1. The schools which they contemplate, a_Military schools and courses of instruction in the science and art of war, in France, Prussia, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, Sardinia, England, and the United States. Drawn from recent official reports and documents. Revised Edition

schools--although they will be aided and inspected by the Naval

Department. Their original establishment, buildings, material,

equipment, and immediate management will belong to the local Board of

Trade or Commerce representing the shipping and commercial interests of

the communities in which they are located. Through such Board, the State

or municipal authorities, or individuals, can extend pecuniary aid for

the original outfit or annual support.

2. The objects aimed at in the internal constitution of the schools and

classes, will be thorough instruction in navigation, seamanship, and

kindred branches through:--_First_--Evening classes for adults, (seamen,

mates, or masters,) who can not attend regularly on account of absence

from port or engagements by day, in which the instruction will

necessarily be elementary and fragmentary; _Second_--A junior department

or division, in which instruction in arithmetic, drawing, commercial

geography, and statistics, will be given, as well as in navigation, the

use of instruments, calculation of observations, keeping a log-book,

journal, &c; _Third_--A senior department, in which a thorough course of

mathematics, navigation, nautical astronomy, steam and steam navigation,

&c., will be given, with facilities for acquiring one or more of the

languages of the nations with which we have large commercial dealings.

3. The extension of any government aid should be based on the condition

that suitable buildings and material equipment are furnished and kept in

repair and working order by the local Board, or committee of the same,

charged with the immediate management of the school; and such aid shall

be subject to reduction and withdrawal for the succeeding year on the

recommendation of the Department inspectors. For the first year the only

condition should be the actual payment, from other sources, of an equal

amount for the annual expense of the school, subject to the disposal of

the local Board. For the second and subsequent years, the sum paid by

the government shall be appropriated in portions; _First_--a specific

sum to the principal teacher and assistants according to the grade of

certificated qualification each may hold; _Second_--a specific sum to

the managers of each school for the annual expense of the same,

according the average daily or evening attendance of the whole number

enrolled in each class or division for a specified period of time in

each year; _Third_--a specific sum to the managers of each school

according to the number of pupils who shall complete certain specified

courses of study to the satisfaction of the inspectors upon examination

by them; _Fourth_--a specified sum in prizes, in the form of

chronometers, sextants, text-books in navigation, &c., to be competed

for by all the pupils of each division of a school; _Fifth_--a specified

sum in aid of such professional experience as can be secured for the

younger members of the school, as is now given to naval apprentices. All

payments by the government should be so made as to secure and reward the

services of able and faithful teachers, the regular, punctual, and

prolonged attendance of pupils to the completion of each course which

they enter, and the liberal coöperation of the local municipal

authorities and the commercial and shipping portions of the community in

which the school is located. Without such coöperation the whole plan

will fail. The school need not be free--but let the instruction be good,

practical, and cheap, and its possessor be sure of a lucrative

employment, and then there will be a demand for it.

And why should not the national government enter upon this or a better

devised system of training its own seamen, and advancing its naval and

commercial interests? All maritime nations, either directly and

exclusively by the central government, or through local boards of trade

and commerce, have aimed to protect the lives and property of citizens

engaged in commerce and navigation, by providing not only for the

erection of light houses, buoys, and other material safeguards, but also

by an adequate supply of competent pilots and mariners, duly trained and

commissioned. Our own government has recognized its duty in all these

respects, and in the recent enormous expansion and peculiar risks of the

steam-marine, has established a system of inspection which is intended

to reach every engine used for the propulsion of every vessel of any

class in all waters subject to national law. Surely the same policy

which permits and justifies this interference of the national arm and

the application of the national resources to build light-houses, erect

buoys, register the names, tonnage, and ownership of vessels; which

commissions pilots, inspects steam-boilers, surveys harbors, makes

observations of the stars, the currents of the ocean and the prevalent

directions of the winds in different seasons and latitudes; constructs

and circulates maps and charts, and does all these things for the

protection of commerce and for the use of the navy, will, in behalf of

the same great interests, when satisfied that they are jeopardized by

present neglect, see and be assured that the masters, mates, and seamen,

who have all the precious lives and enormous properties embarked in

commerce in their keeping, are properly trained in the science and art

of navigation.

The liberal educational policy of the national government which has set

apart over one hundred millions of acres of the national domain for

educational purposes, which if the right of inspection into its

application had been asserted and exercised, would have amounted ere

this time to a permanent fund of over five hundred millions of

dollars--and which has more recently appropriated over six hundred

thousand acres of public land for the establishment of agricultural and

scientific schools;--the similar policy of the State governments, that

holds all property subject to taxation for the support of schools, and

that authorizes the most munificent appropriations for free public

schools in all of the large cities, which are also the great seaports of

the country--all justify the belief that a system of education for this

large class of the community, once fairly entered upon by the national

government, will be cheerfully and liberally responded to and sustained.

In England the same necessity which exists in this country--the

reluctance of young people in good circumstances, to enter the maritime

service--the low state of the professional as well as general education

of her seaman-class--the enormous amount of property and the large

number of lives directly interested in commerce and navigation--the

reliance for properly manning the national vessels in the sudden

emergency of war, on the commercial marine--the representative character

which mariners bear, of the religion, manners, and civilization

generally of the country, to all nations which they visit--the desire

for the elevation of this large class of the population in intelligence,

morality, and physical well-being, for its own sake as well as for the

happiness, safety, and glory of the whole country--has prompted the

government to organize a system of nautical education, not only for

officers, gunners, architects, shipwrights, engineers, seamen, and boys

employed directly in the national service, but for the masters, mates,

sailors, and boys in her large commercial marine. Prior to 1853, the

whole reliance of that country for the professional education of masters

and mates was their registration after an examination in the mere

mechanical knowledge of navigation and seamanship. To obtain this

knowledge, reliance was placed on the economic law of supply and demand,

and in this case as in others of an intellectual and moral nature, the

least demand was made by those in the greatest want. Only here and

there, in the great seaport towns, individuals poorly qualified in most

instances, opened schools and classes of navigation, in which

instruction of the most elementary and mechanical character was given

without system, to a very small number, and without supervision or

responsibility. In 1853, after the great International Exhibition had

demonstrated the superiority of France and other continental nations, in

the scientific as well as artistic training of their industrial classes,

the English Government constituted a Department of Art and Science to

administer a large appropriation (amounting annually to nearly a

half-million of dollars) so as to extend encouragement to local

institutions of practical science scattered in all the principal centers

of population, and acting in every department of industry, all subject

to the visits of government inspectors. To this Department of Science

and Art was assigned the extension of pecuniary encouragement to, and

the inspection of a class of schools which had been instituted by the

Mercantile Marine Department of the (governmental) Board of Trade, in

connection with local boards of commerce and trade, for the benefit of

the navigation interests of the country. These schools in 1863 had

increased to eighteen--each in an important seaport--each under the

management of a local committee--each having a fair attendance of boys,

seamen, mates, and masters, who all paid small fees. The system is still

in its infancy, but continues to enjoy the confidence of the government

and of the large commercial houses.

Nor is this system of governmental aid and inspection of marine and

navigation schools, confined to England. In all the continental states

in which the commerce is large enough to require the aid of government

in any form for its protection, as well as for the indirect advantage of

the navy, this class of schools exists--and in some the national policy

in this respect is most comprehensive and thorough. In France, the

government in its gigantic efforts within the last twenty-five years to

establish a navy which in the number, design, construction, and armament

of its vessels, in the scientific and professional knowledge of the

officers, and the practical intelligence of her seaman, should be equal

to that of any other nation--has included the whole commercial marine in

its operations. Encouragement is given to private shipyards, architects,

and founderies; and the system of maritime “inscription” or enrollment

is so thorough that there is not a master nor an engineer in the

commercial service who has not served at least two years in the national

dockyards, founderies, or ships, and enjoyed opportunities of

professional study, as well as practice, of the most scientific

character.

VII. To give unity, stability, thoroughness, and general efficiency to

the inspection and operations of the large system of naval education

contemplated in the foregoing suggestions, the Visitors recommend the

appointment of a Council or Board of Naval Education, in the

constitution of which the great features of such a system should be

represented, viz.:--(1.) Experience and success in naval command. (2.)

Experience in large commercial and maritime affairs. (3.) Success in

naval construction. (4.) Success in the instruction and discipline of

educational institutions. (5.) A new infusion every year of the popular

element, by the appointment from year to year of one or more

public-spirited citizens from different sections of the country to

attend the local examinations of applicants for admission, and the

annual examinations of the several institutions.

To this Board should be assigned the duty of (1.) Frequent personal

inspection and examination at other than stated periods. (2.) The

thorough examination by themselves, and in connection with the

professors, of the several classes in their daily recitations. (3.) The

examination by themselves, or by competent experts, of all candidates

for admission, of which as far as practicable, the written answers of

the candidates should be preserved, and a written report in detail

should be filed away for reference.

The language used in the law under which the present Board of Visitors

are appointed--“for the purpose of _witnessing_ the examination of the

several classes”--if taken literally, would certainly justify the

practice adopted by this, and as far as they can learn, by previous

Boards. At all events, the constitution of this and previous Boards,

composed as it is of members a majority of whom have had no experience

in school examinations--who have had no acquaintance with this

institution before their present appointment--and who are together for

but a short period of time, is very inadequate for any purpose of

thorough personal examination. They must be satisfied in the main to

receive statements on trust, and to receive and communicate only general

impressions. All the duties devolving upon the Board of Visitors as at

present organized, could be far more efficiently and successfully

performed in connection with the other duties of the Council of Naval

Education, here suggested.

VIII. With a programme of studies so extensive as that now laid down or

as herein proposed, in which each study is, or should be arranged with

reference to what has gone before, as well as to what is to follow, the

professor of each department and the teacher of each branch and section,

should be kept closely to his portion, each cadet should master

thoroughly every step in the succession, no professor should encroach

upon the time of another, no teacher should be allowed to pass his

pupils indifferently prepared into the succeeding section or branch.

Even if no change be made in the present programme this course is

essential to the success of the school, and to secure this an Inspector

of Studies should be appointed, who should report frequently to the

Academic Board all and every infraction of the programme, so that it may

be ascertained whether the cause of failure be in the programme, or the

class, or the teacher; and the remedy at once applied. Both the special

and general duties of the Commandant preclude the constant and minute

inspection referred to, and to the professor of no one department can

these duties be properly assigned. While there is a superior executive

officer who has in charge the external administration of the affairs of

the Academy, there is no corresponding officer, as in the opinion of the

Visitors there should be, to preside over the vital matters of

instruction and training.

