_tandwa_ . . . . . . . . . . to be loved.
_tandeka_ or _tandika_ . . . to be lovable.
_tandila_ or _tandela_[18] . to love for, with, or by some other person.
_tandiza_ (or _-eza_) \ to cause to love.
_tandisa_ (or _-esa_)[19] / to cause to love.
_tandana_ . . . . . . . . . to love reciprocally.
The suffix _-aka_ or _-anga_ sometimes appears and gives a sense of
continuance to the verbal root. Thus _tanda_ may become _tandaka_ in the
sense of "to continue loving."[20]
The negative verbal particle in the Bantu languages may be traced back to
an original _ka_, _ta_ or _sa_, _ki_, _ti_ or _si_ in the Bantu
mother-tongue. Apparently in the parent language this particle had already
these alternative forms, which resemble those in some West African Negro
languages. In the vast majority of the Bantu dialects at the present day,
the negative particle in the verb (which nearly always coalesces with the
pronominal particle) is descended from this _ka_, _ta_ or _sa_, _ki_, _ti_
or _si_, assuming the forms of _ka_, _ga_, _nga_, _sa_, _ta_, _ha_, _a_,
_ti_, _si_, _hi_, &c. It has coalesced to such an extent in some cases with
the pronominal particle that the two are no longer soluble, and it is only
by the existence of some intermediate forms (as in the _Kongo_ language)
that we are able to guess at the original separation between the two.
Originally the negative particle _ka_, _sa_, &c., was joined to the
pronominal particles, thus:--
_Ka-ngi_ .................... not I.
(Therefore _Ka-ngi tanda_ = not I love.)
_Ka-ku_ or _ka-wu_ .......... not thou.
_Ka-a_ ...................... not he, she.
_Ka-tu_ ..................... not we.
_Ka-nu_ ..................... not ye.
_Ka-ba_ ..................... not they.
In like manner _sa_ would become _sa-ngi_, _sa-wu_, &c. But very early in
the history of Bantu languages _ka-ngi_, or _sa-ngi_, became contracted
into _kai_, _sai_, and finally, _ki_, _si_; _ka-ku_ or _ka-wu_ into _ku_;
and _kaa_ or _saa_ have always been _ka_ or _sa_. Sometimes in the modern
languages the negative particle (such as _ti_ or _si_) is used without any
vestige of a pronoun being attached to it, and is applied indifferently to
all the persons. Occasionally this particle has fallen out of use, and the
negative is expressed (1) by stress or accent; (2) by suffix (traceable to
a root _-pe_ or _-ko_) answering to the French _pas_, and having the same
sense; and (3) by the separate employment of an adverb. If not a few Bantu
languages, the verb used in a negative sense changes its terminal _-a_ to
_-i_. The subjunctive is very frequently formed by changing the terminal
_-a_ to _-e_: thus, tanda = love; -tand_e_ = may love.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_A Comparative Grammar of South African Languages_ (in two
parts, left unfinished), by Dr W. I. Bleek (London, 1869); _A Sketch of the
Modern Languages of Africa_, by R. N. Cust (1882); _Comparative Grammar of
the South African Bantu Languages_, by Father J. Torrend (1894; mainly
composed on a study of the languages of the Central Zambezi, interesting,
but erroneous in some deductions, and incomplete). In Sir H. H. Johnston's
_The Kilimanjaro Expedition_ (1884), _British Central Africa_ (1898), and
_The Uganda Protectorate_ (1902-1904), there are illustrative vocabularies;
and in _George Grenfell and the Congo_ (1908) the Congo groups of Bantu
speech are carefully classified, also the Fernandian and Cameroon. In the
numerous essays of Carl Meinhof on the original structure of the Bantu
mother-speech, and on existing languages in East and South-East Africa, in
the _Mittheilungen des Seminaers fuer Orientalische Sprachen_, Berlin (also
issued separately through Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1899), and also in his
_Grundzuege einer vergleichenden Grammatik der Bantusprachen_ (Berlin,
1906), a vast amount of valuable information has been collected, but
Meinhof's deductions therefrom are not in every case in accord with those
of other authorities. The _Swahili-English Dictionary_, by Dr L. Krapf
(London, 1882), contains a mass of not well-sorted but invaluable
information concerning the Swahili language as spoken on the coast of East
Africa, especially regarding many words now becoming obsolete. A similar
mine of information is to be found in _An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the
Mananja_ (Mang'anja) _Language of British Central Africa_, by the Rev.
