley, where Alaric

died.

COSIN, JOHN, a learned English prelate, Dean of Peterborough,

deposed by the Puritans for his ritualistic tendencies; exiled for 10

years in Paris; returned at the Restoration, and was made Bishop of

Durham, where he proved himself a Bishop indeed, and a devoted supporter

of the Church which he adorned by his piety (1594-1672).

COSMAS, ST., Arabian physician and patron of surgeons, brother of

St. Damian; suffered martyrdom in 303. Festival, Sept. 27.

COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES (i. e. voyager to India), an Egyptian monk

of the 6th century, born in Alexandria, singular for his theory of the

system of the world, which, in opposition to the Ptolemaic system, he

viewed as in shape like that of the Jewish Tabernacle, with Eden outside,

and encircled by the ocean, a theory he advanced as in conformity with

Scripture.

COSMO I., Grand-duke of Tuscany, head of the Republic of Florence,

of which he made himself absolute master, a post he held in defiance of

all opposition, in order to secure the independence of the state he

governed, as well as its internal prosperity (1519-1574).

COSMOGRAPHY, any theory which attempts to trace the system of things

back to its first principle or primordial element or elements.

COSQUIN, EMMANUEL, a French folk-lorist, and author of "Popular

Tales of Lorraine," in the introduction to which he argues for the theory

that the development as well as the origin of such tales is historically

traceable to India; _b_. 1841.

COSSACKS, a military people of mixed origin, chiefly Tartar and

Slav, who fought on horseback, in their own interest as well as that of

Russia, defending its interests in particular for centuries past in many

a struggle, and forming an important division of the Russian army.

COSTA RICA (262), a small republic of Central America; it is mostly

tableland; contains many volcanoes; is chiefly agricultural, though rich

in minerals.

COSTARD, a clown in "Love's Labour Lost," who apes the affected

court-wits of the time in a misappropriate style.

COSTELLO, LOUISA STUART, an English authoress; her descriptive

powers were considerable, and her novels had a historical groundwork

(1799-1870).

COSTER, _alias_ LAURENS JANSZOON, born at Haarlem, to whom his

countrymen, as against the claims of Gutenberg, ascribe the invention of

printing (1370-1440).

COSWAY, RICHARD, a distinguished miniature portrait-painter, born at

Tiverton; Correggio his model (1740-1821).

CÔTE D'OR, a range of hills in the NE. of France, connecting the

Cévennes with the Vosges, which gives name to a department (376) famed

for its wines.

COTENTIN, a peninsula NW. of Normandy, France, jutting into the

English Channel, now forms the northern part of the dep. La Manche, the

fatherland of many of the Norman conquerors of England.

COTES, ROGER, an English mathematician of such promise, that Newton

said of him, "If he had lived, we should have known something"

(1682-1716).

CÔTES DU NORD (618), a dep. forming part of Brittany; the chief

manufacture is linen.

COTIN, THE ABBÉ, a French preacher, born in Paris; a butt of the

sarcasm of Molière and Boileau (1604-1682)

COTMAN, JOHN SELL, an English painter, born at Norwich; made

Turner's acquaintance; produced water-colour landscapes, growing in

repute; has been pronounced "the most gifted of the Norwich School"

(1782-1842).

COTOPAXI, a volcano of the Andes, in Ecuador, the highest and most

active in the world, nearly 20,000 ft., 35 m. SE. of Quito; it rises in a

perfect cone, 4400 ft. above the plateau of Quito.

COTSWOLD HILLS, in Gloucestershire, separating the Lower Severn from

the sources of the Thames; they are of limestone rock, 50 m. long, and

extend N. and S.

COTTA, CAIUS, a distinguished Roman orator, 1st century B.C.;

mentioned with honour by Cicero.

COTTA, German publisher, born at Stuttgart; established in Tübingen;

published the works of Goethe, Schiller, Jean Paul, Herder, and others of

note among their contemporaries (1764-1832).

COTTIAN ALPS, the range N. of the Maritime between France and Italy.

COTTIN, SOPHIE, a celebrated French authoress; wrote, among other

romances, the well-known and extensively translated "Elizabeth; or, the

Exiles of Siberia," a wildly romantic but irreproachably moral tale

(1773-1807).

