According to an official Statement, prepared by Capt. Boynton, and

published in his History of the Academy, of 5206 cadets admitted from

1842 to 1863 inclusive, the fathers of 1,300 were farmers or planters;

of 681, were lawyers; of 672, were merchants; of 377, were mechanics; of

69, were physicians; of 256, were in the civil service; of 116, were

clergymen; of 467, were in the army or navy; of 572, were editors,

masters of vessels, &c. Of the whole number, 1,136 were orphans, 1,585

were in moderate, 534 in reduced, 62 in indigent, and 324 in independent

circumstances. We shall publish the Statement in our next Number.

The views presented in the memorial of Capt. Partridge in 1841, have

found advocates in and out of Congress before and since. They were

anticipated by the Secretary of War (John C. Calhoun), under whose

energetic administration of the Department in 1816, the Academy first

assumed the organization of an efficient military school--a place of

thorough scientific instruction in the knowledge not simply of military

drill, but of the duties of an accomplished artillerist and military

engineer; and they have been deepened by the radically vicious system of

appointment to cadetship, in which personal and political considerations

have in too many instances outweighed the merits of young men, whose

natural aptitude and generous ambition would have found here the special

field for their largest development and usefulness. These views found

expression in the elaborate speech of Franklin Pierce, then a member of

the House from New Hampshire, in the discussion of an amendment to the

appropriation bill in 1836 (June 30), who “felt bound to oppose the bill

in every stage of its progress”--mainly on the ground that “the

institution conferred exclusive and gratuitous privileges.”

It is _gratuitous_, because those who are so fortunate as to obtain

admission there, receive their education without any obligation, except

such as a sense of honor may impose, to return, either by service or

otherwise, the slightest equivalent. It is exclusive, inasmuch as only

one youth out of a population of more than 47,000 can participate in its

advantages at the same time; and those who are successful, are admitted

at an age when their characters cannot have become developed, and with

very little knowledge of their adaptation, mental or physical, for

military life. The system disregards one of those great principles

which, carried into practice, contributed perhaps, more than any other,

to render the arms of Napoleon invincible for so many years. Who does

not perceive that it destroys the very life and spring of military ardor

and enthusiasm, by utterly foreclosing all hope of promotion to her

soldier and non-commissioned officer? However meritorious may be his

services, however pre-eminent may become his qualifications for command,

all are unavailing. The portcullis is dropped between him and

preferment, the wisdom of your laws having provided another criterion

than that of admitted courage and conduct, by which to determine who are

worthy of command. They have made an Academy, where a certain number of

young gentlemen are educated annually at the public expense, and to

which there is, in consequence, a general rush, not so much from

sentiments of patriotism, and a taste for military life, as from motives

less worthy--the avenue, and the only avenue, to rank in your army.

I deny utterly the expediency and the right to educate at the public

expense, any number of young men who, on the completion of their

education, are not to form a portion of your military force, but to

return to the walks of private life. Such was never the operation of the

Military Academy until after the law of 1812; and the doctrine, so far

as I have been able to ascertain, was first formally announced by a

distinguished individual, at this time sufficiently jealous of the

exercise of executive patronage, and greatly alarmed by what he

conceives to be the tendencies of this Government to centralism and

consolidation. It may be found in the report of the Secretary of War,

communicated to Congress in 1819.

Mr. Pierce, afterwards President Pierce, quotes with approbation the

suggestion of Col. Williams in a report to Mr. Jefferson in 1808--that

the plan should be large enough to take not only minor officers, “but

also any youth from any of the States who might wish for such an

education whether designed for the Army or Navy, or neither, and let

them be assessed to the value of their education, which might form a

fund for extra or contingent expenses.”

These are the true doctrines upon this subject; doctrines worthy of

the administration under which they were promulgated, and in accordance

with the views of statesmen in the earlier and purer days of the

Republic. Give to the officers of your army the highest advantages for

perfection in all the branches of military science, and let those

advantages be open to all in rotation, and under such terms and

regulations as shall be at once impartial toward the officers, and

advantageous to the service; but let all young gentlemen who have a

taste for military life, and desire to adopt arms as a profession,

prepare themselves for subordinate situations at their own expense, or

at the expense of their parents or guardians, in the same manner that

the youth of our country are qualified for the professions of civil

life.

I am far from desiring to see this country destitute of a Military

Academy; but I would have it a school of practice, and instruction, for

officers actually in the service of the United States; not an

institution for educating, gratuitously, young gentlemen, who, on the

completion of their term, or after a few months’ leave of absence,

resign their commissions, and return to the pursuits of civil life.

There has already been expended upon the institution more than three

millions, three hundred thousand dollars. Between 1815 and 1831,

thirteen hundred and eighteen students were admitted into the Academy;

and of all the cadets who were ever there, only two hundred and

sixty-five remained in the service at the end of 1830. Here are the

expenses you have incurred, and the products you have realized.

When the War of Secession broke out, and graduates of the Academy then

in the army,--like many other Southern men, in the civil service of the

United States, imbued with the political doctrines and sympathizing with

the domestic institution, on which the War was based--sided with the

political leaders of their several states, the opposition to the

institution took another direction. The record of the War silenced these

objectors. According to Gen. Cullum’s _Biographical Register of the

Graduates of the Military Academy_, out of 1,249 graduates living at the

beginning of the Rebellion, 99 in civil life and 184 from the army,

joined in the war against the United States. Three-fourths remained

faithful. Of 821 graduates in the Army at the time, 184 (about

one-fifth) joined in the Rebellion. Of the 99 in civil life all but one

were residents in slave territory. Of 350 graduates who were born in or

appointed from slave States, 162 remained loyal. Of the 292 loyal

graduates in civil life, at the date of secession, 115 re-entered the

Army--all below the age of 45, except those who were disabled for active

duty, and most of these served in civil capacities. One-fifth of all the

graduates who served in the battles of the Rebellion, one-fifth laid

down their lives, and more than one-half were wounded in defence of the

flag.

IV. AMERICAN LITERARY, SCIENTIFIC, AND MILITARY ACADEMY.

AT NORWICH, VERMONT.

The American Literary, Scientific, and Military Academy, at Norwich,

Vermont, was opened on the 4th of September, 1820, by Capt. Alden

Partridge, and continued under his personal superintendence and

instruction, assisted by several professors, until April 1st, 1825, when

it was discontinued at Norwich, and reopened at Middletown, Connecticut.

The catalogue of the officers and cadets published August, 1821,

contains a prospectus from which we make extracts to exhibit the aims of

that school and of this particular class of institutions at that date.

TERMS OF ADMISSION.

The requisite qualifications for becoming members of the Institution

are the following, viz: That the candidate be of good moral character,

that he be able to read and spell correctly, to write a fair, legible

hand, and work the ground rules of arithmetic.

COURSE OF INSTRUCTION.

Young gentlemen destined for a college education, can be prepared at

this seminary for admission into any college or university in the

country, either as freshmen, or one or two years in advance, and in the

mean time will be enabled to acquire a good military and practical

scientific education. Young gentlemen also, destined for the navy, can

here be instructed in the scientific part of their profession, and at

the same time, obtain a correct knowledge of fortification, and of

military operations generally, on land, which it is believed they would

find highly useful in future life. Parents and guardians who are

desirous of placing their sons or wards at this seminary, are requested

to state whether they wish them to go through with the full course of

education; and if not, to specify, particularly, those branches to which

they desire them to attend, and also to mention their ages.