D. C. Scott (1891). Other admirable works are the _Dictionary of the Congo
Language_, by the Rev. Holman Bentley (1891), and _The Folklore of Angola_,
and a _Grammar of Kimbundu_, by Dr. Heli Chatelain. The many handbooks and
vocabularies written and published by Bishop Steere on the languages of the
East African coast-lands are of great importance to the student, especially
as they give forms of the prefixes now passing out of use. The
_Introductory Handbook of the Yao Language_, by the Rev. Alexander
Hetherwick, illustrates very fully that peculiar and important member of
the East African group. Vocabularies of various Congo languages have been
compiled by Dr. A. Sims; more important works on this subject have been
published by the Rev. W. H. Stapleton (_Comparative Handbook of Congo
Languages_), and by Rev. John Whitehead (_Grammar and Dictionary of the
Bobangi Language_ (London, 1899). E. Torday has illustrated the languages
of the Western Congo basin (_Kwango_, _Kwilu_, northern _Kasai_) in the
_Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_. There is a treatise on
the _Lunda_ language of the southwestern part of the Belgian Congo, in
Portuguese, by Henrique de Carvalho, who also in his _Ethnographia da
Expedica[o] portugueza [v.03 p.0363] ao Muata Yanvo_ goes deeply into
Bantu language questions. The _Duala_ language of Cameroon, has been
illustrated by the Baptist missionary Saker in his works published about
1860, and since 1900 by German missionaries and explorers (such as
Schuler). The German work on the Duala language is mostly published in the
_Mittheilungen des Seminaers fuer Orientalische Sprachen_ (Berlin); see
also Schuler's _Grammatik des Duala_. The Rev. S. Koelle, in his
_Polyglotta Africana_, published in 1851, gave a good many interesting
vocabularies of the almost unknown north-west Bantu borderland, as well as
of other forms of Bantu speech of the Congo coast and Congo basin. J. T.
Last, in his _Polyglotta Africana Orientalis_, has illustrated briefly many
of the East African dialects and languages, some otherwise touched by no
one else. He has also published an excellent grammar of the _Kaguru_
language of the East African highlands (Usagara). The fullest information
is now extant regarding the languages of _Uganda_ and _Unyoro_, in works by
the missionaries of the Church Missionary Society (Pilkington, Blackledge,
Hattersley, Henry Duta and others). Mr Crabtree, of the same mission, has
collected information regarding the _Masaba_ dialects of Elgon, and these
have also been illustrated by Mr C. W. Hobley, and by Sir H. H. Johnston
(_Uganda Protectorate_), and privately by Mr S. A. Northcote. Mr A. C.
Madan has published works on the _Swahili_ language and on the little-known
_Senga_ of Central Zambezia and _Wisa_ of North-East Rhodesia (Oxford
University Press). Jacottet (Paris, 1902) has in his _Grammaire Subiya_
provided an admirable study of the _Subiya_ and _Luyi_ languages of
Barotseland, and in 1907, Edwin W. Smith (Oxford University Press) brought
out a _Handbook of the Ila Language_ (Mashukulumbwe). The Rev. W. Govan
Robertson is the author of a complete study of the _Bemba_ language. Mrs
Sydney Hinde has illustrated the dialects of _Kikuyu_ and _Kamba_. F. Van
der Burgt has published a _Dictionary of Kirundi_ (the language spoken at
the north end of Tanganyika). _Oci-herero_ of Damaraland has chiefly been
illustrated by German writers, old and new; such as Dr Kolbe and Dr P. H.
Brincker. The northern languages of this Herero group have been studied by
members of the American Mission at Bailundu under the name of _Umbundu_.
Some information on the languages of the south-western part of the Congo
basin and those of south-eastern Angola may be found in the works of
Capello and Ivens and of Henrique de Carvalho and Commander V. L. Cameron.
The British, French and German missionaries have published many
dictionaries and grammars of the different _Secuana_ dialects, notable
amongst which is John Brown's _Dictionary of Secuana_ and Meinhof's _Study
of the T[vs]i-venda_. The grammars and dictionaries of Zulu-Kaffir are
almost too numerous to catalogue. Among the best are Maclaren's _Kafir
Grammar_ and Roberts' _Zulu Dictionary_. The works of Boyce, Appleyard and
Bishop Colenso should also be consulted. Miss A. Werner has written
important studies on the Zulu click-words and other grammatical essays and
vocabularies of the Bantu languages in the _Journal of the African Society_
between 1902 and 1906. The Tebele dialect of Zulu has been well illustrated
by W. A. Elliott in his _Dictionary of the Tebele and Shuna languages_
(London, 1897). The _Ronga_ (_Tonga_, _Si-gwamba_, _Hlengwe_, &c.) are
dealt with in the _Grammaire Ronga_ (Lausanne, 1896) of Henri Junod. Bishop
Smyth and John Mathews have published a vocabulary and short grammar of the
_Xilenge_ (Shilenge) language of Inhambane (_S.P.C.R._, 1902). The journal
_Anthropos_ (Vienna) should also be consulted.