IX. The appointment of professors and assistants is a subject from its

importance at all times, and from its immediate bearing upon the welfare

of the school, deserving of mature consideration. The efficiency and

thoroughness of instruction, the spirit of diligent study and the

enthusiastic love of it among the midshipmen, depend to a great degree,

upon the fitness of the instructor for his post and the method and

manner of teaching which he employs. Though there may be some reason for

limiting their appointment to the graduates of the Academy, yet the

present course of instruction has by no means in view the training of

future teachers, nor has it yet reached its full development. The

success and advancement of the institution would seem to require the

employment of the best educational talent, and none other, to be

obtained wherever it can be found. Whenever any vacancy is to be filled,

or new appointments to be made, the Visitors recommend that due notice

of the same be given, and that the credentials of all applicants be

referred to a competent board, and the applicants themselves whose

credentials are satisfactory, be subjected to an open, competitive

examination.

X. In conclusion, the Visitors recommend that greater publicity be given

to all the documents which set forth the object and operations of the

Naval Academy, the mode and conditions of nominating midshipmen, the

name of the person responsible for a nomination, the requisitions and

results of each entrance as well as of all annual examinations, with

specimens of the questions asked and answers given, so far as the same

were written or printed. They would respectfully urge that the Official

necessary by the Department, be sent not only to every member of

Congress, but to the libraries of all principal High Schools, public and

private, and all institutions where candidates are prepared, that both

teachers and pupils may know what the Department requires as preliminary

to the special professional training provided in this Academy for any

branch of the naval service of the country, and especially how

deplorably deficient a large proportion of the candidates are found to

be, on only a moderately strict but impartial examination. To this

with its supervision, or of any Board of Visitors, or Special Examiners,

appointed by the Department.

With the best permanent accommodations and equipment of the Academy that

can be made at Annapolis or elsewhere--with schools or courses of

scientific and practical instruction for every branch of the service,

and for every stage of promotion--with a teaching staff so numerous and

so diversified as to secure the advantage of special attainment and

qualifications to each branch of study--with entire control of the

pupil’s time--with hospital accommodations and medical services for the

sick--with chaplains for religious observances and the moral culture of

all--with regular alternations of physical exercise and intellectual

labor, and the stimulus of an honorable distinction before and after

graduation--the Visitors think it not unreasonable to expect from an

institution so provided for, the highest results, especially as the

government has it in its power to select for admission, without regard

to the social or political status of parents, from among the entire

youth of the country, those who are best fitted by their physical and

mental endowment and preliminary education, as well as by their aptitude

for special studies and predilection for the naval service, for which

those studies are a preparation.

All which is respectfully submitted.

JOHN MARSTON, _Commodore U.S. Navy, President_.

JAMES A. HAMILTON, _New York_.

JOHN RODGERS, _Commodore U.S. Navy_.

CHARLES D. ROBINSON, _Wisconsin_.

G. D. A. PARKS, _Illinois_.

C. W. PICKERING, _Capt. U.S. Navy_.

JOHN W. HARRIS, _Missouri_.

HENRY BARNARD, _Connecticut_.

The aggregate expense of the Military Academy at West Point, and the

Naval Academy at Annapolis, to the country, is not represented by the

specific sums which appear in the annual appropriation for the military

and naval service, but is increased by the large sums paid to officers

and men who are detailed to these posts for police, instructional, and

other purposes of these institutions. The cost to the government of each

cadet from his admission to his graduation in either Academy, exceeds

$10,000.

NAVAL CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING.

Under authority of an Act of Congress (July 4, 1864), the Secretary of

the Navy, in 1865, made provision at Annapolis for a course of

instruction for a class of Assistant-Engineers, composed of persons

admitted on competitive examination, many of whom had secured a

preliminary scientific training, and all of whom gave evidence of

aptitude for such occupation and of having had experience in the

fabrication of steam machinery. There was every indication of a special

school for this department of the naval service, when the enterprise was

suspended; but to be revived under the following Regulations, issued by

Secretary Robeson, April 4, 1871:

REGULATIONS FOR THE APPOINTMENT OF CADET ENGINEERS.

I. In pursuance of the third and fourth sections of an act passed at

the first session of the 38th Congress, approved July 4, 1864, “_To

authorize the Secretary of the Navy to provide for the education of

Naval Constructors and Engineers, and for other purposes_,” and of the

second section of an act passed at the first session of the 39th

Congress, approved March 2, 1867, entitled, “_An Act to amend certain

acts in relation to the Navy_,” applications will be received by the

Navy Department for the appointment of Cadet Engineers.

II. The application is to be addressed to the Secretary of the Navy,

and can be made by the candidate, or by any person for him, and his name

will be placed on the register. The registry of a name gives no

assurance of an appointment, and no preference will be given in the

selection to priority of application.

III. The number of Cadet Engineers is limited by law to fifty. The

candidate must be not less than eighteen nor more than twenty-two years

of age; he will be required to certify _on honor_ to his precise age, to

the Academic Board, previous to his examination, and no one will be

examined who is over or under the prescribed age. His application must

be accompanied by satisfactory evidence of moral character and health,

with information regarding date of birth and educational advantages

hitherto enjoyed. Candidates who receive permission will present

themselves to the Superintendent of the Naval Academy between the 15th

and 25th of September for examination as to their qualifications.

IV. The course of study will comprise two academic years. All Cadets

who graduate will be warranted as Assistant Engineers in the Navy. The

pay of a Cadet Engineer is the same as that of a Cadet Midshipman.

V. The academic examination previous to appointment will be on the

following subjects, namely: _Arithmetic_: the candidate will be examined

in numeration and the addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

division of whole numbers, and of vulgar and decimal fractions; in

reduction; in proportion or rule of three, direct and inverse;

extraction of square and cube roots. In _Algebra_, (Bourdon’s,) through

equations of the first degree. In _Geometry_, (Davies’ Legendre,)

through the plane figures. _Rudimentary Natural Philosophy. Reading_: he

must read clearly and intelligibly from any English narrative work, as,

for example, Bancroft’s History of the United States. In _Writing_ and

_Spelling_: he must write from dictation, in a legible hand, and spell

with correctness, both orally and in writing. In English _Grammar_ and

English _Composition_ he will be examined as to the parts of speech, the

rules connected therewith, and the elementary construction of sentences,

and will be required to write such original paragraphs as will show that

he has a proper knowledge of the subject. The candidate will also be

required to exhibit a fair degree of proficiency in pencil-sketching,

and to produce satisfactory evidence of mechanical aptitude. Candidates

who possess greatest skill and experience in the practical knowledge of

machinery, other qualifications being equal, shall have precedence for

admission.

VI. Any of the following conditions will be sufficient to reject a

candidate.

Feeble constitution, permanently impaired general health, decided

cachexia, all chronic diseases or injuries that permanently impair

efficiency, viz:

1. Infectious disorders.

2. Weak or disordered intellect.

3. Unnatural curvature of spine.

4. Epilepsy, or other convulsion, within five years.

5. Chronic impaired vision, or chronic disease of the organs of

vision.

6. Great permanent hardness of hearing, or chronic disease of the

ears.

7. Loss or decay of teeth to such an extent as to interfere with

digestion and impair health.

8. Impediment of speech to such an extent as to impair efficiency in

the performance of duty.

9. Decided indications of liability to pulmonary disease.

10. Permanent inefficiency of either of the extremities.

11. Hernia.

12. Incurable sarcocele, hydrocele, fistula, stricture, or

hæmorrhoids.

13. Large varicose veins of lower limbs. Chronic ulcers.

14. Attention will also be paid to the stature of the candidate, and

no one _manifestly_ undersized for his age will be received into the

Academy. In case of doubt about the physical condition of the candidate

any marked deviation from the usual standard of height will add

materially to the consideration for rejection.

15. The Board will exercise a proper discretion in the application of

the above conditions to each case, rejecting no candidate who is likely

to be efficient in the service, and admitting no one who is likely to

prove physically inefficient.

VII. If both these examinations result favorably, the candidate will

receive an appointment as a Cadet Engineer, become an inmate of the

Academy, and will be allowed his actual and necessary traveling expenses

from his residence to the Naval Academy, and be required to sign

articles by which he will bind himself to serve in the United States

Navy six years, (including his term of probation at the Naval Academy,)

unless sooner discharged. If, on the contrary, he shall not pass both of

these examinations, he will receive neither an appointment nor his

traveling expenses, nor can he have the privilege of another examination

for admission _to the same class_ unless recommended by the Board.

VIII. When candidates shall have passed the required examinations, and

been admitted as members of the Academy, they must immediately furnish

themselves with the following articles, viz:

One navy-blue uniform suit,

One fatigue suit,

One navy-blue uniform cap,

One uniform overcoat,

Ten pairs of white pants,

Four white vests,

Six white shirts,

Six pairs of socks,

Four pairs of drawers,

Six pocket handkerchiefs,

One black silk handk’f or stock,

One mattress,

One pillow,

One pair of blankets,

One bed cover or spread,

Two pairs of sheets,

Four pillow cases,

Six towels,

Two pairs of shoes or boots,

One hair-brush,

One clothes-brush,

One coarse comb for the hair,

One fine comb for the hair,

One tumbler or mug, and

One thread and needle case.

Room-mates will jointly procure, for their common use, one

looking-glass, one wash-basin, one water-pail, one slop-bucket, and one

broom. These articles may be obtained from the store-keeper of good

quality and at fair prices.

IX. Each Cadet Engineer must, on admission, deposit with the paymaster

the sum of seventy-five dollars, for which he will be credited on the

books of that officer, to be expended by direction of the Superintendent

for the purchase of text-books and other authorized articles besides

those above enumerated.

X. While at the Academy the Cadets will be examined, from time to

time, according to the regulations prescribed by the Navy Department;

and if found deficient at any examination, or dismissed for misconduct,

they cannot, by law, be continued in the Academy or Naval service,

except upon recommendation of the Academic Board.

XI. A Cadet Engineer who voluntarily resigns his appointment will be

required to refund the amount paid him for traveling expenses.

INSTRUCTION, TRAINING AND PROMOTION OF SEAMEN.

INTRODUCTION.

Under the constitutional powers “to regulate commerce with foreign

nations and among the several States,” and “to provide and maintain a

navy,” Congress, it is believed, can do more than is now done to provide

both the military and commercial marine with intelligent, hardy and

skillful sailors, as well as mates and captains, and to elevate the

position of the whole seamen class.

The frightful accidents from explosions caused by badly constructed, or

worn out steam-boilers, led to a system of national inspection which has

done something to diminish the loss of life and property from this

source, in vessels engaged in commerce on the ocean or our inland

waters--but a system of instruction, examination, and promotion, under

national authority, with national aid and the cöoperation of the

mercantile community, of all persons intrusted with the command and

navigation of all vessels, registered as national shipping, would put an

end to all that class of disasters to life and property which is now

attributable _to ignorance and want of experience_--and which is

regarded by underwriters as much the largest portion of all marine

disasters.