COTTLE, JOSEPH, a publisher and author; started business in Bristol;

published the works of Coleridge and Southey on generous terms; wrote in

his "Early Recollections" an exposure of Coleridge that has been severely

criticised and generally condemned (1770-1853).

COTTON, BISHOP, born at Chester; eminent as a master at Rugby under

Dr. Arnold, and as head-master at Marlborough College; was appointed

Bishop of Calcutta, an office he fulfilled zealously; was drowned in the

Ganges; he figures as "the young master" in "Tom Brown's School-days"

(1813-1866).

COTTON, CHARLES, a poet, born in Staffordshire; his poetry was of

the burlesque order, and somewhat gross; chiefly famous for his

translation of "Montaigne's Essays"; was friend and admirer of Isaak

Walton, and wrote a supplement to his "Angler" (1630-1687).

COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE, a distinguished antiquary, and founder of

the Cottonian Library, now in the British Museum, born at Denton; was a

friend of Camden, and assisted him in his great work; was a great

book-collector; was exposed to persecution for his presumed share in the

publication of an obnoxious book, of which the original was found in his

collection; had his books, in which he prided himself, taken from him, in

consequence of which he pined and died (1571-1631).

COUCY, an old noble family of Picardy, who had for device, "Roi ne

suis, ne duc, ne comte aussi; je suis le sire de Coucy." RAOUL, a

court-poet of the family in the 12th century, lost his life at the siege

of Acre in the third crusade.

COULOMB, a learned French physicist and engineer, born at Angoulême;

the inventor of the torsion balance, and to whose labours many

discoveries in electricity and magnetism are due; lived through the

French Revolution retired from the strife (1736-1806).

COUNCILS, CHURCH, assemblies of bishops to decide questions of

doctrine and ecclesiastical discipline. They are oecumenical, national,

or provincial, according as the bishops assembled represented the whole

Church, a merely national one, or a provincial section of it. Eastern:

Nice, 325 (at which Arius was condemned), 787; Constantinople, 381 (at

which Apollinaris was condemned), 553, 680, 869; Ephesus, 431 (at which

Nestorius was condemned); Chalcedon, 451 (at which Eutyches was

condemned). Western: Lateran, 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, 1274; Synod of

Vienne, 1311; Constance, 1414; Basel, 1431-1443; Trent, 1545-1563;

Vatican, 1869.

COURAYES, a French Roman Catholic ecclesiastic who pled on behalf of

Anglican orders; was censured; fled to England, where he was welcomed,

and received academic honours (1681-1777).

COURBET, a French vice-admiral, born at Abbeville; distinguished

himself by his rapid movements and brilliant successes in the East

(1827-1885).

COURBET, GUSTAVE, French painter, born at Ornans; took to

landscape-painting; was head of the Realistic school; joined the Commune

in 1871; his property and pictures were sold to pay the damage done, and

especially to restore the Vendôme Column; died an exile in Switzerland

(1819-1877).

COURIER, PAUL LOUIS, a French writer, born at Paris; began life as a

soldier, but being wounded at Wagram, retired from the army, and gave

himself to letters; distinguished himself as the author of political

pamphlets, written with a scathing irony such as has hardly been

surpassed, which brought him into trouble; was assassinated on his estate

by his gamekeeper (1772-1825).

COURLAND (637), a partly wooded and partly marshy province of

Russia, S. of the Gulf of Riga; the population chiefly German, and

Protestants; agriculture their chief pursuit.

COURT DE GÉBELIN, a French writer, born at Nîmes, author of a work

entitled "The Primitive World analysed and compared with the Modern

World" (1725-1784).

COURTNEY, WILLIAM, archbishop of Canterbury, no match for Wickliffe

in debate, but had his revenge in persecuting his followers (1341-1396).

COURTOIS, JACQUES, a French painter of battle-pieces; became a

Jesuit, died a monk (1621-1676).

COURTRAIS (29), a Belgian town on the Lys.