The course of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, and English languages,

Arithmetic, the construction and use of Logarithms, Algebra, Geometry,

Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, Planometry, Stereometry, Mensuration

of heights and distances by Trigonometry, and also Geometrically,

practical Geometry generally, including particularly Surveying and

Leveling, Conic Sections, the use of the Barometer, with its application

to measuring the altitudes of mountains and other eminences, Mechanics,

Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, the elements of Chemistry and Electricity,

Optics, Astronomy, Navigation, Geography, including the use of Maps and

the Globes; Composition, Logic, History, Ethics, the elements of Natural

and Political Law, the Law of Nations, Military Law, the Constitution of

the United States, and of the states severally, Metaphysics;

Agriculture, Permanent and Field Fortification, Field Engineering

generally, the construction of Marine Batteries, Artillery duty, the

principles of Gunnery, a complete course of Military Tactics, the attack

and defense of fortified places, Castrametation, ancient Fortification,

the ancient modes of attacking and defending fortified places, the

ancient Tactics, particularly those of the Greeks and Romans, with a

description of the organization and discipline of the phalanx and

legion; Book-Keeping, Music, Fencing, Military Drawing, Topography,

Civil Engineering, including the construction of Roads, Canals, Locks,

and Bridges; Architecture.

The Hebrew and French languages, Fencing and Music will not be

considered as comprised in the regular course of education, and

consequently those who attend to them will be charged separately.

MILITARY EXERCISE, AND DUTIES.

The students will be regularly and correctly instructed in the

elementary school of the soldier, and also in those of the company and

battalion; they will likewise be taught the regular formation of

military parades, the turning off, mounting, and relieving guards and

sentinels; the duties of officers of the guard, officers of the day, and

adjutants; the making out correctly the different descriptions of

military reports; in fine, all the duties incident to the field or

garrison. The military exercises and duties will be so arranged as not

to occupy any of the time that would otherwise be devoted to study; they

will be attended to at those hours of the day which are generally passed

by students in idleness, or devoted to useless amusements, for which

they will be made a pleasing and healthful substitute. Practical

scientific operations will be frequently attended to, which will conduce

equally to health and improvement.

The students will be required to sleep on matrasses, or straw-beds; no

feather-beds will be allowed in the establishment.

For the purpose of giving to the students a military appearance, when

engaged on military duty, and also on a principle of economy, they are

required to wear a uniform dress, a description of which is hereunto

annexed. In prescribing a dress, it has been endeavored to combine as

far as possible, cheapness and a neat military appearance, with such a

form as, while it leaves the student the free and unrestrained use of

his limbs, will at the same time encumber him the least possible. The

discipline will be strict, but correct; and particular attention will be

given to the full development and due cultivation of all those liberal,

manly, noble and independent sentiments which ought to characterize

every American, whether citizen or soldier. The strictest attention will

be given to the health, manners and morals of the students. They will be

continually under the personal inspection of the superintendent, who

will bestow upon them all that care and attention which it is believed

their parents, under similar circumstances, would bestow.

MILITARY LECTURES.

For the accommodation of gentlemen, (particularly of those holding

commissions in the volunteer corps and militia,) who may not wish to go

through with a regular course of military studies and instruction, and

also for the purpose of diffusing military science more generally, Capt.

Partridge will deliver annually at the before-mentioned seminary, three

courses of public lectures; the first course to commence on the second

Monday in May, the second course on the second Monday in July, and the

third course on the first Monday in October, annually. These lectures

will embrace the following branches of military science and instruction,

viz.:--

1st. Permanent and field fortification, the construction of field

works generally, and also of marine batteries.

2d. The attack and defense of fortified places.

3d. The use of artillery, with a general exposition of the principles

of gunnery.

4th. Military Tactics.

5th. Garrison and field service of troops, embracing particularly

their police and rules for turning off, mounting and relieving guards

and sentinels, and also for guard duty, likewise castrametation.

6th. General rules for the attack and defense of a province or country

embracing an exposition of the principles of base lines of operation.

7th. Rules for the inspection and review of troops.

8th. A summary of ancient fortification, and also of the ancient modes

of attacking and defending fortified places.

9th. A summary of the ancient tactics, particularly those of the

Greeks and Romans.

10th. A description of some of the most celebrated battles and sieges,

both of ancient and modern times, for the purpose of practically

illustrating the principles explained in the lectures. In order to

render the lectures on fortification perfectly intelligible, plans will

be prepared, on which the several parts of a work will be clearly and

distinctly exhibited.

Particular attention will be given to a full explanation of all the

technical terms used in fortification, as well as in the other

departments of military science. A full course will comprise about

twenty lectures; five to be delivered in each week until the course be

finished. The terms for attending a course will be ten dollars.

Gentlemen subscribing for two courses, will be allowed ever after to

attend gratis. All those attending the lectures, will be entitled,

during the time of such attendance, to practical military instruction,

and also to the privilege of the reading-room, without any additional

charge.

On the 1st of April, 1825, Capt. Partridge was induced by liberal

overtures from citizens of Middletown, Conn., to leave his institution

at Norwich, and remove to Middletown, Conn., and reopen it in that city.

Before doing so he published a card in which he exhibits the progress

and results of his labors at Norwich.

This seminary was opened at Norwich, in the state of Vermont, on the

4th of September, 1820, under my immediate direction and

superintendence; and although the plan was new and untried, besides

containing principles, which were by many considered discordant with

each other, viz., the connecting of mental improvement with a regular

course of bodily exercise, and the full development of the physical

powers, the whole conducted under a military system of discipline; still

its success has exceeded, rather than fallen short, of my most sanguine

expectations.

The following extract from a recent report of the adjutant of the

institution, compiled from the rolls and other authentic documents, will

enable the public to form their conclusions, from facts on this subject.

1st. The total number of cadets who have joined the institution, since

its organization, is 480.

2d. The numbers from the respective states, and other sections

hereafter mentioned, are as follows, viz.:--

From Maine, 28

Massachusetts, 89

New Hampshire, 57

Vermont, 115

Connecticut, 33

Rhode Island, 10

New York, 40

Pennsylvania, 15

New Jersey, 6

Delaware, 2

Maryland, 4

Virginia, 1

North Carolina, 7

South Carolina, 45

Kentucky, 2

Georgia, 7

Ohio, 1

Louisiana, 4

Mississippi, 5

Missouri, 1

Michigan, 2

District of Columbia, 2

Lower Canada, 2

Havana, Island Cuba, 1

Island Scio, Greece, 1

3dly. Of the above number, twenty are commissioned and warrant

officers of the U.S. Navy, viz., 4 lieutenants, 1 assistant-surgeon, and

15 midshipmen.

4thly. Out of the whole, 441 have been engaged in the study of the

Mathematics, and out of this number 145 have completed a full course of

“_Hutton’s Mathematics_.” Of these, 80 have, in addition, attended to

practical Mathematics, 56 have continued their course through the study

of Philosophy, and others are now fast progressing in the accomplishment

of those higher branches also.

5thly. The whole number who have studied the Greek and Latin

languages, is about 150. Of these, 25 have advanced far towards

completing a course, although none have gone entirely through. Of those

not included in the last-mentioned number, many have fitted for college,

or progressed still farther, and many are progressing. What is here

considered a course, is the same which is laid down in the prospectus,

which could be scarcely completed in the period since the establishment

of the institution.

6thly. The number of those who have attended to the French language,

is about 130. Twenty have become well acquainted with the language--30

are very well advanced, and many of the remainder have made respectable

progress.

7thly. About ten or twelve of those who have been, or are now members

of the institution, have devoted considerable time and instruction of

the militia or volunteer corps, in this and various other sections of

the country, and many of them are still engaged in that useful

employment.

Of those who have been, or are now, engaged in the study of the Latin

and Greek languages, I flatter myself there are several who would not

suffer by a comparison with any of the same degree of advancement at our

older and most approved seminaries; and as a school of practical

science, I have little hesitation in asserting, that it is second to

none in our country. In confirmation of this assertion, I would observe,

that since the establishment of the seminary, my pupils, in addition to

their usual exercises in practical geometry, and many operations of

minor consequence, have executed, in a very handsome manner, a profile

of the country, exhibiting the perpendicular altitudes of all the

prominent points, above tide water, as determined by actual observation,

from the summit of Manchester mountain, in the state of Vermont, to the

summit of mount Washington, the highest elevation of the White

Mountains, in the state of New Hampshire, a distance of 165 miles. They

have also executed a similar profile from Norwich to Whitehall, in the

state of New York, a distance of sixty-eight miles, and have further

executed a trigonometrical survey of the country around Norwich, for a

distance in some directions, of about twenty miles. This survey was

commenced, and has been prosecuted, in such a manner as to serve as a

basis for any further operations that may be thought necessary.

