HERBS, SHRUBS, AND TREES
~Affinities of Panjáb Flora.~--It is hopeless to describe except in the
broadest outline the flora of a tract covering an area of 250,000 square
miles and ranging in altitude from a few hundred feet to a height 10,000
feet above the limit of flowering plants. The nature of the vegetation
of any tract depends on rainfall and temperature, and only secondarily
on soil. A desert is a tract with a dry substratum and dry air, great
heat during some part of the year, and bright sunshine. The soil may be
loam or sand, and as regards vegetation a sandy desert is the worst
owing to the rapid drying up of the subsoil after rain. In the third of
the maps appended to Schimper's _Plant Geography_ by far the greater
part of the area dealt with in this book is shown as part of the vast
desert extending from the Sahára to Manchuria. Seeing that the monsoon
penetrates into the province and that it is traversed by large snow-fed
rivers the Panjáb, except in parts of the extreme western and
south-western districts, is not a desert like the Sahára or Gobí,
and Schimper recognised this by marking most of the area as
semi-desert. Still the flora outside the Hills and the submontane
tract is predominantly of the desert type, being xerophilous or
drought-resisting. The adaptations which enable plants to survive in a
tract deficient in moisture are of various kinds. The roots may be
greatly developed to enable them to tap the subsoil moisture, the
leaves may be reduced in size, converted into thorns, or entirely
dispensed with, in order to check rapid evaporation, they may be covered
with silky or felted hairs, a modification which produces the same
result, or their internal tissue may be succulent or mucilaginous. In
the plants of the Panjáb plains there is no difficulty in recognising
these features of a drought-resisting flora. Schimper's map shows in the
north-east of the area a wedge thrust in between the plains' desert and
the dry elevated alpine desert cut off from the influence of the monsoon
by the lofty barrier of the Inner Himálaya. This consists of two parts,
monsoon forest, corresponding roughly with the Himalayan area Cis Ráví
above the 5000 feet contour, and dry woodland of a semi-tropical stamp,
consisting, of the adjoining foot-hills and submontane tract. This wedge
is in fact treated as part of the zone, which in the map (after Drude)
prefixed to Willis' _Manual and Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and
Ferns_, is called Indo-Malayan, and which embraces the Malayan
Archipelago and part of North Australia, Burma, and practically the
whole of India except the Panjáb, Sindh, and Rájputána. In Drude's map
the three countries last mentioned are included in a large zone called
"the Mediterranean and Orient." This is a very broad classification, and
in tracing the relationships of the Panjáb flora it is better to treat
the desert area of North Africa, which in Tripoli and Egypt extends to
the coast, apart from the Mediterranean zone. It is a familiar fact
that, as we ascend lofty mountains like those of the Himálaya, we pass
through belts or regions of vegetation of different types. The air
steadily becomes rarer and therefore colder, especially at night, and at
the higher levels there is a marked reduction in the rainfall. When the
alpine region, which in the Himálaya may be taken as beginning at 11,000
feet, is reached, the plants have as a rule bigger roots, shorter
stems, smaller leaves, but often larger and more brilliantly coloured
flowers. These are adaptations of a drought-resisting kind.
~Regions.~--In this sketch it will suffice to divide the tract into six
regions:
Plains 1. Panjáb dry plain.
2. Salt Range and North West Plateau, from
the frontier to Pabbí Hills.
3. Submontane Hills on east bank of Jhelam.
Hills 4. Sub-Himálaya, 2000-5000 feet.
5. Temperate Himálaya, 5000-11,000 feet.
6. Alpine Himálaya, 11,000-16,000 feet.
Of course a flora does not fit itself into compartments, and the changes
of type are gradual.
