AEROLITES.
It is now well known that much greater variety obtains in the structure
of the solar system than was formerly supposed. This is true, not only
in regard to the magnitudes and densities of the bodies composing it,
but also in respect to the forms of their orbits. The whole number
of planets, primary and secondary, known to the immortal author of
the _Mecanique Celeste_, was only 29. This number has been more than
quadrupled in the last quarter of a century. In Laplace's view,
moreover, all comets were strangers within the solar domain, having
entered it from without. It is now believed that a large proportion
originated in the system and belong properly to it.
The gradation of planetary magnitudes, omitting such bodies as differ
but little from those given, is presented at one view in the following
table:
Name. Diameter in miles.
Jupiter 90,000
Uranus 35,000
The Earth 7,926
Mercury 3,000
The Moon 2,160
Rhea, Saturn's 5th satellite 1,200
Dione " 4th " 500
Vesta[10] 260
Juno 104
Melpomene 52
Polyhymnia 35
Isis 25
Atalanta 20
Hestia 15
The diminution doubtless continues indefinitely below the present limit
of optical power. If, however, the orbits have small eccentricity, such
asteroids could not become known to us unless their mean distances were
nearly the same with that of the earth. But from the following table it
will be seen that the variety is no less distinctly marked in the forms
of the orbits:
Name. Eccentricity.
Venus 0·00683
The Earth 0·01677
Jupiter 0·04824
Metis 0·12410
Mercury 0·20562
Pallas 0·24000
Polyhymnia 0·33820
Faye's comet 0·55660
D'Arrest's " 0·66090
Biela's " 0·75580
Encke's " 0·84670
Halley's " 0·96740
Fourth comet of 1857 0·98140
Fifth comet of 1858 (Donati's) 0·99620
Third comet of 1827 0·99927
Were the eccentricities of the nearest asteroids equal to that of
Faye's comet, they would in perihelion intersect the earth's orbit.
Now, in the case of both asteroids and comets, the smallest are the
most numerous; and as this doubtless continues below the limit of
telescopic discovery, the earth ought to encounter such bodies in
its annual motion. _It actually does so._ The number of _cometoids_
thus encountered in the form of _meteoric stones_, _fire-balls_,
and _shooting-stars_ in the course of a single year amounts to many
millions. The extremely minute, and such as consist of matter in the
gaseous form, are consumed or dissipated in the upper regions of the
atmosphere. No deposit from ordinary shooting-stars has ever been known
to reach the earth's surface. But there is probably great variety
in the physical constitution of the bodies encountered; and though
comparatively few contain a sufficient amount of matter in the solid
form to reach the surface of our planet, scarcely a year passes without
the fall of meteoric stones in some part of the earth, either singly or
in clusters. Now, when we consider how small a proportion of the whole
number are probably observed, it is obvious that the actual occurrence
of the phenomenon can be by no means rare.[11]
Although numerous instances of the fall of aerolites had been
recorded, some of them apparently well authenticated, the occurrence
long appeared too marvelous and improbable to gain credence with
scientific men. Such a shower of rocky fragments occurred, however,
on the 26th of April, 1803, at L'Aigle, in France, as forever to
dissipate all doubt on the subject. At one o'clock P.M., the heavens
being almost cloudless, a tremendous noise, like that of thunder, was
heard, and at the same time an immense fire-ball was seen moving with
great rapidity through the atmosphere. This was followed by a violent
explosion which lasted several minutes, and which was heard not only at
L'Aigle, but in every direction around it to the distance of seventy
miles. Immediately after a great number of meteoric stones fell to the
earth, generally penetrating to some distance beneath the surface. The
largest of these fragments weighed 17-1/2 pounds. This occurrence very
naturally excited great attention. M. Biot, under the authority of the
government, repaired to L'Aigle, collected the various facts in regard
to the phenomenon, took the depositions of witnesses, etc., and finally
embraced the results of his investigations in an elaborate memoir.