The necessity of doing something led to the establishment of the naval

apprentice system, under the Act of March 2, 1837.

The original trial was not inaugurated under favorable conditions, and

was prematurely abandoned, under the economical action of Congress which

compelled the department to elect between men and boys for its arduous

service. In 1864 the system was revived by Secretary Welles, a vessel

was placed under the command of a competent officer, and a promising

class of boys, after a preliminary examination were enlisted, and the

work of their instruction was begun by training them in all the details

of a sailor’s duty at sea. The Secretary in his Report for 1866,

expressed himself hopeful of the results--but urged Congress to further

legislation, to make the system attractive, by holding out to the most

deserving members of the class, appointments to the Naval Academy, and a

retiring pension after twenty years’ service. His suggestions were not

heeded, and under the limitations of the Act of 1866 the trial failed.

Commodore Jenkins, Chief of the Bureau of Navigation, having cognizance

of Naval Apprentices, in his Report for 1866, remarks:

A judicious naval apprentice system will secure to the navy every

year, after the first enlisted boys are thoroughly trained and educated,

a sufficient number of well-disciplined and better instructed seamen to

give tone and character to the crews of our vessels of war than

heretofore, and if the enlistments were unlimited it would require only

a few years to provide all the seamen necessary for a formidable naval

peace establishment.

But it is not the navy alone that is or ought to be greatly interested

in the success of the naval apprentice system. Every ship-owner and

shipper in the country will be directly or indirectly benefited as well

as the navy. Many of the apprentices will, at the expiration of their

apprenticeship, seek service on board of merchant vessels, where the

advantages of their previous training and education will be felt.

If there were training-ships in every port of the United States for

apprentices to the sea service, and the apprentices, after being taught

the rudiments of an English education and all the seamanship that could

be taught on board of a vessel in port, were sent on long sea voyages,

the seamen of the country would soon become more elevated in character

than they are at present, and ship-owners would realize the importance

of cherishing and protecting a valuable class of our countrymen who are

now left to the tender mercies of hard-hearted landlords, crimps, and

runners.

It is a great mistake to suppose that steam vessels can be managed

well by landsmen at sea. The terrible shipwrecks, loss of numbers of

individuals, and of millions of dollars’ worth of property annually on

the ocean, is in the main attributable to bad management, ignorance, and

want of experience of those in charge of the vessels. It is as necessary

that sea steamers should be officered and manned by expert seamen as it

was in former times for clipper and other sailing vessels. A good

knowledge of seamanship is only to be acquired by a long apprenticeship;

nor does the ability to navigate a vessel from one port to another make

a man a seaman. There is no vocation, profession, or calling which

requires a more varied knowledge and a greater experience than that of

an expert seaman. It is not sufficient that he should know how to knot

and splice a rope, to reef and furl a sail, to take his trick at the

helm, or to give correct soundings in heaving the lead. He must be a

good judge of the appearances of the weather, know how to lay his vessel

to and under what canvas for safety, on what tack to put his vessel to

avoid the strength of the approaching gale or hurricane, when to run and

when to lie to, and he must be fertile in resources to save his vessel

in case of danger or disaster at sea. The expert seaman is a man full of

resources, and ever ready to turn his knowledge and experience to good

account; but such is not the estimate of him by those who only know him

as an outcast of society, without friends and without influence.

As education and careful training elevate those who are engaged in the

different pursuits on shore, the same means, if judiciously employed,

will elevate and make useful and respectable in their sphere that much

neglected and greatly oppressed class of our fellow-citizens--the

American sailor.

_Navigation Schools for the Mercantile Marine._

Whatever may be the success of still another trial of the apprentice

system to secure a supply of trained seamen for the Navy, the experience

of all other countries is decidedly in favor of a liberal system of

Navigation Schools, as well as an efficient system of registration,

examination, and certificates of competency and of service, administered

under national inspection and with pecuniary aid, and under the local

management of merchants, ship-owners, and underwriters, for the

commercial marine.

GENERAL REVIEW OF MILITARY EDUCATION

I. NAVAL SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION.

We can not better introduce the conclusions to which this study of the

subject has brought us, than by giving a few extracts from the many

communications, which the recent agitation of naval education in England

has elicited.

_Proposed Improvements in Naval Education in England._

In 1869, the alternative was offered, on their own petition, to the

2,710 disabled seamen, who resided in the truly magnificent Hospital at

Greenwich, on the Thames, which the national gratitude had set apart for

their accommodation, when no longer able from wounds, age, or other

infirmities to serve under “the meteor flag” of England--to continue

there at the expense of the government, or draw their pensions and spend

it in their own way, among their friends in their old homes, or wherever

they fancied; only 31 elected to remain--and these were too feeble to

leave, or had outlived their friends. The old Hospital infirmary, a

large detached building, was granted by the Admiralty to the Seamen’s

Hospital Society for the benefit of the mercantile marine; but the bulk

of that immense pile--which is covered in by seven acres of roof, and

whose domes and colonnades were designed by Sir Christopher Wren, and

erected at a cost, from first to last, of not less than a million

sterling--full of historic associations as the birthplace of Queen

Elizabeth, and the residence of two dynasties of English kings, and the

greater Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell, and for two centuries the home

of the British Navy--for nearly two years has stood vacant. The TIMES,

in an editorial of September 13, 1871, renews a suggestion made at the

time the system of out pensions was under discussion, to continue its

use for the Navy.

It is almost two years since we hazarded the suggestion that it should

be converted into a Naval University. We used the term “University” in

the sense of a collective institution, embracing several separate

Colleges adapted to a similar purpose. We pointed out how inadequate in

extent and in range of education is the present Royal Naval College at

Portsmouth, the only institution we possess for supplying to Naval

Officers what is termed a “higher education.” We also reminded our

readers that the education of our Naval Cadets between the ages of 12

and 14 is now carried on in a School-ship, which, from the nature of

things, must have many disadvantages in comparison with a building of

ample space on the brink of a great river and on the border of a Royal

Park. We showed that there was already a great Charity-School in the

rear of the Hospital, and supported by its funds, for the gratuitous

education of 800 children of poor sailors; and we reckoned that the

Hospital would still supply ample accommodation for a scheme, suggested

to us on high authority, for furnishing at cost price to the children of

seamen of all grades in the Navy and Commercial Marine, an education in

English, French, the elements of science, and the ordinary rudiments of

instruction.

In the year 1870 the Admiralty appointed a committee on “the Higher

Education of Naval Officers,” and directed them to consider whether it

was desirable to limit the place of study to the College at Portsmouth,

or whether the vacant buildings at Greenwich could be utilized for the

purposes of education. The reported evidence of the Committee revealed a

lamentable want of scientific knowledge in the naval profession. The

witnesses were agreed in stating that few half-pay Officers had

knowledge enough to study with advantage after the age of 30, and that

few could, with advantage to the service and themselves, be spared to

study before the age of 30. It was stated by the Mathematical Master

that Commanders and Captains come to the College very badly prepared,

and that “some come who are unable to work a decimal fraction.” They

come, as the College is now organized, exclusively for scientific study,

in which Mathematics are a necessity, and yet are destitute of the most

elementary preparation. Of course there are a few brilliant exceptions,

but the scientific attainments of the profession as a body appear to be

deplorably low.

In preparing a scheme for the improvement of what is so modestly

termed “the higher education” of Naval Officers, the Committee proposed

to add to the voluntary subjects of study a considerable number of

practical pursuits. They proposed, under the advice of the late Chief

Constructor of the Navy, to add both a short and a long course in Naval

Architecture, in which there is at present absolutely no instruction

given to Naval Officers. Such an education was supplied between the

years 1806 and 1821, but since the latter year it has been altogether

ignored and discouraged. It would require considerable space for the

exhibition of models, and no sufficient room exists for it in the

present College in Portsmouth Dockyard. The Committee proposed to

furnish instruction, as now, in Steam, Mathematics, Nautical Astronomy,

and Field Fortification, but to add facilities for the study of

Languages, Chemistry, including Metallurgy, Geology, Mineralogy, and

Naval Tactics. The want of a knowledge of languages in the British Navy

was signally illustrated on a somewhat recent occasion, when the French

iron-clad fleet visited Spithead, and upon our Admiral signalling for

all officers who could speak French to come on board the Flagship, only

one officer in the Channel Fleet was able to respond to the summons. The

want of a scientific knowledge of the principles of naval architecture

has prevented of late many skilled seamen of the Royal Navy from

contributing useful and practicable suggestions to the discussions on

our ironclad ship-building. The Committee seem to have thought that it

would not be practicable to make a year’s study in the Naval College in

peace time compulsory for every sub-lieutenant, though distinguished

officers, like Admiral Sir Alexander Milne, gave evidence in favor of

it. But, apart from this abundant source for supplying students, it was

anticipated that an extension of the education would attract a large

increase of scholars; and on general grounds, quite distinct from the

accommodation, one-half of the Committee, including the Director of

Naval Education, were strongly in favor of establishing the College at

Greenwich. Fortified by this concurrence of authority, we recommend

again to the consideration of the Government the scheme of a Naval

University as the best mode of repeopling that ancient and now vacant

Hospital.

This “leader” of the Times was followed in the issue for Sept. 20, by a

communication from the eminent ship-builder E. J. Reed, who was for

several years at the head of the Department of Naval Construction--with

reasons for immediately widening and raising the education of naval

officers of all classes.

The absence of everything like a comprehensive organization for

imparting to them the knowledge necessary in these days is truly

deplorable, and is made the more so by the very fact that our officers

are themselves well aware of the extreme defectiveness of their training

in many branches of knowledge which would be most valuable to them, and

exhibit the strongest desire to supplement that training by every

available means. I have had many occasions of observing this during the

last few years; not the least striking of them being the publication of

my book on _Shipbuilding in Iron and Steel_, which, although a purely

technical and professional book, was eagerly procured and studied by a

very large number of naval officers, who, as you justly state, are now

left absolutely without any official instruction in naval architecture.

When in Russia this year I found elaborate means and appliances for

instructing young officers in all the great features of practical

shipbuilding, as well as in the general principles of naval design, and

I had the opportunity of examining a large model of an iron-clad ship

which was being constructed by these young naval officers; while the

shipbuilding and engineering officers of the Russian service have one

entire side of the vast building which accommodates the Admiralty

branches, wholly devoted to their instruction. I have not yet seen the

naval training schools of Germany, but I have had several opportunities

of conferring on shipbuilding questions with the naval officers of that

country, and I can state with perfect confidence that they possess a

most intimate acquaintance with even the latest methods of naval design

and construction, and obviously have had a careful training in the

principles of naval architecture and the details of shipbuilding. How

much this training contributes to the efficiency of naval commanders and

other officers I need not say.