COUSIN, VICTOR, a French philosopher, born in Paris; founder of an

eclectic school, which derived its doctrines partly from the Scottish

philosophy and partly from the German, and which Dr. Chalmers in his

class-room one day characterised jocularly as neither Scotch nor German,

but just half seas over; he was a lucid expounder, an attractive

lecturer, and exerted no small influence on public opinion in France; had

a considerable following; retired from public life in 1848, and died at

Cannes; he left a number of philosophic works behind him, the best known

among us "Discourses on the True, the Beautiful, and the Good"

(1792-1867).

COUSIN MICHAEL, a disparaging designation of our German kindred, as

slow, heavy, unpolished, and ungainly.

COUSIN-MONTAUBAN, a French general, commanded the Chinese expedition

of 1860, and, after a victory over the Chinese, took possession of Pekin

(1796-1878).

COUSINS, SAMUEL, a mezzotint engraver, born at Exeter; engraved

"Bolton Abbey," "Marie Antoinette in the Temple," and a number of plates

after eminent painters; left a fund to aid poor artists (1801-1880).

COUSTON, the name of three eminent French sculptors: NICOLAS

(1658-1733); GUILLAUME, father (1678-1746); and GUILLAUME, son

(1716-1777).

COUTHON, GEORGES, a violent revolutionary, one of a triumvirate with

Robespierre and St. Just, who would expel every one from the Jacobin Club

who could not give evidence of having done something to merit hanging,

should a counter-revolution arrive; was paralysed in his limbs from

having had to spend a night "sunk to the middle in a cold peat bog" to

escape detection as a seducer; trapped for the guillotine; tried to make

away with himself under a table, but could not (1756-1794).

COUTTS, THOMAS, a banker, born in Edinburgh, his father having been

Lord Provost of that city; joint-founder and eventually sole manager of

the London banking house, Coutts & Co.; left a fortune of £900,000

(1735-1822).

COUVADE, a custom among certain races of low culture in which a

father before and after childbirth takes upon himself the duties and

cares of the mother.

COUZA, PRINCE, born at Galatz, hereditary prince of Moldavia and

Wallachia; reigned from 1858 to 1860; died in exile, 1873.

COVENANT, SOLEMN LEAGUE AND, an engagement, with representatives

from Scotland, on the part of the English Parliament to secure to the

Scotch the terms of their National Covenant, and signed by honourable

members in St. Margaret's Church, Westminster, September 25, 1643, on the

condition of assistance from the Scotch in their great struggle with the

king.

COVENANT, THE NATIONAL, a solemn engagement on the part of the

Scottish nation subscribed to by all ranks of the community, the first

signature being appended to it in the Greyfriars' Churchyard, Edinburgh,

on February 28, 1638, to maintain the Presbyterian Church and to resist

all attempts on the part of Charles I. to foist Episcopacy upon it; it

was ratified by the Scottish Parliament in 1640, and subscribed by

Charles II. in 1650 and 1651.

COVENANTERS, a body of strict Presbyterians who held out against the

breach of the Solemn League and Covenant.

COVENT GARDEN, properly Convent Garden, as originally the garden of

Westminster Abbey, the great fruit, flower, and vegetable market of

London; is one of the sights of London early on a summer morning.

COVENTRY (55), a town in Warwickshire, 18½ m. SE. of Birmingham;

famous for the manufacture of ribbons and watches, and recently the chief

seat of the manufacture of bicycles and tricycles; in the old streets are

some quaint old houses; there are some very fine churches and a number of

charitable institutions.

COVENTRY, SIR JOHN, a member of the Long Parliament; when, as a

member of Parliament in Charles II.'s reign, he made reflections on the

profligate conduct of the king, he was set upon by bullies, who slit his

nose to the bone; a deed which led to the passing of the Coventry Act,

which makes cutting and maiming a capital offence (1640-1682).

COVERDALE, MILES, translator of the English Bible, born in

Yorkshire; his translation was the first issued under royal sanction,

being dedicated to Henry VIII.; done at the instance of Thomas Cromwell,

and brought out in 1535, and executed with a view to secure the favour of

the authorities in Church and State, displaying a timid hesitancy

unworthy of a manly faith in the truth; both he and his translation

nevertheless were subjected to persecution, 2500 copies of the latter,

printed in Paris, having been seized by the Inquisition and committed to

the flames (1487-1568).