It would not comport with the design of the present treatise to give
an extended list of these phenomena. The following account, however,
includes the most important instances of the fall of aerolites, and
also of the displays of meteoric fire-balls.
1. According to Livy a number of meteoric stones fell on the Alban
Hill, near Rome, about the year 654 B.C. This is the most ancient fall
of aerolites on record.
2. 468 B.C., about the year in which Socrates was born. A mass of rock,
described as "of the size of two millstones," fell at Ægos Potamos, in
Thrace. An attempt to rediscover this meteoric mass, so celebrated in
antiquity, was recently made, but without success. Notwithstanding
this failure, Humboldt expressed the hope that, as such a body would be
difficult to destroy, it may yet be found, "since the region in which
it fell is now become so easy of access to European travelers."
3. 921 A.D. An immense aerolite fell into the river (a branch of the
Tiber) at Narni, in Italy. It projected three or four feet above the
surface of the water.
4. 1492, November 7th. An aerolite, weighing two hundred and
seventy-six pounds, fell at Ensisheim, in Alsace, penetrating the earth
to the depth of three feet. This stone, or the greater portion of it,
may still be seen at Ensisheim.
5. 1511, September 14th. At noon an almost total darkening of the
heavens occurred at Crema. "During this midnight gloom," says a writer
of that period, "unheard-of thunders, mingled with awful lightnings,
resounded through the heavens. * * * On the plain of Crema, where never
before was seen a stone the size of an egg, there fell pieces of rock
of enormous dimensions and of immense weight. It is said that ten of
these were found weighing a hundred pounds each." A monk was struck
dead at Crema by one of these rocky fragments. This terrific meteoric
display is said to have lasted two hours, and 1200 aerolites were
subsequently found.
6. 1637, November 29th. A stone, weighing fifty-four pounds, fell on
Mount Vaison, in Provence.
7. 1650, March 30th. A Franciscan monk was killed at Milan by the fall
of a meteoric stone.
8. 1674. Two Swedish sailors were killed on ship-board by the fall of
an aerolite.
9. 1686, July 19th. An extraordinary fire-ball was seen in England;
its motion being opposite to that of the earth in its orbit. Halley
pronounced this meteor a cosmical body. (See Philos. Transact., vol.
xxix.)
10. 1706, June 7th. A stone weighing seventy-two pounds fell at
Larissa, in Macedonia.
11. 1719, March 19th. Another great meteor was seen in England. Its
explosion occurred at an elevation of 69 miles. Notwithstanding its
height, however, the report was like that of a broadside, and so great
was the concussion that windows and doors were violently shaken.
12. 1751, May 26th. Two meteoric masses, consisting almost wholly of
iron, fell near Agram, the capital of Croatia. The larger fragment,
which weighs seventy-two pounds, is now in Vienna.
13. 1756. The concussion produced by a meteoric explosion threw down
chimneys at Aix, in Provence, and was mistaken for an earthquake.
14. 1771, July 17th. A large meteor exploded near Paris, at an
elevation of 25 miles.
15. 1783, August 18th. A fire-ball of extraordinary magnitude was seen
in Scotland, England, and France. It produced a rumbling sound like
distant thunder, although its elevation above the earth's surface was
50 miles at the time of its explosion. The velocity of its motion was
equal to that of the earth in its orbit, and its diameter, according to
Sir Charles Blagden, was about half a mile.
16. 1790, July 24th. Between nine and ten o'clock at night a very large
igneous meteor was seen near Bourdeaux, France. Over Barbotan a loud
explosion was heard, which was followed by a shower of meteoric stones
of various magnitudes.
17. 1794, July. A fall of about a dozen aerolites occurred at Sienna,
Tuscany.