(H. H. J.)
[1] _Bantu_ (literally _Ba-ntu_) is the most archaic and most widely spread
term for "men," "mankind," "people," in these languages. It also indicates
aptly the leading feature of this group of tongues, which is the governing
of the unchangeable root by prefixes. The syllable _-ntu_ is nowhere found
now standing alone, but it originally meant "object," or possibly "person."
It is also occasionally used as a relative pronoun--"that," "that which,"
"he who." Combined with different prefixes it has different meanings. Thus
(in the purer forms of Bantu languages) _muntu_ means "a man," _bantu_
means "men," _kintu_ means "a thing," _bintu_ "things," _kantu_ means "a
little thing," _tuntu_ "little things," and so on. This term _Bantu_ has
been often criticized, but no one has supplied a better, simpler
designation for this section of Negro languages, and the name has now been
definitely consecrated by usage.
[2] In Luganda and other languages of Uganda and the Victoria Nyanza, and
also in Runyoro on the Victoria Nile, the word for "fowl" is _enkoko_. In
Ki-Swahili of Zanzibar it is _kuku_. In Zulu it is _inkuku_. In some of the
Cameroon languages it is _lokoko_, _ngoko_, _ngok_, and on the Congo it is
_nkogo_, _nsusu_. On the Zambezi it is _nkuku_; so also throughout the
tribes of Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika, and most dialects of South Africa.
[3] From this statement are excepted those tongues classified as
"semi-Bantu." In some languages of the Lower Niger and of the Gold Coast
the word for "fowl" is generally traceable to a root _kuba_. This form
_kuba_ also enters the Cameroon region, where it exists alongside of
_-koko_. _Kuba_ may have arisen independently, or have been derived from
the Bantu _kuku_.
[4] Whence the many _nyanza_, _nyanja_, _nyasa_, _mwanza_, of African
geography.
[5] In using the forms Uganda, Unyoro, the writer accepts the popular
mis-spelling. These countries should be called Buganda and Bunyoro, and
their languages Luganda and Runyoro.
[6] It is an important and recently discovered fact (delineated in the work
of the Baptist missionaries and of the Austrian traveller Dr. Franz
Thonner) that the Congo at its northern and north-eastern bend, between the
Rubi river and Stanley Falls, lies outside the Bantu field. The _Bondonga_
and _Wamanga_ languages are not Bantu. They are allied to the _Mbuba-Momfu_
of the Ituri and Nepoko, and also to the _Mundu_ of the Egyptian Sudan. The
Mundu group extends westward to the Ubangi river, as far south as 3deg 30'
N. See _George Grenfell and the Congo_, by Sir Harry Johnston; and _Dans la
Grande Foret de l'Afrique equatoriale_, by Franz Thonner (1899).
[7] These features are characteristic of almost all the Negro languages of
Africa.
[8] This does not preclude the _aspiration_ of consonants, or the
occasional local change of a palatal into a guttural.
[9] As already mentioned, a somewhat similar concord is also present as
regards the _suffixes_ of the Fula and the Kiama (_Tem_) languages in
Western Africa, and as regards the _prefixes_ of the Timne language of
Sierra Leone; it exists likewise in Hottentot and less markedly in many
Aryan, Semitic and Hamitic tongues.
[10] An apparent but not a real exception to this rule is in the second
person plural of the imperative mood, where an abbreviated form of the
pronoun is _affixed_ to the verb. Other phases of the verb may be
occasionally emphasized by the repetition of the governing pronoun at the
end.
[11] The full hypothetical forms of the prefixes as joined with definite
articles--_Ngumu_, _Mbaba_, _Ngimi_, _Ngama_ and so on--are added in
brackets. Forms very like these are met with still in the Mt. Elgon
languages (Group No. 3) and in _Subiya_ group (No. 32).
[12] This is prominently met with in East Africa, and also in the various
Bechuana dialects of Central South Africa, where it takes the form of _n_
at the end of words.
[13] Or perhaps _nga-ba-ntu_ (afterwards _na-ba-_, _aba-_); the form
_ngabantu_ is actually met with in Zulu-Kaffir: also _ngumuntu_.