Mr. Reed dwells on the total absence of even an attempt to instruct

naval officers of all ranks in the department of construction.

Even our warrant officers, the “carpenters” of the Navy, whose duty it

is to keep our Navy in repair at sea, and to take instant measures for

saving our ships from the effects of injuries sustained by collisions,

groundings, or during action--even these officers are subjected to no

special and organized training whatever, and are often put on board

ship, in responsible charge of the repairing staff, without any

knowledge whatever of the construction of their vessel.

I knew so well that the whole class of naval “carpenters” have for

years been anxious to obtain a better training for their very

responsible duty, that I made a vigorous effort to be allowed to

organize a system by which every carpenter of the service should be

carefully instructed in iron shipbuilding, and as carefully selected for

particular ships on account of his fitness for the duty; but some

tradition about warrant officers being “executive officers,” and

therefore not under the Chief Constructor of the Navy, and also, I fear,

some jealousy of the patronage of such appointments passing into new

hands, effectually barred my progress, and imposed conditions under

which it was not possible to give effect to my wishes.

I do not think I shall go beyond the truth if I say that other warrant

officers are as deficient of suitable training as carpenters. I have

certainly known of more than one instance in which the machinery by

which our great modern guns are worked at sea has been so imperfectly

understood that the “breaks” which are intended to control them have

been “greased;” and no doubt a war would develope sad consequences of

the enforced ignorance of our gunners.

But let it not be supposed that I advocate the instruction of warrant

officers alone in the principles and practice of shipbuilding; it is in

my judgment pressingly desirable that the whole class of executive

officers should be afforded a certain amount of training in these

subjects, and a far ampler training than they now receive in many other

subjects also. The Navy suffers very much, even in peace times, from the

want of a more liberal training on the part of its officers, as they

themselves well know; and I am thoroughly persuaded that in a time of

war we shall have to make great sacrifices on account of our neglect in

this respect. Many unwise things are done, and many unwise reports are

written, because of the want of fuller scientific and technical

information on the part of naval officers; and I do not hesitate to say

that during my tenure of the Chief Constructorship serious evils arose

in my own department from the outside pressure of the uninformed.

Mr. Reed would locate the Naval University at Greenwich.

Such a University must almost of a necessity be metropolitan. All the

provincial Government Schools of Naval Architecture in this country have

failed, and always must fail, because the metropolis alone can supply

the necessary professors for class education chiefly of a scientific

character; and the same is even more true of the present case. All the

civil members of the late Admiralty Committee on the higher education of

naval officers concurred in this view, none more strongly, I believe,

than the present Director of Admiralty Education, Dr. Joseph Woolley,

who is undoubtedly at once the most experienced and most enlightened

authority alive as regards all questions of naval training. And there is

this very strong further reason for making this University

metropolitan--viz., that one of the most fruitful and valuable results

to be anticipated from a more liberal and enlarged education of our

naval officers is the release of the service from those thousand and one

Old World prejudices which cramp the action and spirit of the service in

these modern days, when other nations are bringing their most free and

cultivated minds to bear upon naval warfare; and to found a University

in a port where the present traditions and habits of thought of the

service have the greatest force, would be to place a fatal stumbling

block at the very threshold of the work; and if the metropolis is to be

the home of the University there can not be a doubt about the superior

eligibility of Greenwich. There the magnificent college already stands,

with its empty halls, inviting the Government to devote them to some

great national and naval object. It is within easy reach of London,

professors and teachers; it is in the neighborhood of great shipbuilding

and marine engine-making establishments, and also of Chatham Dockyard.

It is on the banks of our noblest river, and on the verge of the open

country, so that every form of healthful recreation would be available

for the students. It also affords ample internal space for all those

laboratories, model rooms, lecture rooms, and other apartments, which

could only be secured on a sufficient scale at a seaport by a large

outlay of money. And, above all, it affords the readiest, as well as the

best, means of entering upon a much too long-neglected undertaking.

In the same issue (Sept. 20), the Times had a leader on the subject,

from which we take a few paragraphs.

It is certainly discouraging for a nation which has hitherto held, and

which means to keep, the first place in the world as a naval Power to

find that in systematic training Russia and Germany are dangerously

surpassing us. No doubt in the raw material of a navy we can compete

fearlessly with any country on the face of the earth; our sailors can

not be matched for enterprise, resolution, and discipline, nor can our

captains, in spite of some late disasters, be out-sailed or

out-manœuvred by any who sail under foreign flags. But we must not

forget that war on the seas, like war on land, is year by year becoming

more and more a scientific pursuit. Our magnificent iron-clad fleet, in

which Mr. Reed feels justly a parental interest, is too precious a

possession to be intrusted to men who do not know how to use so

two-edged an instrument. But how should our naval officers know how to

manage an iron-clad ship? They are taught nothing about the construction

of these triumphs of modern science; they do not, as a rule, possess

even the elementary knowledge which would enable them to commence the

study of the subject.

Whether the unequaled advantages offered by Greenwich Hospital be

turned to account or some more expensive method be adopted by a

Government which pins its credit on economy, the necessity of providing

for the education of naval officers can no longer be ignored. Not to

speak of the absolute absurdity of sending iron-clads to sea in charge

of officers who know no more of the construction of an iron-clad than

they know of the latest improvements in cotton-spinning machinery, it is

obvious that a system under which men whose business is to navigate

costly vessels of war, are sent to their work without knowing even the

elements of mathematics, must sooner or later result in a disastrous

collapse. It may be a question whether such has not been the case

already,--whether the recent mischances in the conduct at sea of some of

our finest vessels may not be traceable to the imperfect education of

the officers.

When other nations are giving their sailors scientific teaching, and

when we are expending gigantic sums on the construction of a Navy which

must be handled in accordance with scientific principles, it appears

absurd, or worse, to allow the commanders and the officers of our

iron-clads to go to sea without the slightest guarantee for their

knowledge of the peculiar conditions under which one of our modern

monster ships is to be managed. If an iron-clad happens, as we may

presume, considering what has lately happened, is not impossible, to

strike upon a rock or otherwise seriously to damage herself at a

distance from home dockyards, the chances are that no one on board, from

the captain down to the carpenter, will know how to repair the damage.

To the urgent demand for more scientific knowledge of naval

construction, Admiral Henry J. Rouse interposes a plea for more

seamanship, discipline, and education afloat. In the Times for Sept. 28,

the bluff Admiral says, rather bluntly:

I was alive to the want of seamanship and to the neglect of a naval

education from the moment a midshipman left his school and was appointed

to a steamer: but I always flattered myself there was one redeeming

point--namely--gunnery--in which the officers of the present day had a

wonderful preëminence over the old school. How is the proposed college

to ameliorate this state of things? Will it make the young officers

engineers when on board ship? They are not allowed to interfere with the

engineer, who is, in fact, the commanding officer. Will warrant

officers, carpenters, and gunners, be educated there? And in answer to

Mr. Reed relying upon the carpenter in the event of a ship grounding

(not an uncommon occurrence), we look to the captain to lay out his

anchors, lighten his ship and heave her off by purchase over purchase;

we do not consult the carpenter. Mr. Reed says,--“The men who will have

to design for our Navy will never be free to design the best ships which

can be provided until an improved education of the whole naval service

unbinds the hands of the _scientific servants_ of the Admiralty.”

Who are the scientific servants? Are the men who designed the

iron-bound monsters at the expense of half a million each; which have

every bad quality, which can neither sail, wear, nor stay better than a

coal barge, and which roll and pitch like maniacs owing to the weight of

their armor, and which are certain to founder if called upon to face a

very heavy gale? Are the servants scientific who stow their ballast on

empty cells, thereby preventing a ship righting herself if she heels

over 33 deg. under canvas, and which makes her capsize keel uppermost,

according to the simple law of gravitation which impels the vacuum to

the surface? Was the servant scientific who reduced a ship’s ballast 300

tons, and put a corresponding weight of iron on the upper works,

boasting he had retained the same line of immersion without calculating

the loss of stability, and did not the Admiralty listen to him like

countrymen to a mountebank, and reward him with a grant of money?

If a Greenwich College could diminish the frightful excesses and

expenditure in the last eight years in the building department, for

which the House of Commons demanded an investigation, which was

checkmated by sending a distinguished admiral to the Cape of Good Hope;

if it could instruct the scientific servants in the mysteries of their

vocation, and convert the simple landsmen in Charing-cross into naval

oracles; if it could make young officers seamen by inspiration, then I

should agree with Mr. Reed that a Greenwich College would be most

desirable.

As for the junior officers nothing but a sailing ship can educate a

seaman. If a midshipman loses the precious years from 14 to 17 in a

steamer he will be too old and proud to learn his profession, and when

later in life he is sent to take command of a prize ship under canvas in

war time he will look very foolish in half a gale of wind.

If any man will take the trouble to think, he must be convinced that

no ship of any size, no armor _clypei septemplicis_, no guns of 25 tons

can compete with an iron-cased steam ram of about 1,200 tons,

invulnerable, bomb-proof, which would put five feet of cold steel under

a ship’s water line going 14 miles per hour. We are now building

gunboats to protect the coast. One of Mr. Drake’s steam rams of about

300 tons, without a gun mounted, would destroy a dozen of them. In the

next naval action history will be repeated. Romans, Carthagenians, and

again the _naves rostratæ, alias_ the Steam Ram, will carry the day. It

is wonderful that the Admiralty for the last twenty years have been

building their hogs in armor to defy shot and shell, ignoring the

terrible attack of this superior power. It is never too late to mend. To

save enormous sums of money and a waste of coal we ought to pay off all

our useless monsters, and during peace to commission small ships with

auxiliary screws, never to burn a coal except in a case of necessity;

and then, by keeping squadrons at sea, we might improve our discipline,

our seamanship, and _esprit de corps_.

The letter of Admiral Rouse was accompanied by a leader in the Times of

the same date from which we take a few paragraphs.

The spirit of an English sailor of the old school, with his bluff,

outspoken, uncompromising detestation of change, and his unfaltering

belief that all that has been was right, is something to wonder at and

even admire, if we should not care to imitate it, in these days of

perpetual motion. He has observed, as we all have, with shame and

misgiving, that while the cost of our vast ironclad vessels of war is

growing yearly greater, the officers of the new generation who are to be

intrusted with the handling of these expensive monsters are not

comparable for practical skill and shiftiness with those of Admiral

Rouse’s contemporaries who dominated the seas in sailing frigates in the

days before either steam or ship-armor was devised. In his perception of

the defects of our present system the Admiral does not stand alone; it

is condemned by the ablest officers who are now in command of our

fleets, by the eminent engineers who construct them--unfortunately, with

still more eloquent urgency by the voice of our recent naval annals. The

misadventures of the Captain, the Psyche, and the Agincourt, not to

mention less serious mishaps, have startled us all, and the seamanship

of the British Navy has come to be gravely questioned.