18. 1795, December 13th. A large meteoric stone fell near Wold Cottage,
in Yorkshire, England. The following account of the phenomenon is
taken from Milner's _Gallery of Nature_, p. 134: "Several persons
heard the report of an explosion in the air, followed by a hissing
sound; and afterward felt a shock, as if a heavy body had fallen to the
ground at a little distance from them. One of these, a plowman, saw
a huge stone falling toward the earth, eight or nine yards from the
place where he stood. It threw up the mould on every side; and after
penetrating through the soil, lodged some inches deep in solid chalk
rock. Upon being raised, the stone was found to weigh fifty-six pounds.
It fell in the afternoon of a mild but hazy day, during which there
was no thunder or lightning; and the noise of the explosion was heard
through a considerable district."
19. 1796, February 19th. A stone of ten pounds' weight fell in Portugal.
20. 1798, March 12th. A stone weighing twenty pounds fell at Sules,
near Ville Franche.
21. 1798, March 17th. An aerolite weighing about twenty pounds fell at
Sale, Department of the Rhone.
22. 1798, December 19th. A shower of meteoric stones fell at Benares,
in the East Indies. An interesting account of the phenomenon was given
by J. Lloyd Williams, F.R.S., then a resident in Bengal. The sky had
been perfectly clear for several days. At eight o'clock in the evening
a large meteor appeared, which was attended with a loud rumbling
noise. Immediately after the explosion a sound was heard like that of
heavy bodies falling in the neighborhood. Next morning the fresh earth
was found turned up in many places, and aerolites of various sizes were
discovered beneath the surface.
23. 1803, April 26th. The shower at L'Aigle, previously described.
24. 1807, December 14th. A large meteor exploded over Weston,
Connecticut. The height, direction, velocity, and magnitude of this
body were ably discussed by Dr. Bowditch in a memoir communicated
to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1815. The following
condensed statement of the principal facts, embodied in Dr. Bowditch's
paper, is extracted from the _People's Magazine_ for January 25th, 1834:
"The meteor of 1807 was observed about a quarter-past six on Monday
morning. The day had just dawned, and there was little light except
from the moon, which was just setting. It seemed to be half the
diameter of the full moon; and passed, like a globe of fire, across
the northern margin of the sky. It passed behind some clouds, and when
it came out it flashed like heat lightning. It had a train of light,
and appeared like a burning fire-brand carried against the wind. It
continued in sight about half a minute, and, in about an equal space
after it faded, three loud and distinct reports, like those of a
four-pounder near at hand, were heard. Then followed a quick succession
of smaller reports, seeming like what soldiers call a running fire. The
appearance of the meteor was as if it took three successive throes, or
leaps, and at each explosion a rushing of stones was heard through the
air, some of which struck the ground with a heavy fall.
"The first fall was in the town of Huntington, near the house of Mr.
Merwin Burr. He was standing in the road, in front of his house, when
the stone fell, and struck a rock of granite about fifty feet from him,
with a loud noise. The rock was stained a dark-red color, and the stone
was principally shivered into very small fragments, which were thrown
around to a distance of twenty feet. The largest piece was about the
size of a goose egg, and was still warm.
"The stones of the second explosion fell about five miles distant, near
Mr. William Prince's residence, in Weston. He and his family were in
bed when they heard the explosion, and also heard a heavy body fall to
the earth. They afterward found a hole in the earth, about twenty-five
feet from the house, like a newly dug post-hole, about one foot in
diameter, and two feet deep, in which they found a meteoric stone
buried, which weighed thirty-five pounds. Another mass fell half a mile
distant, upon a rock, which it split in two, and was itself shivered to
pieces. Another piece, weighing thirteen pounds, fell a half a mile to
the northeast, into a plowed field.
"At the last explosion, a mass of stone fell in a field belonging to
Mr. Elijah Seely, about thirty rods from the house. This stone falling
on a ledge, was shivered to pieces. It plowed up a large portion of the
ground, and scattered the earth and stones to the distance of fifty or
a hundred feet. Some cattle that were near were very much frightened,
and jumped into an inclosure. It was concluded that this last stone,
before being broken, must have weighed about two hundred pounds. These
stones were all of a similar nature, and different from any commonly
found on this globe. When first found, they were easily reduced to
powder by the fingers, but by exposure to the air they gradually
hardened."