[14] Likewise _ba-_ may have meant "two" (Bantu root _Bali_ = two); a dual
first and then a plural.
[15] _Wa-_ in Luganda. In Lusoga (north coast of Victoria Nyanza) _Wa-_
becomes _[Gamma]a_ (_Gha_).
[16] _Mi_ is possibly a softening of _ngi_, _ni_; _ngi_ becomes in some
dialects _nji_, _ndi_, _ni_ or _mbi_; there is in some of the coast
Cameroon languages, and in the north-eastern Congo, a word _mbi_, _mba_ for
"I," "me," which seems to be borrowed from the Sudanian Mundu tongues. The
possessive pronoun for the first person is devired from two forms, _-ami_
and _-angi_ (_-am_, _-angu_, _-anji_, _-ambi_, &c.).
[17] An exception to this rule is the verbal particle _li_ or _di_, which
means "to be."
[18] Or _-ira_, _-era_.
[19] This form may also appear as _[vs]a_, as for instance _aka_--to be on
fire becomes _a[vs]a_, to set on fire.
[20] In choosing this common root _tanda_, and applying it to the above
various terminations, the writer is not prepared to say that it is
associated with all of them in any one Bantu language. Although _tanda_ is
a common verb in Zulu, it has not in Zulu _all_ these variations, and in
some other language where it may by chance exhibit all the variations its
own form is changed to _londa_ or _randa_.
BANVILLE, THEODORE FAULLAIN DE (1823-1891), French poet and miscellaneous
writer, was born at Moulins in the Bourbonnais, on the 14th of March 1823.
He was the son of a captain in the French navy. His boyhood, by his own
account, was cheerlessly passed at a lycee in Paris; he was not harshly
treated, but took no part in the amusements of his companions. On leaving
school with but slender means of support, he devoted himself to letters,
and in 1842 published his first volume of verse (_Les Cariatides_), which
was followed by _Les Stalactites_ in 1846. The poems encountered some
adverse criticism, but secured for their author the approbation and
friendship of Alfred de Vigny and Jules Janin. Henceforward Banville's life
was steadily devoted to literary production and criticism. He printed other
volumes of verse, among which the _Odes funambulesques_ (Alencon, 1857)
received unstinted praise from Victor Hugo, to whom they were dedicated.
Later, several of his comedies in verse were produced at the Theatre
Francais and on other stages; and from 1853 onwards a stream of prose
flowed from his industrious pen, including studies of Parisian manners,
sketches of well-known persons (_Camees parisiennes_, &c.), and a series of
tales (_Contes bourgeois_, _Contes heroiques_, &c.), most of which were
republished in his collected works (1875-1878). He also wrote freely for
reviews, and acted as dramatic critic for more than one newspaper.
Throughout a life spent mainly in Paris, Banville's genial character and
cultivated mind won him the friendship of the chief men of letters of his
time. He was also intimate with Frederick-Lemaitre and other famous actors.
In 1858 he was decorated with the legion of honour, and was promoted to be
an officer of the order in 1886. He died in Paris on the 15th of March
1891, having just completed his sixty-eighth year. Banville's claim to
remembrance rests mainly on his poetry. His plays are written with
distinction and refinement, but are deficient in dramatic power; his
stories, though marked by fertility of invention, are as a rule
conventional and unreal. Most of his prose, indeed, in substance if not in
manner, is that of a journalist. His lyrics, however, rank high. A careful
and loving student of the finest models, he did even more than his greater
and somewhat older comrades, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Musset and Theophile
Gautier, to free French poetry from the fetters of metre and mannerism in
which it had limped from the days of Malherbe. In the _Odes funambulesques_
and elsewhere he revived with perfect grace and understanding the _rondeau_
and the _villanelle_, and like Victor Hugo in _Les Orientales_, wrote
_pantoums_ (pantuns) after the Malay fashion. He published in 1872 a _Petit
traite de versification francaise_ in exposition of his metrical methods.
He was a master of delicate satire, and used with much effect the difficult
humour of sheer bathos, happily adapted by him from some of the early
folk-songs. He has somewhat rashly been compared to Heine, whom he
profoundly admired; but if he lacked the supreme touch of genius, he
remains a delightful writer, who exercised a wise and sound influence upon
the art of his generation.
Among his other works may be mentioned the poems, _Idylles prussiennes_
(1871), and _Trente-six ballades joyeuses_ (1875); the prose tales, _Les
Saltimbanques_ (1853); _Esquisses parisiennes_ (1859) and _Contes
feeriques_; and the plays, _Le Feuilleton d'Aristophane_ (1852),
_Gringoire_ (1866), and _Deidamia_ (1876).