A handsome topographical plan of this survey is finished.

In the department of French, it is believed, the pupils have made as

rapid progress as at any seminary in our country, and in Mineralogy,

Botany, &c., although but recently commenced, there appears to be much

zeal, and a corresponding improvement, amongst the classes which have

attended, and those still attending, numbering about sixty.

Music and fencing have been attended by a large proportion of the

members, and with a progress highly creditable to them.

The military exercises and duties are common to all the cadets, and it

is believed very few have left the seminary, who were not competent to

instruct from the elementary drill of the soldier, to embrace the school

of the battalion, and who, in addition, did not possess a very competent

knowledge of the principles of the grand tactics, of the elements of

permanent and field fortification, of the principles of gunnery, &c. The

beneficial effects of the regular system of exercise and active duty, to

which my pupils are subject, upon their health, has been fully equal to

my expectations. But one death has happened at the institution, since

its commencement; and this was a youth who had just entered his name on

the rolls, but was attacked by a prevailing epidemic, of which he died,

before commencing his studies or regular duties. Several who joined the

seminary feeble and debilitated, have in a short time been entirely

restored to vigorous health. Indeed, such has been the result,

I believe, without a single exception. That a youth may, by means of a

regular system of exercise, preserve all his bodily activity and vigor,

and at the same time apply himself most assiduously to study, I have

never had any doubts; but if I had, the facts developed since the

establishment of this seminary, would have dispelled them. Many of my

pupils, and those the closest applicants to study, walk with facility

forty miles per day. In the summer of 1823, several of them left Norwich

at day-break in the morning, walked to the summit of Ascutney mountain,

and returned to Norwich about 9 o’clock in the evening of the same

day--the whole distance forty-six miles: which, considering the fatigue

and difficulty of ascending and descending the mountain, (upwards of

3,000 feet high,) may reasonably be estimated as equivalent to sixty

miles on the usual roads of the country. They continued their regular

studies and other duties the following day. In September, 1823, a party

of nearly thirty accompanied me on a pedestrian tour to the summit of

Manchester mountain, in the state of Vermont, a large portion of whom

traveled 150 miles in four days, and on the fourth day one of the party,

a youth of sixteen years of age, walked by my side forty-five miles. On

a recent excursion, to the summit of the most elevated of the White

Mountains, with a party of fifty of my pupils, a large portion of them,

on the last day, walked forty-two miles. Belonging to this party, was a

youth of but twelve years of age, who walked the whole distance, (160

miles,) carrying his knapsack, with clothes, &c., and returned in

perfect health.

Since the latter part of June, 1821, the cadets, as a military corps,

have executed, under my personal command, six military marches,

amounting, in the aggregate, to 637 miles. Different detachments from

the corps have also, within the same time, in addition to several of

minor importance, performed, under my personal direction, four

pedestrian excursions, for practical scientific purposes, amounting in

the aggregate to 684 miles, and which, added to the former, gives

637×684=1321 miles. To this may be added an excursion to the White

Mountains, whole distance 170 miles, by a party which I did not

accompany, and which will make the total distance traveled in those

marches and excursions, 1491 miles.

The foregoing facts are stated for the purpose of illustrating and

confirming the correctness of the opinion I have so often advanced in my

lectures on education, relative to the practicability, and even

facility, of combining the full development and perfection of the

physical powers of youth, with a due cultivation and improvement of the

mental faculties. Whether a young man, who enters on the grand theater

of active life, with a mind and body equally vigorous and improved, who,

while he has a head to conceive, possesses also an arm to execute, will

or will not possess advantages in the discharge of the various duties he

may be called upon to perform, over one, who has grown to the age of

manhood, puny and debilitated, destitute of physical energy, and

incapable of bodily exertion, I shall leave to the sound discretion of

the American people to decide.

As it respects the effect of the system on the morals of youth,

I would observe, that I feel confident no one has left the institution

worse than he joined it, and that I flatter myself, several have, in

this respect, been improved. Next after the influence of religion,

I consider habits of industry and economy as constituting the surest

basis of morals amongst youth. To instill these into the minds of my

pupils, ever has, and ever will be, a leading object; and I consequently

shall imperatively require the strictest adherence to ail the

regulations bearing on those points, by all concerned. I would therefore

beg leave to assure the parents, guardians, and relatives of my pupils,

that the regulations prohibiting the cadets being furnished with money,

otherwise than by the superintendent, or by his express permission, is

to be taken in its literal meaning, (without exception,) and must be

adhered to under all circumstances; and that any deviation from it will

be followed by immediate dismission. I would much prefer that the great

body of my pupils should enter young, and grow up under my system. The

mind and body are then more susceptible of improvement, than at a more

advanced period. Few, if any, vicious habits have then been formed, and

the morals, under a strict and regular discipline, may easily be

preserved. It is my fixed determination not, knowingly, to admit any

young man of confirmed vicious or dissipated habits into the

institution. I would accordingly recommend to parents and guardians not

to send me any of this description; for if they should gain admission,

and did not immediately reform, (which seldom occurs when the habits are

confirmed,) it would only eventuate in their dismission, and consequent

disgrace. It is much easier to prevent a youth from acquiring bad

habits, than to correct them after they are acquired. If parents and

guardians will send me their sons and wards free from habits of

dissipation, immorality, and vice, I will guarantee, as far as human

agency will authorize, that they shall be preserved free from such

habits, while they remain under my care. Every requisite means will be

used to correct the foibles and faults incidental to youth--to

accomplish this object no pains will be spared. With their foibles I

will bear as much as any person, but with their vices I will make no

compromise. For the purpose of enabling me the more readily and the more

certainly to accomplish this important object, I must request parents

and guardians, if their sons or wards have foibles or faults, frankly to

state them to me. On this subject there should be no reserve; as, with

such information, I should know much better what course to pursue with

them.

The favorable view taken of the aims, progress, and results of the

scientific and military training provided by Capt. Partridge in his

Academy at Norwich, was amply justified by the success of his pupils at

Middletown, as practical men in various departments of business and

public life.

On account of the condition on which he held a portion of his property

at Norwich, Capt. Partridge was obliged to maintain there a literary

institution, after his removal to Middletown. When he discontinued his

labors at the latter place, and not succeeding in his plans for

establishing a scientific and military school in the neighborhood of New

York, he returned to Norwich, and in 1832, made preparation to

reëstablish his Academy on its old basis, and with enlarged premises.

With this view he erected the building known as the North Barracks,

which were occupied for two years by Rev. Amasa Buck, for the purposes

of a Methodist school, known as the Franklin Seminary.

NORWICH UNIVERSITY.

In the spring of 1834, a number of gentlemen associated to establish at

Norwich, not an academic, but a collegiate institution, after Capt.

Partridge’s views, and in the autumn of that year, obtained from the

Legislature of Vermont, a charter by which the petitioners were

constituted a Board of Trustees of an institution by the name of the

_Norwich University_. The charter further provides “that the said Board

shall be required to furnish at said institution constantly a course of

Military instruction, both theoretical and practical, and also in Civil

Engineering, and the practical sciences generally; and the President of

said institution, with the consent of the Trustees, _shall have power to

give and confer all such diplomas, degrees, honors, or licenses, as are

usually given or conferred in Colleges or Universities_, at their

discretion; provided, however, that in so doing they shall have respect

to the morals and merits of the candidate alone.”