25. 1859, November 15th. Between nine and ten o'clock in the morning,
an extraordinary meteor was seen in several of the New England States,
New York, New Jersey, the District of Columbia, and Virginia. The
apparent diameter of the head was nearly equal to that of the sun,
and it had a train, notwithstanding the bright sunshine, several
degrees in length. Its disappearance on the coast of the Atlantic was
followed by a series of the most terrific explosions. It is believed
to have descended into the water, probably into Delaware Bay. A highly
interesting account of this meteor, by Prof. Loomis, may be found in
the _American Journal of Science and Arts_ for January, 1860.
26. 1860, May 1st. About twenty minutes before one o'clock P.M.,
a shower of meteoric stones--one of the most extraordinary on
record--fell in the S. W. corner of Guernsey County, Ohio. Full
accounts of the phenomena are given in _Silliman's Journal_ for July,
1860, and January and July, 1861, by Professors E. B. Andrews, E.
W. Evans, J. L. Smith, and D. W. Johnson. From these interesting
papers we learn that the course of the meteor was about 40° west of
north. Its visible track was over Washington and Noble Counties, and
the prolongation of its projection, on the earth's surface, passes
directly through New Concord, in the S. E. corner of Muskingum County.
The height of the meteor, when seen, was about 40 miles, and its path
was nearly parallel with the earth's surface. The sky, at the time,
was, for the most part, covered with clouds over northwestern Ohio, so
that if any portion of the meteoric mass continued on its course, it
was invisible. The velocity of the meteor, in relation to the earth's
surface, was from 3 to 4 miles per second; and hence its absolute
velocity in the solar system was from 20 to 21 miles per second. This
would indicate an orbit of considerable eccentricity.
"At New Concord,[12] Muskingum County, where the meteoric stones fell,
and in the immediate neighborhood, there were many distinct and loud
reports heard. At New Concord there were first heard in the sky, a
little southeast of the zenith, a loud detonation, which was compared
to that of a cannon fired at the distance of half a mile. After an
interval of ten seconds another similar report. After two or three
seconds another, and so on with diminishing intervals. Twenty-three
distinct detonations were heard, after which the sounds became blended
together and were compared to the rattling fire of an awkward squad of
soldiers, and by others to the roar of a railway train. These sounds,
with their reverberations, are thought to have continued for two
minutes. The last sounds seemed to come from a point in the southeast
45° below the zenith. The result of this cannonading was the falling
of a large number of stony meteorites upon an area of about ten miles
long by three wide. The sky was cloudy, but some of the stones were
seen first as 'black specks,' then as 'black birds,' and finally
falling to the ground. A few were picked up within twenty or thirty
minutes. The warmest was no warmer than if it had lain on the ground
exposed to the sun's rays. They penetrated the earth from two to three
feet. The largest stone, which weighed one hundred and three pounds,
struck the earth at the foot of a large oak tree, and, after cutting
off two roots, one five inches in diameter, and grazing a third root,
it descended two feet ten inches into hard clay. This stone was found
resting under a root that was not cut off. This would seemingly imply
that it entered the earth obliquely."
Over thirty of the stones which fell were discovered, while doubtless
many, especially of the smaller, being deeply buried beneath the soil,
entirely escaped observation. The weight of the largest ten was four
hundred and eighteen pounds.
27. 1864, May 14th. Early in the evening a very large and brilliant
meteor was seen in France, from Paris to the Spanish border. At
Montauban, and in the vicinity, loud explosions were heard, and showers
of meteoric stones fell near the villages of Orgueil and Nohic. The
principal facts in regard to this meteor are the following:
Elevation when first seen, over 55 miles.