Let us compare Admiral Rouse’s remedy with Mr. Reed’s.

The latter is dwelling on the custom of sending young boys to sea with

necessarily imperfect training, and of promoting them to the higher

grades, though in the meantime they have had no opportunities of

scientific instruction. He asserts the consequence is that very few of

the officers who command our costly iron-clads at the present day know

any thing of the construction or the qualities of those gigantic boating

masses. Admiral Rouse admits this fully, but he superadds a charge at

least as serious; he alleges that few or none of our modern naval

officers who spend the years of their apprenticeship to the sea on board

a steamer, and who “worship the boiler whenever they are in a scrape,”

do know or can know any thing of real seamanship. Mr. Reed says that the

study of the principles of shipbuilding is unknown among the officers of

our Navy, and that accordingly, few of them can handle an iron-clad.

Admiral Rouse says that the study of the winds and waves is neglected by

them, and that not many of them can sail a frigate. Mr. Reed demands a

Naval University to teach officers the theory of navigation as applied

to the vast masses of iron now afloat under our flag. Admiral Rouse

would get rid of these “useless monsters” altogether, would, during

peace, commission small “ships with auxiliary screws,” and “never burn a

coal except in case of necessity.” Here we have the ancient and the

modern spirit in contrast and juxtaposition. The former, obstinate and

often illogical, but with a certain rude and not unjustified faith in

practice, deserves our respect, for it was this spirit which won us, in

old times, our naval supremacy. The latter may be over-bold and

presumptuously contemptuous of the past and all its belongings; but it

is the spirit of progress, and on its guidance we have to depend for the

maintenance of the renown we achieved in the earlier and darker time.

On the 20th of March, 1871, Capt. James G. Goodenough, R. N., read a

paper before the Royal United Service Institute, on the Preliminary

Education of Naval Officers, from which we make extracts.

I should be guilty of an absurd and forced indifference to what is

passing around me if I were not to say that an impression now exists

very generally in the service, that the views which finds most favor

with regard to the training of the officers of Her Majesty’s Navy is,

that the naval officer should be taught young; that he should be made to

devote himself to the details, and nothing but details of his profession

from boyhood to youth, and from youth to middle age, and that somewhere

behind middle age and old age, he should be deemed to be warrant, and be

thrown away a pensioner on the country’s gratitude, unfit even to have a

voice in the guidance of the affairs of the service to which he may have

been an ornament. This impression is doing much harm in all directions.

It is weakening the desire for knowledge and self-improvement in naval

officers; it is tending to narrow and circumscribe the idea of

responsibility of a naval commander for all things coming within his

ken, and to lower his conception of his own position from that of a

representative of his country in all parts of the world, an agent of her

policy, and a guardian of her commerce, to that of being a mere

executing tool, whose only argument is force.

The warning which I should give, and it contains the whole case, is

this,--that while all other circumstances of life at sea have changed

considerably in the last thirty years, the preliminary training of our

officers has not changed in its main features. It is not merely that our

material, whether in ships or guns, steamships or canvas, has changed.

It is not only that our material has become far more complicated than of

yore. If that alone were the case, the system of a former age might

supplant the wants of the day. No! the change whose bearing we have

failed to acknowledge, even though we may have perceived it, is this,

that while formerly the conduct of ships at sea, their discipline, and

the handling of their material generally, was based on the experience

obtained in the practical individual lives from early years, and on an

acquaintance with external phenomena and internal details, which were

not reduced to laws or elevated into systems; now, we do possess rules

and laws, which greatly reduce the value, if they do not quite

supersede, the practical experience of a single life. In every one of

the varied practical duties of a sea officer, this is the case, whether

in navigation or in discipline, in artillery or in manœuvring; and I say

that this constitutes the great change in a sea life to which we have

made no corresponding advance. I say that although those laws and

systems exist, we still continue to let the details which they include

be painfully and only practically acquired by experience, instead of

methodically teaching the principles on which they are based.

The principles on which I consider that that education should rest are

these: _First_, that a distinction should be made between the period of

education and that of special training. _Second_, that special training

should be the business of the Government, while education should be left

to the care of the parents, at the ordinary schools of the country.

_Third_, that the handling of ships’ sails and boats, and the principles

of command should be methodically taught, instead of, as at present,

being left to chance observations and the accidents of service.

_Fourth_, that the young officers under training in schoolships should

have no command, except over each other, and should count no sea time;

and that on entering the service afloat in sea-going ships, they should

become at once, in some measure, responsible officers, though liable to

future examinations, and to produce evidence of having done work after

leaving the training-ships. _Fifth_, that in order to discourage

cramming, all entrance examinations should be confined, as far as

possible, to the subject of study at advanced public schools, and that

every candidate should be required to bring with him certificates of a

year’s good conduct from his last school.

I wish to see a distinction made between the education and the special

training of naval officers. I do not pretend to give the precise age at

which this distinction should be made. It will necessarily differ with

different boys, and I would therefore have a two years’ limit to the age

of entry instead of one. My opinion is, that special training should

begin at from 14 to 16, and that it should be continued from that age

for three years; that is, from an average of 15 to an average of 18 in

the college and sea-going training ships.

I should wish young officers to proceed thence to the ordinary service

afloat, and after two years’ service in a sea-going ship to be admitted

to pass an examination for lieutenants.

The examination for entry, which under the system I propose, would be

at the average age of 15, should take place in November of each year,

and should be arranged, as far as possible, so as to comprise subjects

which do not require special cramming, but are taught generally in our

public schools, omitting some, such as Greek, of which no further use or

notice would be made in their future career, and substituting French, or

another modern language in lieu.

The college would then open for the cadets on the 1st of February, and

while indoor studies of navigation, nautical astronomy and modern

languages occupied the mornings, the afternoons should be devoted to

practical seamanship until the first of May, when they should embark in

a corvette, especially set apart for their instruction, until August.

During these four months they should perform every practical duty of

their profession with their own hands, under instruction, with plenty of

time, and with patient, steady instructors, and at the end of their

cruise, after an inspection by the governor of the college, they should

strip and clear their vessel before proceeding on a summer holiday.

During the cruise they should not only learn to take and work their

own observations for the position of the ship by the ordinary known

methods, but should also study the pilotage of the coast of England,

whenever visited.

After the vacation they should again rig their vessel, and until the

end of October should have instruction in rigging, masting, and so on,

while the weather permitted, as well as continuing to exercise in boats.

November and December being devoted to indoor studies and examination.

This would complete the first year of training.

The second year would begin as the first, with indoor studies in the

morning, the advanced seamanship class of the afternoon, alternating

with gunnery instruction classes until May, when the second class would

embark in a steam corvette, and in addition to the study of seamanship,

as in the first year, would join that of steam machinery. While the

cruise of the first year would have been on board a sailing corvette,

and on the south coast of England generally, that of the second year

should have been extended to the coasts of the United Kingdom and

western coast of Europe; and while the sailing corvette should be manned

by steady old seamen, and no attempt should be made at quickness of

manœuvre, the steam corvette for the second year should be manned by

active young trained able seamen, and all manœuvres should be performed

together, as in actual practice in man-of-war, the young cadets under

training working a mast.

At the end of this cruise, they would not only strip their vessel, but

would also take to pieces the principal parts of the machinery, before

the summer holidays and after inspection.

On recommencement of term in October, indoor studies should again be

taken up, and the final examination for the rank of midshipmen should

take place in December, the average age of the young officers being now

17 years.

I should now reassemble the midshipmen on February 1st, either on

board the gunnery ships or in a special ship attached to the college,

for a three months’ course in practical gunnery, after being examined in

which, they should be discharged into a full-rigged, full-manned frigate

for final instruction in the duties of an officer, under selected

captains, commanders, and lieutenants. They should here alternately take

the duties of officers of tops, officers of boats, officers in charge of

a particular mast, and in rotation as officers of the watch, under the

care and guidance of a lieutenant of each watch, while lectures and

exercise in manœuvres of ships and boats, of heavy and field guns, of

small-arm drills and landing parties, should be systematically taught

them. At the end of this cruise, which should extend to the

Mediterranean, an examination in seamanship should take place, and the

midshipmen would be discharged into the service afloat, at an average

age of 18 years, where they would serve as midshipmen for one year

before examination (as now) for sub-lieutenants.

Thus, the whole course of training would be two years at college, and

in training corvettes as cadets, and one year’s training in practical

gunnery, and instruction as an officer in various duties, with the rank

of midshipman performing all the duties of a subordinate officer, at the

conclusion of which an examination should take place in all the subjects

of the profession, whether at home or abroad. This preliminary education

should be followed by the modification of the navigating class, the

creation of an examination for the rank of lieutenant, and other changes

in rank.

[Errata for Part X (United States):

_Arkansas_--484,167,--78 companies of State Guard,

--484,167--

was followed by the appointment of many persons from civil life

apointment

till after the war of 1812-’15 proved his ideas to be correct

1812--’15

1 Sergeant Major, / 1 Quartermaster Sergeant.

Sergeant,

VIII. NATURAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.

VII.

7 a.m. Parade call, 8 a.m. Guard mounting,

_final . after “8 a.m.” invisible_

public examination is to be held from year to year,

_text has “year to / to year” at line break_

the latter is given according to the Census of 1850.

_final . missing or invisible_

agitate the question unceasingly.”

_close quote missing_

We have been favored with the perusal of the “Propositions,”

_close quote missing_

according to the personal merits and fitness of the candidate.”

_printed as shown: missing open quote or superfluous close quote?_

the boys have not had a fair chance. This is what I want them all

to have, and especially the country. I desire that the Academy shall

begin, as it goes on, upon the competitive principle.

_printed with two lines transposed:_

... the boys have

the country. I desire that the Academy shall begin, as it goes on,

upon the

not had a fair chance. This is what I want them all to have, and

especially

competitive principle...

Let us see what is their system.

sytem

the powers and duties of the general government,

_missing hyphen in “govern/ment” at line break_

_Surgeon_--Col. R. L. Madison.

Madison,

these and the various pedestrian excursions,

pedesterain

Before your memorialist proceeds to examine the truth

exaime

the abuse of the mode of appointing Cadets

apppointing

of 5206 cadets admitted from 1842 to 1863 inclusive

_page damaged: number computed from table on page 799_

an amendment to the appropriation bill in 1836

apppropriation

In his general programme he includes studies

progamme

at some time or other save an army, and not let

army,”

[Footnote 23]

ED. _Am. Jour. of Ed._

_all . invisible_

“that the inferences drawn can not be controverted.”