This act of incorporation named fourteen gentlemen, and provided for the

election of eleven others, which twenty-five should constitute the Board

of Trustees of Norwich University. The first meeting of the Trustees was

held at Norwich, Vt., January, 1835. The vacancies in the Board were

then filled, and the first members of the Faculty were elected,

viz.:--ALDEN PARTRIDGE, “President and Professor of Moral and

Intellectual Philosophy, History, Science of Government, Political

Economy, and Military Science and Tactics;” TRUMAN B. RANSOM,

Vice-President, and Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy,

Mathematics, Theoretical and Practical, and Civil Engineering; M. NORAS,

Professor of Ancient and Modern Languages; and FRANKLIN MARSH and I. M.

HORR, assistants in the English Department. These gentlemen were

authorized to form a course of study and laws for the government of the

institution.

In May, 1835, the University was opened under the auspices and in the

buildings owned by Capt. Partridge, with a full course of literary,

scientific, and military studies. Among those enumerated in the first

prospectus were Military Law, Military Drawing, Civil and Military

Engineering. “Military Science being considered an important appendage

to the education of every American youth is taught theoretically in all

departments of the University. The military exercises are attended at

those hours of the day which are generally passed by students in

idleness or devoted to useless amusements, for which they will be made a

pleasing and healthful substitute.” “The discipline will be strict, but

correct; in principle, military. It will be a great and leading object

to instill into the minds of students liberality of sentiment and

principles of honorable integrity and attachment to our republican

institutions. Everything of a sectarian character in religion will be

entirely excluded and all literary honors will be conferred in

accordance with scholarship and moral worth alone.”

At the close of the academic year, 1835-6, (August 18, 1836,) the first

Annual Commencement took place, and the class of 1836 then graduated,

consisted of one person, Alonzo Jackman, now Brigadier-General in

Vermont, and Professor of Mathematics, Military Science, etc., at the

University. Professor Ransom, entered the United States Navy about this

time, and Mr. Jackman was appointed to fill the vacant Professorship.

Soon after this, Rev. Zerah Colburn, succeeded Professor Noras. August

17, 1837, the second Annual Commencement was held, and Hon. George

McDuffie, of South Carolina, delivered the address; the next year Robert

Rantoul, Jr., of Massachusetts, was the orator; in 1839, John Wentworth,

of Illinois, and Thomas H. Seymour, of Connecticut, were speakers; and

in 1840, Benjamin F. Hallett, of Boston. The catalogues of each of these

years show that the number of students, or cadets, averaged a little

less than a hundred, and in all the catalogues, the regulations for the

Police of the Cadets’ Quarters were given in full. They provided for all

the military duties of the students, for the wearing of uniform, etc.,

etc.

In July, 1840, the Corps of the University under the command of Captain

Partridge, performed a military march across the State to Fort

Ticonderoga. They were just a week on the excursion, and in that time,

they marched nearly a hundred and fifty miles on foot, about twenty-five

miles per day. Notwithstanding the excessive warmth of the day, and the

exposure to the air of the night, with no other covering than the

soldiers’ blanket, the Cadets all returned in good health and spirits.

During the year 1843, several changes took place in the University. From

the time Mr. Ransom resigned the Vice-Presidency, until May, 1843, that

office was filled by Hon. Aaron Loveland. Mr. Ransom returned at this

time, and was again made Vice-President, and Professor of Civil and

Military Engineering, etc. The buildings and land used up to this time,

were the property of Capt. Partridge. During May, arrangements were made

for the purchase of this property by the University, but some

misunderstanding occurred before this was done, and in November,

President Partridge resigned, and took from the armory all the arms and

accoutrements, attempted to revive his old Academy in another part of

the village, and finally, when the University could not purchase his

property at his prices, obliged the students to remove from the

buildings. On his resignation, Truman B. Ransom was chosen President,

and for the two years the institution was carried on in other buildings

in the town. The Legislature was applied to, and appropriated a hundred

stand of arms, sets of accoutrements, etc., for the use of the students.

At last an arrangement was made with Capt. Partridge, for the purchase

of his property, and the University returned to its old quarters. The

number of students was small during these difficulties, but the military

department was always active, a good military education was given, and

men were graduated who now hold responsible places in the military

service of the United States among the Federal troops.

In May, 1847, President Ransom, then Major-General of the Vermont

Militia, resigned his place at the University, accepted that of Colonel

of the “New England regiment,” ninth infantry, and went with that body

to Mexico. September 13th of the same year, he was shot while gallantly

leading the charge of his regiment upon the fortifications of

Chapultepec. When Gen. Ransom left, Prof. James D. Butler was appointed

President _pro tem._, and in January, 1848, Gen. Henry S. Wheaton, of

Massachusetts, was elected President, and served as such till August,

1849; he was succeeded in September, 1850, by Rev. Edward Bourns, LL.

D., who still (1863,) holds that office.

Soon after 1850, the opposition to anything of a military education

became very strong, the number of Cadets at this institution diminished,

and the tone of the prospectus changed to suit the public. “The

discipline is military in principle and form. The Cadets are under

military organization, they dress in uniform, are regularly drilled with

arms. But they are not made lovers of war! They are not found to adopt

the profession of arms more than others of the same age, however

educated; oftentimes the harmless practice of handling arms at this age,

is found to satisfy the craving for the use of them, and these young men

settle down into the ranks of peace more easily and more contentedly

than those that have had no such training. The drill is an agreeable

exercise. The system of discipline is strict, though not oppressive, its

sole object is to preserve order and promote study.” “The object is not

to make soldiers, but to strengthen the body.” During these years (from

1850 to 1860,) the prospects of the University were not bright. It was

at once engaged in lawsuits, and troubled with debt and opposition. In

1853, it was proposed to move the University to Montpelier, but the

project was finally abandoned, the last of the old Academy property was

bought, the buildings were repaired and the institution freed from debt.

Previous to 1850, the finances were in a very confused state. When the

charter was obtained, land to the value of fifteen hundred dollars was

brought and deeded to the University. The sale of this, and

subscriptions from Trustees and citizens of Norwich, produced enough to

purchase the North Barracks. The money received of students for tuition

was always, and is still, all used for paying the salaries of the

instructors. The room-rents scarcely paid the rent and repairs of the

South Barracks, and the University ran slightly into debt. The State, in

1853-4, gave the institution about thirteen hundred dollars of an

unappropriated school fund, and enough more was raised by friends of the

University to purchase the South Barracks, and pay off old debts, and

put all the buildings in good repair. For several years it was obliged

to struggle against a load of popular prejudice on account of its

military feature, but since 1861, it has brushed up its uniform, and its

Military Department no longer seeks to hide itself. No such

semi-apologies for the military training of its students appear in its

catalogues and prospectus for 1861 and 1862.

“The Norwich University differs from most colleges in two respects.

These are its double system of study, consisting in an Academic and a

Scientific course; and its department of Military Science. The Academic

course comprises those studies usually pursued in other colleges; the

Scientific embraces Mathematics, Natural Sciences, Belles-Lettres,

Surveying, and Engineering. Four years are required to complete the

former, and three, the latter course of study. Students are also allowed

to take a partial course in either department. The students of all

departments are regarded as equals.

“The feature, however, which more than any other distinguishes Norwich

University from other Collegiate institutions, is the department of

Military Science and Tactics.

“Agreeably to the provisions of its charter, the students are all under

Military discipline--are called Cadets--dress in uniform, and are

instructed in Infantry, Rifle, and Artillery Drill, Bayonet Exercise,

Fortification, Reconnoissance, Castrametation, Guard and Out-Post duty,

&c., &c. All the arms and equipments necessary for drills are furnished

by the State of Vermont. * * *

“The military feature of this institution is one which should

particularly commend it to the notice, and patronage of the public at

this time. The want of men skilled in Military Science and Tactics, to

take command of volunteer forces, and discipline them into effective

soldiers, has been severely felt in organizing the present army of the

United States. The reverses with which it has met are, without doubt,

owing largely to this cause. To guard against this defect in the future,

it is now generally felt that young men should be educated thoroughly in

every department of Military Science. In times of peace this knowledge

would not incapacitate men for nor interfere with any other

business;--while in times of war, it would become invaluable to the

country in training an army for efficient service.”