~Panjáb Dry Plain.~--The affinities of the flora of the Panjáb plains
south of the Salt Range and the submontane tract are, especially in the
west, with the desert areas of Persia, Arabia, and North Africa, though
the spread of canal irrigation is modifying somewhat the character of
the vegetation. The soil and climate are unsuited to the growth of large
trees, but adapted to scrub jungle of a drought-resisting type, which at
one time covered very large areas from the Jamna to the Jhelam. The soil
on which this sparse scrub grew is a good strong loam, but the rainfall
was too scanty and the water-level too deep to admit of much cultivation
outside the valleys of the rivers till the labours of canal engineers
carried their waters to the uplands. East of the Sutlej the Bikaner
desert thrusts northwards a great wedge of sandy land which occupies a
large area in Baháwalpur, Hissár, Ferozepur, and Patiála. Soil of this
description is free of forest growth, and the monsoon rainfall in this
part of the province is sufficient to encourage an easy, but very
precarious, cultivation of autumn millets and pulses. The great Thal
desert to the south of the Salt Range between the valleys of the Jhelam
and the Indus has a similar soil, but the scantiness of the rainfall has
confined cultivation within much narrower limits. Between the Sutlej and
the Jhelam the uplands between the river valleys are known locally as
Bárs. The largest of the truly indigenous trees of the Panjáb plains are
the _farásh_ (Tamarix articulata) and the thorny _kíkar_ (Acacia
Arabica). The latter yields excellent wood for agricultural implements,
and fortunately it grows well in sour soils. Smaller thorny acacias are
the _nímbar_ or _raunj_ (Acacia leucophloea) and the _khair_ (Acacia
Senegal). The dwarf tamarisk, _pilchí_ or _jhao_ (Tamarix dioica), grows
freely in moist sandy soils near rivers. The scrub jungle consists
mostly of _jand_ (Prosopis spicigera), a near relation of the Acacias,
_jál_ or _van_ (Salvadora oleoides), and the coral-flowered _karíl_ or
leafless caper (Capparis aphylla). All these show their desert
affinities, the _jand_ by its long root and its thorns, the _jál_ by its
small leathery leaves, and the _karíl_ by the fact that it has managed
to dispense with leaves altogether. The _jand_ is a useful little tree,
and wherever it grows the natural qualities of the soil are good. The
sweetish fruit of the _jál_, known as _pílu_, is liked by the people,
and in famines they will even eat the berries of the leafless caper.
Other characteristic plants of the Panjáb plains are under Leguminosae,
the _khip_ (Crotalaria burhia), two Farsetias (_faríd kí búti_), and the
_jawása_ or camel thorn (Alhagi camelorum), practically leafless, but
with very long and stout spines; under Capparidaceae several Cleomes,
species of Corchorus (Tiliaceae), under Zygophyllaceae three
Mediterranean genera, Tribulus, Zygophyllum, and Fagonia, under
Solanaceae several Solanums and Withanias, and various salsolaceous
Chenopods known as _lána_.
[Illustration: Fig. 19. Banian or Bor trees.]
In the sandier tracts the _ak_ (Calotropis procera, N.O.
Asclepiadaceae), the _harmal_ (Peganum harmala, N.O. Rutaceae), and the
colocynth gourd (Citrullus colocynthis, N.O. Cucurbitaceae), which,
owing to the size of its roots, manages to flourish in the sands of
African and Indian deserts, grow abundantly. Common weeds of cultivation
are Fumaria parviflora, a near relation of the English fumitory, Silene
conoidea, and two Spergulas (Caryophyllaceae), and Sisymbrium Irio
(Cruciferae). A curious little Orchid, Zeuxine sulcata, is found growing
among the grass on canal banks. The American yellow poppy, Argemone
Mexicana, a noxious weed, has unfortunately established itself widely in
the Panjáb plain. Two trees of the order Leguminosae, the _shisham_ or
_tálí_ (Dalbergia Sissoo) and the _siris_ (Albizzia lebbek), are
commonly planted on Panjáb roads. The true home of the former is in
river beds in the low hills or in ravines below the hills. But it is a
favourite tree on roads and near wells throughout the province, and
deservedly so, for it yields excellent timber. The _siris_ on the other
hand is an untidy useless tree. The _kíkar_ might be planted as a
roadside tree to a greater extent. Several species of figs, especially
the _pípal_ (Ficus religiosa) and _bor_ or banian (Ficus Indica) are
popular trees.
~Salt Range and North-West Plains.~---Our second region may be taken as
extending from the Pabbí hills on the east of the Jhelam in Gujrát to
our administrative boundary beyond the Indus, its southern limit being
the Salt Range. Here the flora is of a distinctly Mediterranean type.