_close quote missing_

renew his knowledge of what he had been taught.

_taught.”_

For the purpose of giving instruction

“For

Professor Owen has stated

“Professor

[Footnote 25]

in their messages in January.

_final . missing_

impress them more strongly with its importance.

_expected close quote missing_

_Reveille_ at day break, and they march by squads

_Revielle_

as the cadet wearies of it when the novelty is past.”

_not an error: this quotation began two pages earlier_

[Footnote 26]

will soon be published by J. B. Lippincott

_both . missing or invisible_

_footnote tag missing: position conjectural_

well instructed and thoroughly disciplined seamen

thoroughy

[The principal heads of expenditure ...]

Pay of Professors and Assistants

Asssistants

and no doubt a war would develope sad consequences

_anomalous spelling unchanged_

on the 1st of February, and while indoor studies

_text has “and / and” at line break_]

* * * * *

* * * *

* * * * *

MILITARY EDUCATION IN FRANCE; Part I. of Military Schools and Courses of

Instruction in the Science and Art of War in different countries. By

Henry Barnard, LL.D., late U.S. Commissioner of Education. Pages 7-276.

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

MILITARY SCHOOLS OF SPECIAL APPLICATION IN FRANCE, 131

I. ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS’ SCHOOL AT METZ, 133

1. History and General Description, 137

First Artillery School in 1679 at Douai, 137

Garrison Schools in 1720, 137

Academy at La Fère in 1756, 137

First Engineer School at Mézières in 1749, 137

School at Metz in 1795, 137

2. Location, Buildings, Barracks, Riding School, 138

3. Staff of Government, 140

“ Instruction, 141

Superior Council, 141

Instructional Council, 142

Administrative “ 142

4. Subjects and Methods of Study, 142

Instruction Common to both, 143

“ Special to Artillery, 143

“ “ Engineers, 143

Employment of time for First Year, 144

“ “ Second Year, 143

5. Examination and Classification, 145

Final Examination, 146

Classification of the Order of Merit, 147

6. Subsequent instruction and Employment, 148

7. Regimental Schools, 150

APPENDIX, 151

REGULATIONS AND PROGRAMMES OF INSTRUCTION, 151

I. Police Regulations, 152

II. Regulations for Estimating the value of Work Executed, 151

III. Programme of Artillery Course, 156

Introduction--1. Effects of Powder, 158

2. Projectiles, 159

3. Motion of Carriages, 160

Second Part--Section 1. Small Army, 161

“ 2. Projectiles and Cannon, 162

“ 3. War and Signal Rockets, 164

“ 4. Carriages, 166

“ 5. Artillery Force, 165

“ 6. Construction of Carriages, 166

Third Part--Effects of Projectiles, 167

Fourth Part--Trace and Construction of Batteries, 168

Fifth Part--Section 1. Organization and Service

of Artillery, 179

“ 2. Artillery in the Field, 170

“ 3. Artillery in the Attack

and Defense, 170

“ 4. Artillery in the Sham Siege, 174

Recapitulative Tables, 180

IV. Course on Military Art and Field Fortification, 181

I. Lectures, 181

1. Historical Notices of the Organization

of Armies, 181

2. Tactics, 182

3. Castrametation, 182

4. Field Fortification, 182

5. Military Communications, 184

6. Strategy, 184

II. Works of Application, 184

Recapitulations, 189

V. Permanent Fortifications and Attack and Defense

of Places, 190

VI. Course of Topography, 194

1. Topographical Drawing, 194

2. Topographical Surveying, 194

VII. Course of Geodesy and Dialling, 197

1. Special for Engineers, 197

2. Common to Engineers and Artillery, 198

VIII. Course of Sciences applied to Military Arts, 200

1. Geology, 200

2. Working in Iron, 200

3. Application of the Working of Iron, 201

4. Manufacture of Small Arms, 201

5. “ “ Ordnance, 201

6. “ “ Powder, 201

7. Pyrotechny, 201

Works of Application, Samples of Minerals,

Geological Exercises, Molding, Chemical

Compounds, 202

Practical Instructions on Munitions and Fireworks, 203

IX. Course of Applied Mechanics, 205

1. General Principles, 205

2. Motion of Machines, 205

3. Resistance of Materials, 205

4. Working Machines, 206

5. Explanations and Works of Application, 207

X. Course of Construction, 208

1. Elements of Masonry, 208

2. Architecture of Military Building, 209

3. Resistance of Material, 210

4. Hydraulic Construction, 210

Works of Application, 215

XI. Course in the German Language, 214

XII. Programme of Sham Siege, 217

Preliminary Measures and Lectures, 217

Composition of the Personnel, 218

Conferences, 218

Tracing of the Work, 219

Memoir and Sketch, 219

XIII. Course on the Veterinary Art, 220

Interior of the Horse, 220

Exterior “ “ 220

Health “ “ 220

II. REGIMENTAL ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS’ SCHOOLS, 221

1. Artillery Regimental Schools, 221

Design, 221

Staff, 221

Instruction, 221

Theoretical--Practical--Special, 221

2. Engineer and Regimental Schools, 223

Staff’s, 223

Instruction--kinds, 223

Courses, 224

III. THE INFANTRY AND CAVALRY SCHOOL AT ST. CYR, 225

History and General Description, 225

Origin, 225

General Description, 226

Staff of Government and Instructions, 228

Buildings, 229

Daily Routine, 231

Course of Study, 235

Examinations, 238

Co-efficients of Influence, 238

Classification in Order of Merit, 239

Choice of Service, 240

IV. THE CAVALRY SCHOOL OF APPLICATION AT SAUMUR, 241

Design, 241

Staff, 241

Instruction, 241

Pupils, 242

Text-books and Recitations, 243

Veterinary Instructions, 243

Hippology, 244

The Model Stud, 244

Breaking Young Horses, 244

School of Farriers, 244

V. THE STAFF SCHOOL AT PARIS, 245

1. Duties of the French Staff, 245

The War Dépot, 246

The Staff Corps, 246

2. Buildings and Establishment, 248

3. Staff of Government and Instruction, 248

4. Conditions of Admission, 249

Entrance Examination, 250

Studies, 250

Daily Routine, 251

Examinations, 253

Co-efficients of Influence, 253

Examination before Consulting Committee, 256

VI. THE MILITARY ORPHAN-SCHOOL AT LA FLECHE, 257

Juvenile and Privileged School, 257

Course of Instruction, 257

Staff of Government and Instruction, 257

Yearly Charge, 257

Courses, 258

Examination, 258

Inspection, 258

VII. THE SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY AT VINCENNES, 259

Origin, 259

Staff, 259

Course of Instruction, 260

VIII. THE MILITARY AND NAVAL SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY, 261

1. Military School of Medicine at Paris, 261

2. Naval Schools of Medicine at Brest, Toulon,

and Rochefort, 262

IX. THE NAVAL SCHOOL AT BREST, 263

Examination for Admission, 263

Course of Instruction, 264

X. THE MILITARY GYMNASTIC SCHOOL AT VINCENNES, 265

1. Elementary Gymnastics, 265

Classification, 265

Spirit and Method of Teaching, 266

Learning to March, 266

Gymnastic Chain, 266

Pyrrhic Exercise, 267

Equilibrium: Wrestling, 268

Traction, 268

2. Applied Gymnastics, 269

Leaping, 270

Climbing, 271

Swimming, 271

Escalading, 272

Carrying Weights, 272

XI. REMARKS ON THE MILITARY EDUCATION OF FRANCE, 273

1. Officers must be regularly Trained, or have seen

Service, 273

2. Junior Military Schools, 273

3. Professional Education at St. Cyr, 273

4. Staff School, 273

5. Officers of Artillery and Engineers, 274

6. Mathematical bias, 274

7. Bourses, 274

8. Practical Teaching, 274

9. Number of Senior Departments, 274

REVISED EDITION--1872.

I. FRENCH MILITARY EDUCATION IN 1869, 274

1. Increase of professionally educated officers, 274

2. Admission to the Military Schools and to the Staff,

by competition, 275

3. Military Schools under control of Minister of War, 275

4. Internal Economy of each School determined by its

own Staff, 275

5. Military and instructional Staff, distinct but

cooperative, 275

6. Great care exercised in appointment of professors, 275

7. Discipline very strict, 276

Power of dismissal rests with the Minister of War, 276

8. Age of admission, and general education advanced, 276

Strictly professional instruction does not begin

generally till 20, 276

9. Military Schools, more and more professional and

practical, 276

10. Much time given to drawing, military administration

and practical exercises, 277

11. System of Instruction the same in all the schools, 277

Active competition the leading feature, 277

No choice of studies allowed, 277

12. Education of French officers concluded before

regimental duty begins, 278

13. Chief changes since 1856, 278

Increase of literary subjects in the Polytechnic, 278

An examination at the end of the first year at Metz, 278

Advance of age for admission at St. Cyr, 278

Conversion of La Fleche into a purely civil school, 278

Increase of students in the Staff School, 278

II. EXPENSE OF MILITARY SCHOOLS IN 1869, 278

III. ORGANIZATION OF THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL IN 1869, 131

Programme of instruction in 1856, 47

Annual expenses for 1869, 132

Changes in course of instruction, 133

Subjects and course of studies, 133

Studies involving least difficulty occupy the evenings, 134

MILITARY EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA AND OTHER GERMAN AND EUROPEAN STATES:

Parts II., III., IV., V. and VI., of Military Schools and Classes of

Special Instruction in the Science and Art of War in different

countries. By Henry Barnard, LL.D., late U.S. Commissioner of Education.

Pages 277-518.

CONTENTS.