The following persons constituted the Faculty in 1862. Rev. EDWARD

BOURNS, LL. D., President, and Professor of Moral Sciences, Ancient

Languages, and Literature; ALONZO JACKMAN, A.M., Brigadier-General

Vermont Volunteer Militia, Professor of Mathematics, Natural Philosophy,

Military Science, and Tactics; THOMAS R. CROSBY, M.D., Professor of

Anatomy, Physiology, and Natural History; CLINTON S. AVERILL, A.M.,

Acting Professor of Natural Sciences; GEORGE BAILLARD, Professor of

Modern Languages, and Linear and Architectural Drawing; SAMUEL W.

SHATTUCK, B.S., Tutor in Mathematics and Military Tactics; ALONZO

JACKMAN, A.M., Librarian.

MILITARY ELEMENT IN SCHOOLS OF ALL GRADES.

INTRODUCTION.

In all ages and in all countries there have been educators who

recognized the importance of the physical, and more specifically, of the

military element in their schemes of individual and collective teaching.

No higher authority in English pedagogical literature of the liberal

type, can be named in this connection, than John Milton, who, in his

brief but masterly outline of “a virtuous and noble education,” includes

this in the means of a complete and generous culture, that is “to fit a

man to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously all the offices,

both private and public, of peace and war.” In the outset he demands

that the number of pupils, for whose accommodations a spacious house and

grounds were to be provided, should be large enough for “the convenience

of a foot company or interchangeably two troops of cavalry,” so that

systematic exercise could alternate with the studies and diet. In his

general programme he includes studies which shall “stir up their spirits

to manly and liberal exercise,” and “inflame their hearts with high

hopes of living to be brave men and worthy patriots.” In the enumeration

of studies he specifies mathematics, the practical aid of instruments in

surveying and engineering, and their application to fortification and

navigation. Living in the midst of a civil war like our own, when the

preservation of constitutional liberty had summoned troops from the

field, the shop, and the study, and placed men in command who had not

been trained to the profession of arms, Milton directs or points out the

value of studies, the mastery of whose general principles “may at some

time or other save an army, and not let the healthy and stout bodies of

young men rot away under them for want of this discipline, which is a

great pity, and no less shame to the commander.” In treating specially

of physical culture, Milton assigns to military drill, and use of sword

and other weapons, at least an hour and a half each day, that his pupils

may be equally good both for peace and war. “The exercise which I

commend first is the exact use of these weapons to guard and strike

safely with edge or point. This will keep them healthy, nimble, strong,

and well in breath; is also the likeliest means to make them grow large

and tall, and to inspire them with a gallant and fearless courage, which

being tempered with seasonable lectures and precepts to make them of

true fortitude and patience, will turn into a native and heroic valor,

and makes them hate the cowardice of doing wrong.” With the use of the

sword Milton would associate all athletic sports “wherein Englishmen are

apt to excel.” And after the day’s study has been thoroughly done, “with

minds in good tune and satisfaction,” he would occupy the “two hours

before supper in military motions, under sky, or cover, according to the

season, as was the Roman wont; first on foot, then as their age permits,

on horseback to all the art of cavalry; that having in spirit, but with

much exactness and daily muster, served out the rudiments of their

soldiership in the skill of embattling, marching, encamping, fortifying,

besieging and battering, with all the helps of ancient and modern

strategems, tactics, and warlike maxims, they may, as it were, out of a

long war come forth renowned and perfect commanders in the service of

their country. They would not then if they were trusted with fair and

hopeful armies, suffer them for want of just and wise discipline to shed

away from about them like sick feathers, though they be never so oft

supplied; they would not suffer these empty and unrecruitable colonels

to quaff out or convey into secret hoards the wages of a delusive list

and miserable remnant. No, certainly, if they knew aught of that

knowledge which belongs to good men or good governors, they would not

suffer these things.” To these school studies and practical exercises,

Milton would add excursions “to all quarters of the land, learning and

observing all places of strength, all material for building, all soil

for towns and tillage, harbors and ports of trade. These ways would try

all their peculiar gifts of Nature, and if there is any secret

excellence among them, would fetch it out and give it fair opportunities

to advance itself by.”

The views of Milton in favor of military exercises can not be attributed

to any professional bias, for his tastes and his habits of life were in

the shaded walks of the academy, “contemplating the serene countenance

of truth in the still air of delightful study.”

The example of Switzerland can be cited on the side of their

practicality, on a scale as liberal and much more popular than their

author at the time contemplated; and quite recently (1871), the Federal

war authorities propose that the older boys in the secondary and

superior schools shall be instructed in outpost and skirmishing duties.

X. PHYSICAL AND MILITARY EXERCISES IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

A NATIONAL NECESSITY

BY EDWARD L. MOLINEUX

Major and Inspector in New York Militia.

From a long and unexampled period of political and commercial prosperity

we suddenly find ourselves called upon to struggle for national

existence, and while a noble response from the people to the necessity

of the struggle has strengthened the hand of government with an

intelligent army, and developed the resources of the country, yet the

occasion has laid bare defects which call for correction.

Without a standing army of any magnitude we have found our militia laws

defective, and have been obliged to create ourselves a military people

by the sufferings and bitterness of an experience bought on the field of

active warfare.

Military necessity has compelled the loss of invaluable time in the

organizing and preparing of our troops, which would not have been

required had we been able to meet the rebellion at the commencement with

well trained officers and an experienced and carefully drilled militia.

“_The first object_” says Daniel Webster, “_of a free people is the

preservation of their liberty:_” a noble truth which must speak home to

the heart of every American, and if, as it is asserted, “the future life

and character of a nation is to be seen in its system of schools,” then

we may well listen with some degree of alarm to the warnings and

unmistakable evidences by which we are surrounded, that the American

race is physically deteriorating.[22]

[Footnote 22: Miss C. E. Beecher’s “Appeal to American Women,”

“Calisthenics,” &c.]

The question arises, has our National system of Education been such as

to qualify and prepare us to maintain successfully, the noble

inheritance which was won by the physical energies of the men of the

Revolution, and with our success in the field of intellectual culture,

have we kept the physical advantages possessed by our forefathers?

Let us not mislead ourselves in this matter, but calmly look at the

facts, that as a rule, our present system of Public Education is devoted

_solely_ to the mental and moral improvement of the scholars, and that

the encouragements and rewards held out by committees and teachers,

stimulate to the overexertion of the brain, and sacrifice in too many

instances, the health and growth of the body.

Although great improvement has been made of late by the shortening of

the time devoted to study, and by the introduction of more frequent

periods of recreation, yet still little has been attempted for giving

exercise and activity to the body; this important training being left to

the care of parents or the pupils themselves.

Is it not too true that the increase of ill health, broken

constitutions, and early deaths, among the growing portion of our

population, especially in cities, warns us, year after year, that the

thirst for knowledge, and the restless seeking after mental and

intellectual improvement, have been bought at the expense of the vital

energies of the great body of youth who throng the colleges and public

schools of our land?[23]

[Footnote 23: [We do not share this alarm, or believe that hard

study, apart from open or secret vice, has had much, if any thing,

to do with such physical deterioration as does exist.-- ED. _Am.

Jour. of Ed._]]

If any one denies this, let him visit our institutions of learning, and

while he may well admire the wisdom and forethought which has

established our prosperity on a noble system of National Education, he

can not but notice the debility evinced in the frames of so many

youthful votaries of intellectual training; the exceptions making the

contrast still more strikingly painful. Then let him go to the

counting-house or the close confinement of some mechanical employment,

where the evils from mental activity, unaccompanied by physical

recreation, are yet more strongly developed. These evils assail not only

the happiness of families, but the prosperity of the nation and the

well-being of the race. Is this right or necessary? Can it be avoided?