Poppies are as familiar in Ráwalpindi as they are in England or Italy,
and Hypecoum procumbens, a curious Italian plant of the same order, is
found in Attock. The abundance of Crucifers is also a Mediterranean
feature. Eruca sativa, the oil-seed known as _táramíra_ or _jamián_,
which sows itself freely in waste land and may be found growing even on
railway tracks in the Ráwalpindí division, is an Italian and Spanish
weed. Malcolmia strigosa, which spreads a reddish carpet over the
ground, and Malcolmia Africana are common Crucifers near Ráwalpindí. The
latter is a Mediterranean species. The Salt Range genera Diplotaxis and
Moricandia are Italian, and the peculiar Notoceras Canariensis found in
Attock is also a native of the Canary Islands. Another order,
Boraginaceae, which is very prominent in the Mediterranean region, is
also important in the North-West Panjáb, though the showier plants of
the order are wanting. One curious Borage, Arnebia Griffithii, seems to
be purely Asiatic. It has five brown spots on its petals, which fade and
disappear in the noonday sunshine. These are supposed to be drops of
sweat which fell from Muhammad's forehead, hence the plant is called
_paighambarí phúl_ or the prophet's flower. Among Composites Calendulas
and Carthamus oxyacantha or the _pohlí_, a near relation of the
Carthamus which yields the saffron dye, are abundant. Both are common
Mediterranean genera. Silybum Marianum, a handsome thistle with large
leaves mottled with white, extends from Britain to Ráwalpindí.
Interesting species are Tulipa stellata and Tulipa chrysantha. The
latter is a Salt Range plant, as is the crocus-like Merendera Persica,
and the yellow Iris Aitchisoni. A curious plant found in the same hills
is the cactus-like Boucerosia (N.O. Asclepiadaceae), recalling to
botanists the more familiar Stapelias of the same order. Another
leafless Asclepiad, Periploca aphylla, which extends westwards to Arabia
and Nubia and southwards to Sindh, is, like Boucerosia, a typical
xerophyte adapted to a very dry soil and atmosphere. The thorny Acacias,
A. eburnea and A. modesta (vern. _phuláhí_), of the low bare hills of
the N.W. Panjáb are also drought-resisting plants.
~Submontane Region.~--The Submontane region consists of a broad belt below
the Siwáliks extending from the Jamna nearly to the Jhelam, and may be
said to include the districts of Ambála, Karnál (part), Hoshyárpur,
Kángra (part), Hazára (part), Jalandhar, Gurdáspur, Siálkot, Gujrát
(part). In its flora there is a strong infusion of Indo-Malayan
elements. An interesting member of it is the Butea frondosa, a small
tree of the order Leguminosae. It is known by several names, _dhák_,
_chichra_, _paláh_, and _palás_. Putting out its large orange-red
flowers in April it ushers in the hot weather. It has a wide range from
Ceylon to Bengal, where it has given its name to the town of Dacca and
the battlefield of Plassy (Palási). From Bengal it extends all the way
to Hazára. There can be no doubt that a large part of the submontane
region was once _dhák_ forest. Tracts in the north of Karnál--Chachra,
in Jalandhar--Dardhák, and in Gujrát--Paláhí, have taken their names
from this tree. It coppices very freely, furnishes excellent firewood
and good timber for the wooden frames on which the masonry cylinders of
wells are reared, it exudes a valuable gum, its flowers yield a dye, and
the dry leaves are eaten by buffaloes. A tree commonly planted near
wells and villages in the submontane tract is the _dhrek_ (Melia
azedarach, N.O. Meliaceae), which is found as far west as Persia and is
often called by English people the Persian lilac. The _bahera_
(Terminalia belerica, N.O. Combretaceae), a much larger tree, is
Indo-Malayan. Common shrubs are the _marwan_ (Vitex negundo, N.O.
Verbenaceae), Plumbago Zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae), the _bánsa_ or
_bhekar_ (Adhatoda vasica, N.O. Acanthaceae). The last is Indo-Malayan.
Among herbs Cassias, which do not occur in Europe, are common. The
curious cactus-like Euphorbia Royleana grows abundantly and is used for
making hedges.