MILITARY SYSTEM AND EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA, 279

I. OUTLINE OF MILITARY SYSTEM, 281

1. The Standing Army, 281

2. The National Militia, or _First Landwehr_, 282

3. The Last Reserve, or _Landsturm_, 282

Origin of the Landwehr System, 283

II. HISTORICAL VIEW OF MILITARY EDUCATION, 284

Basis of the present System is a good General Education, 284

Origin of the Military Schools in the Wars of the

Reformation, 284

School of Frederick William in 1653, 284

Military Academy opened in 1765, 286

Plans of Scharnhorst and Stein in 1807, 288

Origin and Changes of the Division Schools, 289

III. PRESENT SYSTEM OF MILITARY EDUCATION AND PROMOTION, 293

Usual Conditions and Course of obtaining a Commission, 293

1. A good General Education, 294

2. Actual Military Service, 294

3. Professional Knowledge by Military Study, 294

Central and Local Boards of Examination, 294

Supreme Officer Board of Control, 295

Classification and cost of Military Schools, 295

IV. EXAMINATIONS--GENERAL AND PROFESSIONAL FOR A COMMISSION, 297

1. Preliminary or Ensign’s Examination, 297

Who may be Examined, 298

Time and Mode of Examination, 298

Results of Examination, how ascertained, 299

2. The Second, or Officers’ Examination, 302

Time and Place, 302

Preliminary Certificates, 302

Mode--Oral and Written, 303

Programme of Studies, on which Examination turns, 304

V. MILITARY SCHOOLS FOR PREPARING OFFICERS, 310

1. The Cadet Schools, or Cadet Houses, 310

Number and Classification, 310

Junior Cadet House at Berlin, 312

Senior Cadet House at Berlin, 312

2. The Division Schools, 320

Number and Location, 320

Professors--Studies--Examinations, 321

3. The United Artillery and Engineers’ School at Berlin, 324

Admission, 324

Examinations, 325

Studies, 326

VI. THE STAFF SCHOOL AT BERLIN, 329

Entrance Examination, 330

Course, Method, and Subjects of Instruction, 331

Final Examination, 335

Appointment to the Staff Corps, 336

VII. ELEMENTARY MILITARY SCHOOLS FOR NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS, 336

1. Military Orphan-Houses, 336

A. Military Orphan-House at Potsdam, 337

B. Military Orphan-House at Annaburg, 342

2. The School Division, or Non-Commissioned Officers’

School, 345

3. Regimental Schools, 347

4. The Noble-School at Liegnitz, 348

VIII. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SYSTEM OF MILITARY EDUCATION

IN PRUSSIA, 348

APPENDIX, 351

THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS’ SCHOOL AT BERLIN, 351

Object and Course of Study, 351

Staff And Authorities, 351

Superior Authorities, or _Curatorium_, 352

Executive Authorities, 352

Course of Instruction, 357

A. General Course, 357

B. Instruction in Detail, 358

Financial Matters, 365

PROGRAMMES OF PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS TAUGHT, 367

1. Artillery, 367

Preliminary Instruction:--_a._ Mathematics;

_b._ Physics;

_c._ Chemistry;

_d._ Tactics;

_e._ Fortification;

_f._ Veterinary Art, 367

A. First Cœtus, 368

1. Arms, 368

2. Gunpowder, 368

3. Cannon, 368

4. Gun-Carriages, 368

5. Military Combustibles, 368

6. Movement of Cannon, 368

7. Firing, 368

8. Small and Side-Arms, 368

B. Second Cœtus, 369

1. Organization of Artillery, 369

2. Use in the field, 369

3. Use in the Siege, 369

_a._ For Attack; _b._ For Defense, 369

C. Third Cœtus, 369

1. Organization of Artillery Service, 370

2. Artillery regarded as an Arm, 370

3. Artillery in Technical and Administrative point

of view, 370

4. Progress and Literature of Artillery, 371

D. General Distribution of Time for each Cœtus, 371

2. GENERAL AND SPECIAL ENGINEERING IN THE FIRST AND

SECOND CŒTUS, 373

A. First Cœtus 373

_a._ In Field Fortification;

_b._ in Permanent Fortification, 373

B. Second Cœtus, 374

The Applied Arts in Attack and Defense, &c., 374

3. EXCLUSIVE ENGINEERING IN THE THIRD CŒTUS, 375

1. Application of Rules to Regular Fortresses, 375

2. Theory of Constructions, Materials,

Modes of Building, 375

4. HYDRAULIC CONSTRUCTION IN THE THIRD CŒTUS, 377

1. General Principles of Hydraulic Architecture, 377

2. Internal Navigation, Harbors, Bridges, &c., 378

5. TACTICS. Construction of Cannon, 378

6. MATHEMATICS, 380

A. First Cœtus--Arithmetic, Algebra, Plane Geometry,

Plane Trigonometry, 381

B. Second Cœtus--Geometry of Solids, Solid Trigonometry,

Projection, Conic Sections, 382

C. Statics, Geostatics, Hydrostatics, 382

D. Dynamics and Hydraulics, 382

7. PRACTICAL ARTILLERY EXERCISES, 384

1. First Cœtus, 385

A. Visits--_a._ Foundry and the Boring-Machine;

_b._ Examination of Ordnance, Carriages, &c.;

_c._ Workshops, 385

B. Exercises--_a._ Small-Arms;

_b._ Management of Machines, 386

2. Second Cœtus, 386

Tracing Batteries; Placing Ordnance;

Ordnance Carriages and Wagons; Sieges, 387

3. First and Second Cœtus, 388

Proof of Powder; Artillery Practice; Laboratory, 389

4. Third Cœtus, 390

Visit to and practice in Workshops; Iron Foundry;

Boring-Machine, 390

Ammunition; Cannon; Gun-Carriages; Rules of placing

Guns; Sham Siege, 391

8. PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN FORTIFICATION, 392

THE WAR OR STAFF SCHOOL AT BERLIN, 395

1. Objects and Plan;

2. Instruction;

3. Professors and Students, 397

REVISED EDITION--1872.

I. PRUSSIAN STAFF IN 1869, 399

1. Peace establishment. 2. War establishment, 399

Staff at head-quarters of each army corps, 399

General Staff at Berlin--Sectional work, 400

II. PRUSSIAN MILITARY EDUCATION IN 1869, 403

1. Changes since 1856, 403

2. General education more and more the basis of

professional studies, 404

3. Theory of military perfection attended to after

practice, 404

4. Military examinations made to advance civil education, 405

5. Liberal education encouraged in officers, 405

6. General management of all military education vested

in a single officer, 405

Assisted by Board of Studies and Board of Examination, 405

7. The heads of each school supreme in discipline, 405

8. Educational experience valued in the head of a school, 405

9. Competition not very extensively recognized, 406

Its place supplied by personal knowledge of each

individual, 406

10. Great care bestowed on the methods of instruction, 406

III. AUSTRIA.

MILITARY SYSTEM AND INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA, 409