COVERLEY, SIR ROGER DE, member of the club under whose auspices the

_Spectator_ is professedly edited; represents an English squire of Queen

Anne's reign.

COWELL, JOHN, an English lawyer, author of "Institutes of the Laws

of England" and of a law dictionary burnt by the common hangman for

matter in it derogatory to the royal authority; _d_. 1611.

COWEN, FREDERICK HYMEN, a popular English composer, born in

Kingston, Jamaica; his works consist of symphonies, cantatas, oratories,

as well as songs, duets, &c.; is conductor of the Manchester Subscription

Concerts in succession to Sir Charles Hallé; _b_. 1852.

COWES, a watering-place in the N. of the Isle of Wight, separated by

the estuary of Medina into E. and W.; engaged in yacht-building, and the

head-quarters of the Royal Yacht Club.

COWLEY, ABRAHAM, poet and essayist, born in London; a contemporary

of Milton, whom he at one time outshone, but has now fallen into neglect;

he was an ardent royalist, and catered to the taste of the court, which,

however, brought him no preferment at the Restoration; he was a master of

prose, and specially excelled in letter-writing; he does not seem to have

added much to the literature of England, except as an essayist, and in

this capacity has been placed at the head of those who cultivated that

clear, easy, and natural style which culminated in Addison (1618-1667).

COWLEY, HENRY WELLESLEY, EARL, an eminent diplomatist, brother of

the Duke of Wellington; served as a diplomatist in Vienna,

Constantinople, and Switzerland, and was ambassador to France from 1852

to 1867 (1804-1884).

COWPER, WILLIAM, a popular English poet, born at Great

Berkhampstead, Hertford, of noble lineage; lost his mother at six, and

cherished the memory of her all his days; of a timid, sensitive nature,

suffered acutely from harsh usage at school; read extensively in the

classics; trained for and called to the bar; was appointed at 32 a clerk

to the House of Lords; qualifying for the duties of the appointment

proved too much for him, and he became insane; when he recovered, he

retired from the world to Huntingdon beside a brother, where he formed an

intimacy with a family of the name of Unwin, a clergyman in the place; on

Mr. Unwin's death he removed with the family to Olney, in

Buckinghamshire, where he lived as a recluse and associated with the Rev.

John Newton and Mrs. Unwin; shortly after he fell insane again, and

continued so for two years; on his recovery he took to gardening and

composing poems, his first the "Olney Hymns," the melancholy being

charmed away by the conversation of a Lady Austin, who came to live in

the neighbourhood; it was she who suggested his greatest poem, the

"Task"; then followed other works, change of scene and associates, the

death of Mrs. Unwin, and the gathering of a darker and darker cloud, till

he passed away peacefully; it is interesting to note that it is to this

period his "Lines to Mary Unwin" and his "Mother's Picture" belong

(1731-1800).

COX, DAVID, an eminent landscape painter, rated by some next to

Turner, born at Birmingham; began his art as a scene-painter; painted as

a landscapist first in water-colour, then in oil; many of his best works

are scenes in N. Wales; his works have risen in esteem and value; an

ambition of his was to get £100 for a picture, and one he got only £20

for brought £3602 (1793-1830).

COX, SIR GEORGE, an English mythologist, specially distinguished for

resolving the several myths of Greece and the world into idealisations of

solar phenomena; he has written on other subjects, all of interest, and

is engaged with W. T. Brande on a "Dictionary of Science, Literature, and

Art"; _b_. 1827.

COXCIE, MICHAEL, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Mechlin

(1497-1592).

COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS, librarian, became assistant-librarian of the

Bodleian Library, Oxford, in 1838, and ultimately head-librarian in 1860;

under his direction the catalogue, consisting of 720 folio volumes, was

completed; held this post till his death; has edited several works of

value; is one of Dean Burgon's "Twelve Good Men" (1811-1881).

COXE, WILLIAM, a historical writer, heavy but painstaking, born in

London; wrote "History of the House of Austria" and the "Memoirs of

Marlborough," and on "Sir Robert Walpole and the Pelham Administrations"

(1747-1828).

COXWELL, a celebrated English aëronaut; bred a dentist; took to

ballooning; made 700 ascents; reached with Glaisher an elevation of 7 m.;

_b_. 1819.