" at the time of its explosion 20 "
Inclination of its path to the horizon 20° or 25°
Velocity per second, about 20 miles,
or equal to that of the earth's orbital motion. "This example," says
Prof. Newton, "affords the strongest proof that the detonating and
stone-producing meteors are phenomena not essentially unlike."
The foregoing list contains but a small proportion even of those
meteoric stones the date of whose fall is known. But besides these,
other masses have been found so closely similar in structure to
aerolites whose descent has been observed, as to leave no doubt in
regard to their origin. One of these is a mass of iron and nickel,
weighing sixteen hundred and eighty pounds, found by the traveler
Pallas, in 1749, at Abakansk, in Siberia. This immense aerolite may be
seen in the Imperial Museum at St. Petersburg. On the plain of Otumpa,
in Buenos Ayres, is a meteoric mass 7-1/2 feet in length, partly buried
in the ground. Its estimated weight is thirty-three thousand six
hundred pounds. A specimen of this stone, weighing fourteen hundred
pounds, has been removed and deposited in one of the rooms of the
British Museum. A similar block, of meteoric origin, weighing twelve
or thirteen thousand pounds, was discovered some years since in the
Province of Bahia, in Brazil.
Some of the inferences derived from the examination of meteoric stones,
and the consideration of the phenomena attending their fall, are the
following:
1. R. P. Greg, Esq., of Manchester, England, who has made luminous
meteors a special study, has found that meteoric stone-falls occur
with greater frequency than usual on or about particular days. He
calls attention especially to five aerolite epochs, viz.: February
15th-19th; May 19th; July 26th; November 29th, and December 13th.
2. It is worthy of remark that no new elements have been found in
meteoric stones. Humboldt, in his _Cosmos_, called attention to this
interesting fact. "I would ask," he remarks, "why the elementary
substances that compose one group of cosmical bodies, or one planetary
system, may not in a great measure be identical? Why should we not
adopt this view, since we may conjecture that these planetary bodies,
like all the larger or smaller agglomerated masses revolving round
the sun, have been thrown off from the once far more expanded solar
atmosphere, and have been formed from vaporous rings describing their
orbits round the central body?"[13]
3. But while aerolites contain no elements but such as are found in
the earth's crust, the manner in which these elements are combined
and arranged is so peculiar that a skillful mineralogist will readily
distinguish them from terrestrial substances.
4. Of the eighteen or nineteen elements hitherto observed in meteoric
stones, iron is found in the greatest abundance. The specific gravities
vary from 1·94 to 7·901: the former being that of the stone of Alais,
the latter, that of the meteorite of Wayne County, Ohio, described by
Professor J. L. Smith in _Silliman's Journal_ for November, 1864, p.
385. In most cases, however, the specific gravity is about 3 or 4.
5. The contemplation of the heavenly bodies has often produced
in thoughtful minds an intense desire to know something of their
nature and physical constitution. This curiosity is gratified in the
examination of aerolites. To handle, weigh, inspect, and analyze
bodies that have wandered unnumbered ages through the planetary
spaces--perhaps approaching in their perihelia within a comparatively
short distance of the solar surface, and again receding in their
aphelia to the limits of the planetary system--must naturally excite a
train of pleasurable emotions.
6. It is highly probable that in pre-historic times, before the solar
system had reached its present stage of maturity, those chaotic
wanderers were more numerous in the vicinity of the earth's orbit than
in recent epochs. Even now the interior planets, Mercury and Venus,
appear to be moving through the masses of matter which constitute
the zodiacal light. It would seem probable, therefore, that they are
receiving from this source much greater accretions of matter than the
earth.
7. As Mercury's orbit is very eccentric, he is beyond his mean distance
during much more than half his period. Hence, probably, the greater
increments of meteoric matter are derived from such portions of the
zodiacal light as have a longer period than Mercury himself. If so, the
tendency would be to diminish slowly the planet's mean motion. Such a
lengthening of the period has been actually discovered.[14]