The solution of these momentous questions may well engage the serious

attention of the reflecting teacher, parent and patriot; and to them we

assert that, _unless physical exercises are enforced upon our system of

Public School education, our intellectual culture will be of little

avail, and that our nationality stands in danger of sinking a prey to

designing opponents_.

That enfeebled races are invariably conquered by those more powerfully

developed, is proved by innumerable instances in history. That physical

training was an important branch of education among the Greeks and

Romans, is well known. The system inculcated by the iron-hearted

Lycurgus, among the Spartan youth, was of a nature admirably adapted to

fit them for all the sterner realities of life, whilst the athletic

games and exercises of the youth of Rome, comprising, as it did,

walking, running, wrestling, swimming, and military drill, were the

means of improving, to the utmost, their physical powers. Upon reaching

manhood, the advantage of this training was indicated by the robustness

of form, and the constitutional vigor which enabled them to undertake

labor, fatigue and hardship of every kind, with perfect indifference.

The Spartan and the Roman soldiers were by this early training, not only

qualified to surmount with ease the various obstacles and difficulties

incident to a state of active warfare, but they also became gifted with

precision and rapidity in every movement, and each man was likewise

endowed with that confidence in himself, and that unbounded reliance

upon order, subordination and combined action, which nourish audacity,

yet temper it with coolness and steadiness.

Unfortunately this system, by which the vigor and valor of a Spartan or

a Roman has passed into a proverb, fell into disuse, and as it was

neglected for more intellectual pursuits, so the grand empires founded

by its vigor crumbled before the assaults of more athletic barbarians.

The influence of health upon the faculties of the mind is acknowledged

by all, and yet how few in this country devote attention to those all

important exercises which are necessary to the preservation of health,

and without which intellectual power can not be applied to its highest

use. The talents, the experience of our best educators of youth, are

taxed to devise exercises to develop the _mental_ faculties, forgetting

that too close application to study is detrimental to the growth of the

body.

But few thoughtful teachers will deny the extent to which this evil has

reached, or be unwilling that the strain upon the intellectual powers of

children, by absorbing studies, should be counteracted by cheerful and

relaxing exercises by which the mind will be relieved and at the same

time strengthened. The testimony of physicians, the valuable works on

health by Dr. Warren, Miss C. E. Beecher, and many other able writers,

furnish incontestable evidence of the necessity of systematic exercise

for children. To accomplish this it is absolutely necessary to adopt it

in our course of education, for in the majority of cases it can not, or

will not, be attended to at their homes.

What then is the most simple, feasible and useful plan to adopt for

physical exercises in our Colleges, Normal and Public Schools?

We unhesitatingly say, that the only successful, orderly, and systematic

method is, _to engraft them upon the course of studies during school

hours, and to carry it out under strict military discipline_; the

exercises being such as are best suited to the age, strength and

capabilities of the pupils, namely: calisthenics and walking for the

girls and younger children, and _military exercises_ for the elder boys.

Let not the kind hearted parent exclaim against his boy learning the

military drill, for fear of his acquiring a taste for warfare; or the

lover of peace imagine we would re-establish the stern laws of Lycurgus.

We would have moderation, in this respect as in mental studies, and

while we would not, as some may imagine, displace the bust of Howard in

our school rooms for a Napoleon, yet we would impress upon the minds of

boys the image and example of Washington, and in cultivating their

intellectual faculties, likewise prepare them in mind and body to

develop in manhood those virtues and powers which constitute a true and

noble citizen;--a sincere love of country, of national probity and

justice, beyond selfish considerations or personal aggrandizement They

should be brought up to a sense and knowledge that it will be their

honorable duty and privilege to protect their native land, that she

fosters and educates them in their youth, and that upon their manhood

her nationality depends.

We can never become an aggressive military people; the fields for

successful enterprise in art, science, commerce and agriculture, are too

broad and inviting to render military pursuits very attractive, and

unless we cultivate such exercises and discipline in youth, they will

be, as they have been, neglected when engaged in the active pursuits of

business. The clear, common sense of the American parent will

acknowledge, not only the national necessity, but the moral advantages

of this; for what fond mother is there but would prefer to see in her

son a manly, patriotic spirit, rather than a timid, mercenary one,

which, shunning danger, would sacrifice the honor and greatness of his

country to the base love of gain and ease.

We have suggested that the exercises be conducted under strict military

discipline, because it is impossible for a large body of children to be

exercised in the usual school limits, unless the greatest decorum and

order is observed; and if conducted under the supervision of a teacher,

dangers and accidents will be avoided, which always occur when children

are rash and thoughtless in attempting to accomplish too much. Thus

conducted, they will prove an invaluable aid to the teacher in the

enforcement of discipline in the school room, and teach that invaluable

lesson which it seems so difficult for children to learn,--unhesitating

obedience.

For the advantages of this system let us examine the practical testimony

afforded in the European schools, where considerable attention has been

paid to this important matter.

On the continent the advantages of physical training are appreciated to

their fullest extent, especially in the Industrial Reform schools, where

the admirable principle has been adopted of teaching “what they will

have occasion to use when they become men,”[24] and thus render them

useful members of society. To Dr. Barnard’s National Education in

Europe, we are indebted for the following extracts and illustrations of

this position.

[Footnote 24: Aristippus.]

In the Reform School of Rauhen Haus, near Hamburg, “they are taught to

develop their bodily and mental powers in various practical ways; to use

the fire engine, to swim, to save persons from drowning, and use

remedies to recover them, to climb a mast and handle the sail, of a

ship. They act as a jury among themselves. Their chief reward is to be

enrolled in the table of honor. In the great fire of Hamburg, their

conduct was physically, as well as morally, heroic, and while bravely

saving life and property, they steadily refused rewards.” Parents who,

perhaps justly owing to the numerous accidents in Gymnasiums, are timid

of their children becoming injured by these exercises, should carefully

read the system pursued in Fellenberg’s celebrated establishment at

Hofwyl. “A great variety of exercises of the body and the senses are

employed, so that every boy shall acquire a knowledge of his physical

strength, and attain confidence with regard to those efforts of which he

is capable, instead of that foolhardiness which endangers the existence

of many who have not learned to estimate their own powers correctly.” At

Ruysselde, Belgium, the following plan was pursued: In summer, from 5½

to 6½ A.M., Exercises and Manœuvres; from 7½ to 8¾ P.M., Gymnastics. In

winter, several hours were devoted to these exercises, and the result

found (as in this report,) was, that “rickets, scrofula, want of

elasticity in the limbs, difficulty of walking, all rapidly disappeared

under the drill, which confirmed the health and increased the strength

and activity of the children, and accustomed them to discipline. It

predisposed the pupils to sleep, and was an effective safeguard against

shameful habits and secret vices. The battalion movements were performed

with as much precision as that of the army, a platoon armed with

condemned carbines, marched at the head. The bayonet exercises and

skirmishing were as good as play to the boys.” A remarkable instance of

the moral effects of military discipline upon the lads of the _Colonie

Agricole_, at Mettray, is related by M. Demetz, and was published in

Barnard’s Journal, Vol. 1, p. 623. “During the revolution of 1848, a

band of workmen came to Mettray, with flags flying and trumpets

sounding, and meeting the youths returning, tired from field labor,

their pickaxes on their shoulders, thus addressed them:--‘My boys, do

not be such fools as to work any longer. Bread is plentiful; it is ready

for you without labor.’ The _chef_, who was conducting the boys, and who

behaved with the greatest calmness and tact, immediately cried, ‘Halt!

form in line,’ The lads, being accustomed to march like soldiers,

immediately formed. The _chef_ then said to the men, ‘My friends, you

have learned to labor; you have a right to rest; but leave these lads:

let them learn now, and when their turn comes they may rest as you do.’