~Sub-Himálaya.~--A large part of the Sub-Himalayan region belongs to the
Siwáliks. The climate is fairly moist and subject to less extremes of
heat and cold than the regions described above. A strong infusion of
Indo-Malayan types is found and a noticeable feature is the large number
of flowering trees and shrubs. Such beautiful flowering trees as the
_simal_ or silk-cotton tree (Bombax Malabaricum, N.O. Malvaceae), the
_amaltás_ (Cassia fistula), Albizzia mollis and Albizzia stipulata,
Erythrina suberosa, Bauhinia purpurea and Bauhinia variegata, all
belonging to the order Leguminosae, are unknown in Europe, but common in
the Indo-Malayan region. This is true also of Oroxylum Indicum (N.O.
Bignoniaceae) with its remarkable long sword-like capsules, and of the
_kamíla_ (Mallotus Philippinensis), which abounds in the low hills, but
may escape the traveller's notice as its flowers have no charm of form
or colour. He will in spring hardly fail to observe another Indo-Malayan
tree, the _dháwí_ (Woodfordia floribunda, N.O. Lythraceae) with its
bright red flowers. Shrubs with conspicuous flowers are also common,
among which may be noted species of Clematis, Capparis spinosa, Kydia
calycina, Mimosa rubicaulis, Hamiltonia suaveolens, Caryopteris
Wallichiana, and Nerium Oleander. The latter grows freely in sandy
torrent beds. Rhus cotinus, which reddens the hillsides in May, is a
native also of Syria, Italy, and Southern France. Other trees to be
noticed are a wild pear (Pyrus pashia), the olive (Olea cuspidata), the
_khair_ (Acacia catechu) useful to tanners, the _tun_ (Cedrela toona),
whose wood is often used for furniture, the _dháman_ (Grewia
oppositifolia, N.O. Tiliaceae), and several species of fig. The most
valuable products however of the forests of the lower hills are the
_chír_ or _chíl_ pine (Pinus longifolia), and a giant grass, the bamboo
(Dendrocalamus strictus), which attains a height of from 20 to 40 feet.
Shrubs which grow freely on stony hills are the _sanattha_ or _mendru_
(Dodonaea viscosa, N.O. Sapindaceae), which is a valuable protection
against denudation, as goats pass it by, the _garna_, which is a species
of Carissa, and Plectranthus rugosus. Climbers are common. The great
Hiptage madablota (N.O. Malpighiaceae), the Bauhinia Vahlii or elephant
creeper, and some species of the parasitic Loranthus, deserve mention,
also Acacia caesia, Pueraria tuberosa, Vallaris Heynei, Porana
paniculata, and several vines, especially Vitis lanata with its large
rusty leaves. Characteristic herbs are the sweet-scented Viola patrinii,
the slender milkwort; Polygala Abyssinica, a handsome pea, Vigna
vexillata, a borage, Trichodesma Indicum, a balsam, Impatiens balsamina,
familiar in English gardens, the beautiful delicate little blue
Evolvulus alsinoides, the showy purple convolvulus, Ipomaea hederacea,
and a curious lily, Gloriosa superba.
[Illustration: Fig. 20. Deodárs and Hill Temple.]