I. OUTLINE OF MILITARY SYSTEM, 409

Mode of recruiting--period of service, 409

Officers--non-commissioned--commissioned, 410

Training--payment, 410

II. SYSTEM OF MILITARY EDUCATION, 410

Center of Administration--Fourth Section of

War Department, 410

Annual appropriations in 1856, and 1871, 411, 464

Imperial Institutions of Military Education, 410

A. Schools for non-commissioned Officers, 411

1. Lower Military Houses, 420

2. Upper Military Houses, 422

3. School Companies and School Squadrons, 424

Frontier--Artillery--Engineer--Flotilla, 426

B. Schools for Officers, 429

1. Cadet Institutions, 429

2. Military Academies, 431

Neustadt Academy for Infantry and Cavalry, 433

Artillery and Engineering Academy, 434

3. Marine Academy, 435

C. Special Military Schools 436

1. Normal School for Military Teachers 436

2. United Higher Course for Artillery and Engineers 437

3. Staff and Adjutant School 439

Supreme Control of each class of Schools 441

III. PECULIARITIES OF AUSTRIAN MILITARY EDUCATION IN 1856 453

IV. STAFF SCHOOL AT VIENNA 447

1. General Staff of Austrian Army 447

2. Admission--Specimens of questions put 448

3. Subjects and Course of Instruction 449

4. Austrian Staff in 1868 462

V. REORGANIZATION OF MILITARY EDUCATION IN 1868 453

VI. CAVALRY BRIGADE SCHOOL FOR OFFICERS 463

IV. BAVARIA, SAXONY, HOLLAND, &c.

MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA 465

I. MILITARY SYSTEM 467

II. MILITARY EDUCATION 468

1. Cadet Corps 468

2. War School 469

3. Artillery and Engineer School 471

4. Staff Academy 472

MILITARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY 473

ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY AT DRESDEN 471

MILITARY SYSTEM AND EDUCATION IN HOLLAND 475

I. Military System 475

II. Military Education 476

1. Military Academy at Breda 477

2. Naval Academy and Navigation Schools 478

V. ITALY.

MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN ITALY 479

I. MILITARY SYSTEM IN KINGDOM OF ITALY 481

II. MILITARY EDUCATION IN THE KINGDOM OF SARDINIA 483

General characteristics 483

1. Military Academy at Turin 486

2. Artillery and Engineer School 489

3. Staff School and Staff Corps 492

4. Regimental Schools 494

5. School of Artillery at the Arsenal 498

III. MODIFICATIONS SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM

OF ITALY 499

VI. RUSSIA

MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN RUSSIA 501

I. MILITARY SYSTEM 503

II. MILITARY SCHOOLS 504

1. Schools under Board of Military Instruction 504

2. Schools under Ministry of War 504

IMPERIAL STAFF SCHOOL AT ST. PETERSBURG 505

VII. NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK.

MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS 513

1. Sweden 513

2. Norway 515

3. Denmark 516

VIII. GREAT BRITAIN.

MILITARY SYSTEM AND EDUCATION 519-686

Historical Notice 521

ORGANIZATION AND INSTITUTIONS IN 1871 535

I. COUNCIL OF MILITARY EDUCATION 535

1. Historical Notice 535

Organization and Duties in 1869 537

Military Schools and Examinations 539

Army Schools, Regimental Libraries and Reading-rooms 540

2. Examinations for Commissions and Promotions 541

(1.) Examination for Direct Commissions 541

Regulations in 1869 544

(2.) Public School Education as preparatory

for Examination 543

(3.) Examinations for Promotions 550

(4.) Results of Examinations 555

(5.) Expenses of the Council 555

(6.) List of Examiners employed 555

3. Military, Orphan, and Soldiers Schools 557

II. ROYAL MILITARY COLLEGE AT SANDHURST 559

1. Historical Notice 559

Junior and Senior Departments 560

Inquiry and condition in 1855 563

Junior Department changed to a College 566

Queen’s Cadetships--Proposed enlargement in 1860 566

Free Commissions opened to Competition 570

Attendance--Staff--Expense 574

2. Queen’s and Indian Cadetships 575

3. Regulations for Admission, etc. 577

Subjects and Marks--Value of Entrance Examinations 577

Value of University Examinations 578

Preliminary Provisions--Payments 579

Discipline--Termination of Course 580

Compassionate Allowance 581

Subjects and their Marks--Value in Final examination 581

4. Subjects and Course of Instruction 582

5. Results of Competitive Examination 584

III. ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY FOR THE SCIENTIFIC CORPS

AT WOOLWICH 585

1. Historical Notice 585

2. Regulations for Admission 586

Open Competition to the Artillery and Engineers

established 588

Subjects and their Marks--Value in Entrance Examinations 589

Length of Course--Scale of Payments 590

3. Course of Study 591

4. School Preparation for Woolwich Examinations 592

IV. ROYAL SCHOOL OF MILITARY ENGINEERING AT CHATHAM 595

1. Origin and Object of the Institution 595

2. Organization for Instruction 595

3. Nature and Length of Practical Courses 596

(1.) Survey Course--Astronomical Observations 596

(2.) Course of Construction and Estimating 598

(3.) Field-work Course 600

Modeling in Sand 601

Siege Works 601

Works of Defence 601

Mining 601

Bridging 601

Railways 601

Boring for Water 601

Drawing Projects of Attack, Construction 602

(4.) Miscellaneous Subjects 602

Course of Telegraphy 602

Chemical Laboratory course 602

Photography 603

Lectures on Engineering and Professional Subjects 603

Demolitions--Submarine Mines 603

V. PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION OF OFFICERS 605

Historical Notice 605

1. Survey Class at Aldershot 611

2. Advanced Class of Artillery Officers at Woolwich 613

3. School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness 616

VI. STAFF COLLEGE AND STAFF APPOINTMENTS 619

Historical Notice 619

1. Staff College at Sandhurst 620

Admissions--Course of Instruction 620

2. Examinations for Staff Appointments 623

VII. SCHOOLS OF MUSKETRY AND RIFLE CORPS 625

1. School of Musketry 625

2. Rifle Corps--Volunteer Force and Practice 626

3. Corps Manœuvering 626

VIII. NAVAL AND NAVIGATION SCHOOLS 627

1. Naval Schools for Officers 627

(1.) Old System of Training Officers 627

(2.) Royal Naval Academy 628

(3.) Training Ship Britannia 629

(4.) Gunnery Instruction 629

(5.) Steam and Steam Engine 629

(6.) Naval Cadets and Midshipmen 630

2. Marine Artillery 632

3. Schools for Warrant Officers and Seamen 634

(1.) Seamen’s Schoolmasters 634

(2.) Schools on board of Ships in Harbor 635

(3.) Royal Marine Schools 636

(4.) Dockyard Schools 637

(5.) Greenwich Hospital Schools 639

4. SCHOOLS FOR MERCANTILE MARINE 639

(1.) Historical Notice of Navigation Schools 639

(2.) London Navigation School 640

(3.) Number of Seamen required in the British Service 643

(4.) Subjects of Instruction 644

(5.) Teachers and their Assistants 646

(6.) Instruction and Government Aid 647

5. College of Naval Architecture in London 650

6. Present Condition of Naval Education 651

IX. APPENDIX.--French and German Naval Schools 653

I. FRENCH NAVAL AND NAVIGATION SCHOOLS 657

1. Nautical School for Orphans of Sailors 659

2. School Ships for Practical Instruction 662

3. Naval Apprentice Schools 662

4. Schools for Boatswains 664

5. School for Naval Engineers 667

6. Naval Drawing Schools 668

7. Schools of Navigation 669

8. Naval School at Brest--The School Ship Borda--

Jean Bart 672

9. School of Naval Architecture 676

10. Schools of Marine Artillery 678

II. GERMAN NAVAL AND NAVIGATION SCHOOLS 679

1. Prussia 681

2. German Empire 683

3. Austria 685

IX. SWITZERLAND.

MILITARY SYSTEM AND MILITARY INSTRUCTION, 687-713

I. OUTLINE OF MILITARY SYSTEM, 689

Area--Population--Military Service, 689

Federal Militia--Elite, Reserve, Levy en masse, 690

Federal Army--Various Corps, 691

II. CADET SYSTEM, 693

Helvetic Military Association--Volunteer Corps, 693

Cantonal Organizations--Juvenile Military Festivals, 694

Swiss Cadet Feast in 1856, 695

Sham Fight in 1860, and Zurich Cantonal Festival, 696

III. TARGET SHOOTING OF SHARP-SHOOTERS IN 1859, 701

Number of Candidates--Prizes--Public and Religious

Services, 705

IV. FEDERAL INSTRUCTION OF OFFICERS--SCIENTIFIC CULTURE, 710

X. UNITED STATES.

MILITARY SYSTEM AND MILITARY EDUCATION, 713-940

Regular Army--State Militia--Volunteer Force, 715

Officers--How Trained and Appointed, 717

A. MILITARY EDUCATION FOR LAND SERVICE, 719

National, State, Individual, and Corporate Institutions, 720

I. UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY AT WEST POINT, 721

1. Historical Development, 721

2. Summary of Instructional Progress, 751

Condition in 1870-71, 753

(1.) Government and Organization, 753

Military Staff--Staff of Instruction, 753

Professors--Assistant and Acting Assistants, 754

Academic Board, 755

(2.) Mode and Conditions of Admission, 755

(3.) Subjects and Marks--Value of Each Study, 758

Practical Instruction and Exercises, 757

(4.) Classification of Cadets for Instruction, 757

(5.) Methods of Instruction--Recitation--

Independent Study, 758

(6.) Routine of Daily Work, 759

(7.) System of Estimating Daily Proficiency, 760

Weekly Class Report--Monthly Record, 760

(8.) Periodical Examinations--Oral, 760

Annual Examinations--Board of Visitors, 761

Classification by Results--mainly from the

Daily Record, 762

Dismissal for want of Proficiency in Studies, 763

(9.) Graduation--Penalties Attached to Idleness, 763

Choice of Service determined by standing

on the Roll, 764

Honorable Mention in the Army List, 765

(10.) Discipline--Punishments--Demerits, 765

Credit Allowed to Conduct on Final Examination, 767

(11.) Athletic Sports--Recreation, 767

(12.) Assimilation of Duties to those of a Regiment, 768

Officer of the Day--Officer in Charge--

Guard--Sentries, 769

(13.) Academy Buildings, 770

(14.) Annual Expense--Aggregate--to each Cadet, 771

4. Staff of Government and Instruction, Jan. 1, 1872, 772

5. Subjects and Synopsis of Course of Instruction, 773

6. Regulations for Admission, 777

Official Exposition of the Aim and Mode of

Examination, 779

7. Board of Visitors--Annual Report, 781

Report on Competitive Examinations in 1862, 784

8. Discussion of the Subject in Senate, 809

II. SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF APPLICATION 819

ARTILLERY SCHOOL AT FORTRESS MONROE 821

III. MILITARY ELEMENT IN STATE SCHOOLS 825

1. State Military Schools 825

2. Military Tactics in State Science Colleges 827

IV. INDIVIDUAL AND CORPORATE MILITARY SCHOOLS 831

CAPT. ALDEN PARTRIDGE 833

Memorial adverse to Exclusive Government Schools 857

Literary and Scientific Institute at Middletown

and Norwich 857

V. MILITARY EXERCISES IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 865

B. UNITED STATES NAVAL AND MARITIME EDUCATION 885

1. United States Navy and Naval Affairs 885

Growth and Condition in Ships, Officers, and Men 887

2. Steam and Science in their Applications to Navigation 895

I. UNITED STATES NAVAL SCHOOL AT ANNAPOLIS 897

Historical Development 897

Secretary Bancroft’s Letter, Aug. 7, 1815 899

1. EXPOSITION OF ITS CONDITION AND NEEDS IN 1864 901

Organization for Administration and Instruction 902

Buildings and Material Equipment 903

Pupils--Entrance Examination 905

Daily Routine--Study--Recitation--Recreation 907

Course of Instruction, Examinations, and Merit Roll 908

Physical Training--Expansion of Chest--Vocal Organs 915

Domestic and Sanitary Arrangements 916

Religious Observances and Instruction 916

Discipline--Offenses--Demerits--Punishments 918

Financial Affairs-Cost per Pupil 919

Graduating Class of 1864--Summer Cruise 920

2. RECOMMENDATIONS BY BOARD OF VISITORS 921

(1.) Change of Relation and Name from Midshipmen

to Cadets 922

(2.) Change in Mode and Condition of Appointment

and Admission 922

(3.) Practical Test of Aptitude and Constitutional

Qualities 925

(4.) Reorganization of Studies on the Basis of

Special Schools, Courses optional after

Second Year, and open to Outsiders 926

(5.) Temporary and Special Courses for Officers

on Furlough 927

(6.) Navigation Schools for Seamen, Mates, and Masters 927

Not Government Schools, but inspected by

National Officers 928

Evening Classes, Junior and Senior Departments 928

Local and National, Commercial and Military

cooperation 929

Experience of England and France in Navigation

Schools 929

(7.) Appointment of Council of Naval Education 930

Constitution of such a Council--in Attainment,

Experience 931

Duties--Useless Character of Existing Board

of Visitors 932

(8.) Inspector of Studies needed 932

(9.) Appointment of Professors and Assistants 933

(10.) Greater Publicity given to the Annual Reports 934

3. CONDITION IN 1872 935

II. SCHOOL OF NAVAL CONSTRUCTION 937

III. SCHOOL OF STEAM ENGINEERING 938

IV. NAVAL APPRENTICES 939

V. INSTRUCTION IN NAVIGATION, AND EXAMINATIONS FOR COMMANDS 940

VI. NAUTICAL REFORMATORY SHIPS 940

GENERAL REVIEW OF MILITARY SYSTEMS AND EDUCATION 941

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 947

[Errata for (second) Table of Contents:

I. OUTLINE OF MILITARY SYSTEM, ... 281

221

Ordnance Carriages and Wagons; Sieges, ... 387

378

III. PECULIARITIES OF AUSTRIAN MILITARY EDUCATION IN 1856

AUSRTIAN

2. War School ... 469

461

III. MODIFICATIONS SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM

II.

(4.) Miscellaneous Subjects ... 602

_number “6” missing or invisible_

I. FRENCH NAVAL AND NAVIGATION SCHOOLS

NAVAGATION

Practical Instruction and Exercises, ... 757

357]

* * * * *

* * * *

* * * * *

_Errors and Inconsistencies: General Notes_

Individual errors are listed at the end of their respective sections.

This book is a compilation of articles and translations that originally

appeared in different sources. No attempt was made to regularize

spelling or punctuation. In particular:

--The position of parentheses with respect to closing punctuation is

unchanged.

--In the “France” section, the form “assymplote” (for expected

“asymptote”) is used consistently.

--In the tables at the end of the “Austria” section, and throughout the

“Bavaria” and “Italy” sections, the word “caligraphy” is consistently

spelled with one l.

--Closing quotation marks were generally not supplied when absent.

Military schools and courses of instruction in the science and art of war, in France, Prussia, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, Sardinia, England, and the United States. Drawn from recent official reports and documents. Revised Edition · 第 20 / 20 章

1. The schools which they contemplate, are not to be government