COZENS, JOHN ROBERT, a landscape painter, a natural son of Peter the

Great; pronounced by Constable the greatest genius that ever touched

landscape, and from him Turner confessed he had learned more than from

any other landscapist; his mind gave way at last, and he died insane

(1752-1801).

CRABBE, GEORGE, an English poet, born at Aldborough, in Suffolk;

began life as apprentice to an apothecary with a view to the practice of

medicine, but having poetic tastes, he gave up medicine for literature,

and started for London with a capital of three pounds; his first

productions in this line not meeting with acceptance, he was plunged in

want; appealing in vain for assistance in his distress, he fell in with

Burke, who liberally helped him and procured him high patronage, under

which he took orders and obtained the living of Trowbridge, which he held

for life, and he was now in circumstances to pursue his bent; his

principal poems are "The Library," "The Village," "The Parish Register,"

"The Borough," and the "Tales of the Hall," all, particularly the earlier

ones, instinct with interest in the lives of the poor, "the sacrifices,

temptations, loves, and crimes of humble life," described with the most

"unrelenting" realism; the author in Byron's esteem, "though Nature's

sternest painter, yet the best" (1754-1832).

CRACOW (75), a city in Galicia, the old capital of Poland; where the

old Polish kings were buried, and the cathedral of which contains the

graves of the most illustrious of the heroes of the country and

Thorwaldsen's statue of Christ; a large proportion of the inhabitants are

Jews.

CRADLE MOUNTAIN, a mountain in the W. of Tasmania.

CRAIG, JOHN, a Scottish Reformer, educated at St. Andrews, and

originally a Dominican monk; had been converted to Protestantism by study

of Calvin's "Institutes," been doomed to the stake by the Inquisition,

but had escaped; the coadjutor in Edinburgh of Knox, and his successor in

his work, and left a confession and catechism (1512-1580).

CRAIG, SIR THOMAS, an eminent Scottish lawyer, author of a treatise

on the "Jus Feudale," which has often been reprinted, as well as three

others in Latin of less note; wrote in Latin verse a poem on Queen Mary's

marriage to Darnley (1538-1608).

CRAIGENPUTTOCK, a craig or whinstone hill of the puttocks (small

hawks), "a high moorland farm on the watershed between Dumfriesshire and

Galloway, 10 m. from Dumfries," the property for generations of a family

of Welshes, and eventually that of their heiress, Jane Welsh Carlyle,

"the loneliest spot in all the British dominions," which the Carlyles

made their dwelling-house in 1828, where they remained for seven years,

and where "Sartor" was written. "It is certain," Carlyle says of it long

after, "that for living and thinking in I have never since found in the

world a place so favourable.... How blessed," he exclaims, "might poor

mortals be in the straitest circumstances if their wisdom and fidelity to

heaven and to one another were adequately great!"

CRAIK, GEORGE LITTLE, an English author, born in Fife, educated at

St. Andrews; settled early in London as a littérateur; was associated

with Charles Knight in his popular literary undertakings; was author of

the "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," and the "History of

English Literature and Learning"; edited "Pictorial History of England,"

contributed to "Penny Cyclopædia," and became professor of English

Literature, Queen's College, Belfast (1799-1866).

CRAIK, MRS., _née_ MULOCK, born at Stoke-upon-Trent; authoress

of "John Halifax, Gentleman," her chief work, which has had, and

maintains, a wide popularity; married in 1865 a nephew and namesake of

the preceding, a partner of the publishing house of Macmillan & Co.;

wrote for the magazines, besides some 14 more novels (1826-1887).

CRAIL, a little old-fashioned town near the East Neuk of Fife, where

James Sharp was minister; a decayed fishing-place, now a summer resort.

CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST, a distinguished German composer and pianist

(1771-1858).

CRANACH, LUCAS, a celebrated German painter, born at Kronach, in the

bishopric of Bamberg; was patronised by Frederick the Wise, Elector of

Saxony, whom he accompanied in 1493 to the Holy Land; was engraver as

well as painter, skilled in portraiture as well as in historical scenes;

was intimately associated with the German reformers Luther and

Melanchthon, whose portraits he painted among others; the works of his

that remain are chiefly altar-pieces; his chief work is the "Crucifixion"

in Weimar, where he died (1472-1553).