~Temperate Himálaya.~--The richest part of the temperate Himalayan flora
is probably in the 7500-10,000 zone. Above 10,000 feet sup-alpine
conditions begin, and at 12,000 feet tree growth becomes very scanty and
the flora is distinctly alpine. The _chír_ pine so common in
sub-Himalayan forests extends up to 6500 feet. At this height and 1000
feet lower the _ban_ oak (Quercus incana), grey on the lower side of the
leaf, which is so common at Simla, abounds. Where the _chíl_ stops, the
_kail_ or blue pine (Pinus excelsa), after the _deodár_ the most
valuable product of Himalayan forests, begins. Its zone may be taken as
from 7000 to 9000 feet. To the same zone belong the _kelu_ or _deodár_
(Cedrus Libani), the glossy leaved _mohru_ oak (Quercus dilatata),
whose wood is used for making charcoal, and two small trees of the Heath
order, Rhododendron arborea and Pieris ovalifolia. The former in April
and May lightens up with its bright red flowers the sombre Simla
forests. The _kharshu_ or rusty-leaved oak (Quercus semecarpifolia)
affects a colder climate than its more beautiful glossy-leaved relation,
and may almost be considered sub-alpine. It is common on Hattu, and the
oaks there present a forlorn appearance after rain with funereal mosses
dripping with moisture hanging from their trunks. The firs, Picea
morinda, with its grey tassels, and Abies Pindrow with its dark green
yew-like foliage, succeed the blue pine. Picea may be said to range from
8000 to 10,000 feet, and the upper limit of Abies is from 1000 to 2000
feet higher. These splendid trees are unfortunately of small commercial
value. The yew, Taxus baccata, is found associated with them. Between
5000 and 8000 feet, besides the oaks and other broad-leaved trees
already noticed, two relations of the dogwood, Cornus capitata and
Cornus macrophylla, a large poplar, Populus ciliata, a pear, Pyrus
lanata, a holly, Ilex dipyrena, an elm and its near relation, Celtis
australis, and species of Rhus and Euonymus, may be mentioned. Cornus
capitata is a small tree, but it attracts notice because the heads of
flowers surrounded by bracts of a pale yellow colour have a curious
likeness to a rose, and the fruit is in semblance not unlike a
strawberry. Above 8000 feet several species of maple abound. The
_chinár_ or Platanus orientalis, found as far west as Sicily, grows to
splendid proportions by the quiet waterways of the Vale of Kashmír. The
undergrowth in temperate Himalayan forests consists largely of
barberries, Desmodiums, Indigoferas, roses, brambles, Spiraeas,
Viburnums, honeysuckles with their near relation, Leycesteria formosa,
which has been introduced into English shrubberies. The great vine,
Vitis Himalayana, whose leaves turn red in autumn, climbs up many of the
trees. Of the flowers it is impossible to give any adequate account. The
flora is distinctly Mediterranean in type; the orders in Collett's
_Flora Simlensis_ which are not represented in the Italian flora contain
hardly more than 5 per cent. of the total genera. The plants included in
some of these non-Mediterranean orders are very beautiful, for example,
the Begonias, the Amphicomes (Bignoniaceae), Chirita bifolia and
Platystemma violoides (Gesneraceae), and Hedychium (Scitamineae). More
important members of the flora are species of Clematis, including the
beautiful white Clematis montana, anemones, larkspurs, columbine,
monkshoods, St John's worts, geraniums, balsams, species of Astragalus,
Potentillas, Asters, ragworts, species of Cynoglossum, gentians and
Swertias, Androsaces and primroses, Wulfenia and louseworts, species of
Strobilanthes, Salvias and Nepetas, orchids, irises, Ophiopogon, Smilax,
Alliums, lilies, and Solomon's seal. Snake plants (Arisaema) and their
relation Sauromatum guttatum of the order Araceae are very common in the
woods. The striped spathe in some species of Arisaema bears a curious
resemblance to the head of a cobra uplifted to strike. Orchids decrease
as one proceeds westwards, but irises are much more common in Kashmír
than in the Simla hills. The Kashmír fritillaries include the beautiful
Crown Imperial.
[Illustration: Fig. 21. Firs in Himálaya.]
[Illustration: Fig. 22. Chinárs.]
[Illustration: Fig. 23. Rhododendron campanulatum.]
~Alpine Himálaya.~--In the Alpine Himálaya the scanty tree-growth is
represented by willows, junipers, and birches. After 12,000 or 12,500
feet it practically disappears. A dwarf shrub, Juniperus recurva, is
found clothing hillsides a good way above the two trees of the same
genus. Other alpine shrubs which may be noticed are two rhododendrons,
which grow on cliffs at an elevation of 10,000 to 14,000 feet, R.
campanulatum and R. lepidotum, Gaultheria nummularioides with its
black-purple berry, and Cassiope fastigiata, all belonging to the order
Ericaceae. The herbs include beautiful primulas, saxifrages, and
gentians, and in the bellflower order species of Codonopsis and
Cyananthus. Among Composites may be mentioned the tansies, Saussureas,
and the fine Erigeron multiradiatus common in the forest above Narkanda.
In the bleak uplands beyond the Himálaya tree-growth is very scanty, but
in favoured localities willows and the pencil cedar, Juniperus
pseudosabina, are found. The people depend for fuel largely on a hoary
bush of the Chenopod order, Eurotia ceratoides. In places a profusion of
the red Tibetan roses, Rosa Webbiana, lightens up the otherwise dreary
scene.