The men gave way, the youths marched home, and Mettray was

saved,--saved, as I believe, by our habit of military discipline.” It

was the heroic exertions of these young _colons_ during the inundation

of 1856, which won for them the praises of all France. These instances

might be multiplied, but are sufficient to show the moral and physical

benefits of military exercises and discipline upon boys, even of the

lowest class.

The governments of Europe being upheld by the bayonets of large standing

armies, and requiring, as they do, in many of the kingdoms, the

compulsory service of all young men, renders it unnecessary for the

daily public schools to teach military exercises to that extent, which

it is well for our Republican government to do. Yet in Europe they watch

with the greatest assiduity and care the bodily powers of the children,

knowing its great advantage not only in health, but the maintenance of

order.

In Great Britain much interest has of late been evinced on this subject,

and Mr. Edwin Chadwick becoming convinced that the studies and

confinement in their schools were generally prolonged beyond the powers

of the children, and in violation of the laws of health, devoted himself

to collecting testimony respecting the advantages of the military drill

upon the health of children. His investigations have elicited much

valuable information, the more interesting to us as they mark its

advantages to a nation which, like our own, depends for its defence

mainly upon a volunteer force.

The following synopsis of his pamphlet we extract from the N.Y. Evening

Post, November 1st:

Mr. Chadwick considers “In a sanitary point of view that a systematized

drill is good, and for defective constitutions requisite for the

correction of congenital bodily defects and taints, with which the youth

of a very large proportion of the population, especially among the

poorer town populations, are affected: and that for these purposes the

climbing of masts, and other operations of the naval drill, and

swimming, are valuable additions to the gymnastic exercises of the

military drill, and when properly taught are greatly liked by boys. From

a moral point of view, also, this drill will give the pupil an early

initiation into all the acquirements of discipline--namely, duty, order,

obedience to command, self-restraint, punctuality and patience.”

The evidence furnished by English drill officers shows its national

value, and “That at school it maybe taught most economically, as not

interfering with productive labor, and that thirty or forty boys may be

taught the naval and military drill at one penny farthing (two and a

half cents) per week per head as cheaply as one man, and the whole

juvenile population may be drilled completely in the juvenile stage, as

economically as the small part of it now taught imperfectly on

recruiting or in the adult stage; and that, for teaching the drill, the

services of retired drill sergeants, and naval as well as military

officers and pensioners, may be had economically in every part of the

country.

That the middle and higher class schools should have, in addition to the

foot drill, the cavalry drill, which the parents of that class of pupils

may afford.

That the drill, when made generally prevalent, (without superseding,)

will eventually accomplish, in a wider and better manner, the objects of

volunteer corps and of yeomanry, which, as interrupting productive

occupations now becoming more absorbing, is highly expensive, rendering

all volunteer forces dependent in fitful zeal, and eventually

comparatively inefficient; that the juvenile drill, if made general,

will accomplish better the objects even of the militia; that the

juvenile drill will abate diffidence in military efficiency, and will

spread a wide predisposition to a better order of recruitment for the

public service, will tend to the improvement of the ranks of the regular

forces, whether naval or military, and will produce an immensely

stronger and cheaper defensive force than by the means at present in use

or in public view.

And, finally, that the means of producing this defensive force, instead

of being an expense, will be a gain to the productive powers and value

of the labors of the country.”

Lieutenant-General Shaw Kennedy, in a letter expressing his high

approval of the plan, states, “that the inferences drawn can not be

controverted.” He is of opinion that if the measure is carried out it

will be the means of bringing two million of men actually under arms in

Great Britain alone, that is, excluding Ireland. He conceives that the

effects of military drill and exercises, and the use of fire-arms taught

at schools, would never be forgotten; that a youth so trained would, at

any future period, with a slight degree of practice, renew his knowledge

of what he had been taught.

Nor has the training of a better class of seamen been neglected. This is

of vital importance to the well-being of a commercial people, and it is

well for us to see what steps England is taking in the matter.

For the purpose of giving instruction in the naval drill, old masts and

tackle have been obtained for some of the training schools in England,

and Mr. Taffnell has received expressions of satisfaction from naval men

of the way in which some of the boys have by these means been tutored as

seamen in pauper schools. In order to form sailors, it is necessary to

have masts and sails rigged in the playground, and a regular seaman must

be engaged to drill the boys.

Mr. Baker has observed that the naval drill as given at Greenwich, is

highly effective. “He states that he was on board the Ganges and the

Conway at a time when many boys came on board who had been taught the

naval drill at Greenwich naval schools; and that they proved to be as

ready and well trained as man-of-war’s men; they were clean and orderly,

and as a class were first-rate seamen, becoming petty and warrant

officers in greater proportion than others.”

Of its consequence upon the national health and industry, Professor Owen

has stated that even in the best-warmed and ventilated schools, five or

six hours’ enforced stillness of growing children is a violation of the

primary laws of physiology; whilst Miss Nightingale and others agree

that, under the present system, children are placed under conditions

which impair good bodily health and generate epidemic disease. Mr.

Rahnson, a school commissioner at Amsterdam, states that the physical

evils attendant upon the present amount of sedentary confinement in

schools, required from young children, is beginning to attract attention

in Holland, and that they have under trial a system of exercises for

schools advocated by Dr. Schrieber, of Leipsic. ‘The chief question,’

says the latter gentleman, ‘is, How are our children to be brought up?

Is it according to the laws of nature? The answer is, No; or we should

not see so many children who were rosy and healthy before going to

school, become pale and bloodless after school has begun;’ and he

prescribes the limitation of the hours of school confinement.

Mr. Robert Rawlinson, civil engineer, gives the following as his opinion

of the advantages of school drill in connexion with manual labor:

“In my opinion, based on experience and observation, I think school

drilling and training would prove of the utmost consequence to the boys

in after life. I may give a few instances. In all engineering and

building, tradesmen are frequently required to use their strength in

concert, lifting, carrying and drawing; men, to use their joint strength

not only effectively but safely, must have confidence in each other. Two

trained men will lift and carry more easily and safely than four

untrained men. I have frequently seen trained men weed out unskilled men

where heavy lifting has been required, because they dare not risk the

danger arising from unskilled strength, and few have performed with more

safety work which would have been lighter and easier if all had been

equally skilled. Men frequently reject the assistance of unskilled men,

as there is absolutely danger in having them near. Frequent accidents

arise from using men unskilled in lifting, in hoisting, and at capstan

work. * * * Boys should not only learn to march, but to lift, carry and

pull in concert. There are many necessary feats of strength in all

trades, which are more matters of knack and tact than of brute strength.

Brute strength frequently fails to do that which comparative weakness

can accomplish easily with skill and confident concert. There is no

regular system of training in concert to use human strength in the best

manner in any trade, so far as I know; acting in concert is a matter of

necessity, and practice gives facility and confidence. Drill and

training would probably double the effective human power of any

establishment, especially if numbers are instructed in joint feats of

strength. That which is taught to youth is never forgotten in after

life.”

“As regards its fitness as an appendage to the highest branches of

education, we have the testimony of experienced examiners at the

University of Oxford, England, who state that six hours mental work,

instead of ten or twelve, for adults, was the time of the great majority

of the prizemen; and it was always found that those who were the

foremost in mental labor were commonly the foremost in boat-rowing and

physical exercise. The Vice-Chancellor of Oxford testifies that the

institution of the systematized exercise of the volunteer drill in that

college had been attended by an improvement of the mental labors, and of

the whole of the order and discipline, as well as of the health of the

University; and that, encouraged by these results, he was considering of

making provision for cavalry exercises.”

Mr. Chadwick has also furnished incontestable proofs of the absolute

necessity of more active physical training for females and of its

bearing upon the future welfare of the race. But this subject has been

rendered so familiar to American readers by the able pen of Miss

Catherine E. Beecher, that we need not touch upon the European view,

except to say that the noble labors of Professors Ling and Branting, of

Sweden, have been ably seconded by very many of the governments of

Northern Europe, where a method of gymnastics for females, has been

systematized and practically adopted. From this brief sketch of the

practical working of physical military exercises in Europe, let us turn

to what has been accomplished among our own countrymen, whose activity

in behalf of public education called forth the compliment from Prof.