CRANE, ICHABOD, a tall, lean, lank, Yankee schoolmaster in Irving's

"Legend of Sleepy Hollow."

CRANE, WALTER, poet and painter; has published various illustrated

books and poems illustrated by himself, and is an authority on decorative

art; _b_. 1845.

CRANMER, THOMAS, archbishop of Canterbury, born in Nottinghamshire;

educated at Jesus College, Cambridge; recommended himself to Henry VIII.

by favouring his divorce, writing in defence of it, and pleading for it

before the Pope, the latter in vain, as it proved; on his return was

elevated to the archbishopric, in which capacity he proved a zealous

promoter of the Reformation, by having the Bible translated and

circulated, and by the suppression of monasteries; pronounced sentence of

divorce of Catharine, and confirmed the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn;

by these and other compliances he kept the favour of Henry, but on the

accession of Mary he was committed to the Tower and persuaded to recant,

and even signed a recantation, but on being called to recant in public,

and refusing to do so, he was dragged to the stake, thrust his right hand

into the flames, and exclaimed, "Oh, this unworthy hand" (1489-1566).

CRANNOGE, a species of lake-dwelling and stronghold, of which

remains are found in Scotland and Ireland.

CRAPAUD, JEAN, a nickname of the Frenchmen.

CRASHAW, RICHARD, a minor poet, born in London; bred for the English

Church; went to Paris, where he became a Roman Catholic; fell into

pecuniary difficulties, but was befriended by Cowley and recommended to a

post; was an imitator of George Herbert, and his poems were of the same

class, but more fantastical; his principal poems were "Steps to the

Temple" and the "Delights of the Muses"; both Milton and Pope are

indebted to him (1616-1650).

CRASSUS, LUCIUS LICINIUS, the greatest Roman orator of his day,

became consul 55 B.C.; during his consulship a law was passed requiring

all but citizens to leave Rome, an edict which provoked the Social War

(140-91 B.C.).

CRASSUS, MARCUS LICINIUS, the triumvir with Pompey and Cæsar; was

avaricious, and amassed great wealth; appointed to the province of Syria,

provoked out of cupidity war with the Parthians, in which he was

treacherously slain; Orodes, the king, cut off his head, and poured

melted gold into his mouth, saying as he did so, "Now sate thyself with

the metal of which thou wert so greedy when alive" (115-53 B.C.).

CRATES, a Greek cynic philosopher, disciple of Diogenes; 4th century

B.C.

CRATINUS, a Greek comic poet, born at Athens; limited the actors in

a piece to three, and the first to introduce into the drama attacks on

public men, wrote also satires on vice (519-424 B.C.).

CRATIPPUS, a Peripatetic philosopher of Mytilene, contemporary of

Pompey and Cicero; soothed the sunken spirit of the former after the

defeat at Pharsalia with the consolations of philosophy.

CRATYLUS, a dialogue of Plato's on the connection between language

and thought.

CRAWFORD, MARION, a novelist, born in Tuscany, of American origin,

son of the succeeding; spent a good deal of his early years in India, and

now lives partly in New York and partly in Italy; his works, which are

numerous, are chiefly novels, his first "Mr. Isaacs" (1882), original and

striking; an able writer, and a scholarly; _b_. 1854.

CRAWFORD, THOMAS, an American sculptor, studied at Rome under

Thorwaldsen; his "Orpheus in Search of Eurydice" brought him into notice,

and was followed by an array of works of eminent merit; died in London

from a tumour on the brain, after being struck with blindness

(1814-1857).

CRAWFORD AND BALCARRES, EARL OF, better known as Lord Lindsay, and

as the author of "Letters from the Holy Land," "Progression by

Antagonism," and "Sketches of the History of Christian Art"; died at

Florence, and was entombed at Dunecht, whence his body was abstracted and

found again in a wood near by after a seven months' search (1812-1880).

CRAYER, CASPAR DE, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Antwerp;

pictures and altar-pieces by him are to be seen in Brussels and Ghent

(1582-1669).