See also J. Lemaitre, _Les Contemporains_ (first series, 1885);
Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. xiv.; Maurice Spronck, _Les
Artistes litteraires_ (1889).
(C.)
BANYAN, or BANIAN (an Arab corruption, borrowed by the Portuguese from the
Sanskrit _vanij_, "merchant"), the _Ficus Indica_, or _Bengalensis_, a tree
of the fig genus. The name was originally given by Europeans to a
particular tree on the Persian Gulf beneath which some Hindu "merchants"
had built a pagoda. In Calcutta the word was once generally applied to a
native broker or head clerk in any business or private house, now usually
known as sircar. _Bunya_, a corruption of the word common in Bengal
generally, is usually applied to the native grain-dealer. Early writers
sometimes use the term generically for all Hindus in western India.
_Banyan_ was long Anglo-Indian for an undershirt, in allusion to the body
garment of the Hindus, especially the Banyans.
_Banyan days_ is a nautical slang term. In the British navy there were
formerly two days in each week on which meat formed no part of the men's
rations. These were called banyan days, in allusion to the vegetarian diet
of the Hindu merchants. _Banyan hospital_ also became a slang term for a
hospital for animals, in reference to the Hindu's humanity and his dislike
of taking the life of any animal.
BAOBAB, _Adansonia digitata_ (natural order _Bombaceae_), a native of
tropical Africa, one of the largest trees known, its stem reaching 30 ft.
in diameter, though the height is not great. It has a large woody fruit,
containing a mucilaginous pulp, with a pleasant cool taste, in which the
seeds are buried. The bark yields a strong fibre which is made into ropes
and woven into cloth. The wood is very light and soft, and the trunks of
living trees are often excavated to form houses. The name of the genus was
given by Linnaeus in honour of Michel Adanson, a celebrated French botanist
and traveller.
BAPHOMET, the imaginary symbol or idol which the Knights Templars were
accused of worshipping in their secret rites. The term is supposed to be a
corruption of _Mahomet_, who in several medieval Latin poems seems to be
called by this name. J. von Hammer-Purgstall, in his _Mysterium Baphometis
relevatum, &c._, and _Die Schuld der Templer_, revived the old charge
against the Templars. The word, according to his interpretation, signifies
the baptism of _Metis_, or of fire, and is, therefore, connected with the
impurities of the Gnostic Ophites (_q.v._). Additional [v.03 p.0364]
evidence of this, according to Hammer-Purgstall, is to be found in the
architectural decorations of the Templars' churches.
An elaborate criticism of Hammer-Purgstall's arguments was made in the
_Journal des Savans_, March and April 1819, by M. Raynouard, a well-known
defender of the Templars. (See also Hallam, _Middle Ages_, c. i. note 15.)
BAPTISM. The Gr. words [Greek: baptismos] and [Greek: baptisma] (both of
which occur in the New Testament) signify "ceremonial washing," from the
verb [Greek: baptizo], the shorter form [Greek: bapto] meaning "dip"
without ritual significance (_e.g._ the finger in water, a robe in blood).
That a ritual washing away of sin characterized other religions than the
Christian, the Fathers of the church were aware, and Tertullian notices, in
his tract _On Baptism_ (ch. v.), that the votaries of Isis and Mithras were
initiated _per lavacrum_, "through a font," and that in the _Ludi
Apollinares et Eleusinii_, _i.e._ the mysteries of Apollo and Eleusis, men
were baptized (_tinguntur_, Tertullian's favourite word for baptism), and,
what is more, baptized, as they presumed to think, "unto regeneration and
exemption from the guilt of their perjuries." "Among the ancients," he
adds, "anyone who had stained himself with homicide went in search of
waters that could purge him of his guilt."
The texts of the New Testament relating to Christian baptism, given roughly
in chronological order, are the following:--
A.D. 55-60, Rom. vi. 3, 4; 1 Cor. i. 12-17, vi. 11, x. 1-4, xii. 13, xv.
29; Gal. iii. 27.
A.D. 60-65, Col. ii. 11, 12; Eph. iv. 5, v. 26.
A.D. 60-70, Mark x. 38, 39.
A.D. 80-90, Acts i. 5, ii. 38-41, viii. 16, 17, x. 44-48, xix. 1-7, xxii.
16; 1 Pet. iii. 20, 21; Heb. x. 22.
A.D. 90-100, John iii. 3-8, iii. 22, iii. 26, iv. 1, 2.
Uncertain, Matt, xxviii. 18-20; Mark xvi. 16.