LeRoy, which we wish was better deserved, especially by the class which

he specifies. that “the improvement of schools is, so to speak, the

fixed idea, the constant preoccupation of the statesmen of America.”

We have indeed a noble and liberal system of education, but we would see

its fostering care so extended as to invigorate the bodies as well as

develop the mental faculties and intellectual powers of the pupils. The

military exercises would best accomplish this, and at the same time form

our public schools into a NURSERY FOR A BRAVE AND EFFECTIVE MILITIA.

Early in October last a communication was addressed by the writer to the

different governors, and various other persons connected with the

executive departments of the Northern States, in regard to the

advantages to be derived from the introduction of infantry drills in the

public schools, and by early preparation in school-days to strengthen

the _militia_ of the different States. At the same time it was placed

before the New York and other City Boards of Education, and referred by

them to special committees. The subject was also agitated through the

columns of the daily press. The warm responses which have been accorded

to these communications, prove the deep interest which is felt in this

important matter, and it is to be hoped by the time this article appears

in print,[25] some legislative action will have been taken.

[Footnote 25: Written December, 1861. Recommended by Governors

Andrew and Morgan in their messages in January.]

In New York, the energetic Judge Advocate General, William H. Anthon,

being engaged in a report upon the militia laws, and taking a warm

interest in all matters relative to the efficacy of the militia, thus

speaks of the importance of some alteration in the present system, in a

letter addressed to Mr. Curtis, President of the Board of Education in

the city of New York:

“The entire system, in my judgment, needs revision and reform, in order

to make the militia what the Father of the Republic intended it should

be.

It has been suggested by several persons, and among others Col. Richard

Delafield, U.S. A., and Maj. E. L. Molineux, that an excellent

foundation for an improved militia system would be the introduction of

‘The Manual of Arms,’ and ‘The School of the Soldier and of the

Company,’ into our public schools.

I am disposed to consider these suggestions as valuable, and shall feel

obliged to you if you will, as early as may be convenient, inform me how

far you deem them practicable, and how they may be most conveniently

introduced into the institutions under the charge of your Board.”

Mr. Curtis, whose personal observations on the European school systems,

and whose long experience at the head of the Educational Board of the

largest city in the Union, renders his views of the greatest value,

replied:

“It has been my opinion for years that military instruction should,

under certain restrictions, and to a certain extent, be given to the

older boys in all the schools and institutions that are supported or

draw funds from the public treasury. It is but just to the State whose

munificence sustains these schools, that the pupils should be instructed

in those branches of knowledge that will make them useful and effective

in defending and protecting the State. A well organized militia,

receiving from year to year into its ranks the disciplined and

instructed youth who have passed through the public schools, and to whom

the duties of the soldier are familiar, will always be sustained by the

public confidence and esteem.”

Military discipline and exercises are by no means an untried experiment

in the annals of American education; some of our best private schools

and institutes having long since adopted it, and with a good degree of

success as it will be our endeavor now to show.

To the admirable regulations of our National Military and Naval

Academies, we need not refer; the systematic course pursued by them for

the development of health, for discipline of mind and body, being well

known to the majority of our readers.

One instance which came under the writer’s personal observation, will

sufficiently illustrate the dependence which can be placed upon

well-drilled boys in case of emergency.

In April last, when Washington was defenceless, Baltimore in riot, and

all Maryland in a state of revolt, communication being cut off at

Annapolis, there was great fear of attack upon that important

strategetic point. The pupils were prepared for any exigency, and slept

with their loaded rifles over their cots. At an alarm of a night attack,

there was no hesitation among those gallant little fellows. They were up

directly; fell in their ranks and off at a _double-quick_ for the point

of danger, in an almost incredible short space of time. The elder boys

dragged their howitzer with them. Had an attack taken place, those

pupils would have given a good account of themselves and have stood

their ground with courage and steadiness. The secret of this is the

_discipline_, for which they are indebted to the assiduity of their

brave and experienced superintendent, Captain Blake of the Navy.

Let us read the opinion of this able officer in respect to the applying

of this _discipline_ to public schools:

“My experience at this institution long since impressed me with the

importance of this subject, and I intended to have given my views

publicly, but you have left nothing more to be said upon it, and I can

only hope that those who have the control of our public schools will

view the subject as we do. We have received about a hundred and forty

acting midshipmen this year, some of them very young, and although they

have not been here two months, they present a beautiful example of such

results as the system would produce all over the country.”

It must be acknowledged that the States now in rebellion have devoted

much more attention to military instruction in special schools, than we

have, many of them pursuing the European plan of State Academies devoted

to military science. Thus while we have been obliged to _create_

officers from the small nucleus afforded us from West Point, they have

had the students from State Colleges to officer their regiments.

For a long time back Virginia has annually expended upon her Military

Institute nearly $50,000; South Carolina, $30,000; Kentucky and other

States have likewise institutions, founded in whole or part, upon a

military basis.

Although several attempts have been made to obtain legislative action

for similar institutes in the Northern States, they have not, up to the

present time, been successful, owing, we think, to the groundless

opinion that it would prove a heavy tax, without a corresponding

advantage. We shall endeavor to prove in this article how economically

an academy could be supported. It is, therefore, to private enterprise,

we are indebted for any experiments which have been made in this

respect.

Several of our best boys’ boarding-schools in this portion of the

country, have for a long time employed a military instructor for the

pupils and been managed on a semi-military organization; they have been

well sustained by the patronage of the public. We instance two or three

schools of the present time.

Dr. Russell’s Collegiate and Commercial Institute of New Haven, is one

which has already been of national advantage to us, for according to

Prof. Daniel C. Gilman, “the scholars were of great service in drilling

the recruits of Connecticut at the outset of the war, and many of them

now hold important posts in the army. The scholars formerly trained as

infantry and are now at artillery practices.” Mr. Gilman very justly

observes, that in a country like ours with no standing army, every

able-bodied man should learn to bear arms, and there can be no cheaper

or efficient way of doing this than by teaching boys in schools.

The Eagleswood Collegiate and Military School, near Perth Amboy, N.J.,

has been recently organized on the military plan. The scholars are

formed into a battalion under a superintendent and colonel commanding,

the rest of the officers being taken from the scholars. The State of

New Jersey has supplied the institute with arms, and the military

regulations apply to the conduct of the pupils in their general

deportment. The reasons given for employing this discipline are the same

that apply in every instance, that it is the most orderly and effective,

increases the energy, vigor and manly attitude of the boys, and induces

cheerful obedience.

To Major J. P. Prall, Military Instructor, we are under obligations for

the following account of Mr. Tracy’s _Military Boarding School, at

Tarrytown, N.Y._:

“There is no question, in my mind, of the utility of military

instruction in schools, and if I had any doubts, they would speedily be

removed by the fact that the very exigency you propose to provide for is

being developed, only in a less degree, in the volunteer army now

fighting our country’s battles. There are a number holding honorable

positions in the army of the Potomac, and elsewhere, who have more

particularly come under my own observation, that have passed through a

course of similar instruction to what you propose, in private military

boarding schools, who give evidence of superior knowledge as soldiers,

and with a little preparation were _ready_ to assume the duties and

responsibilities of the field and camp. They have more particularly

distinguished themselves as drill masters and thorough disciplinarians,

the very ground you proposed to cover in your articles in the N.Y.

Tribune of Nov. 20. I have especially noticed, of late, the facility

with which youth acquire military knowledge since the outbreak of the

rebellion, when the occasion seems to impress them more strongly with

its importance.

Independent of the military availability of youth thus instructed, the

promptness and precision that the system induces is apparent. A simple

sketch of the routine of duties in a school over the military department

of which I have the supervision, may give an idea of its utility, as

well as its usefulness. This department is conducted in such a way as to

make the military feature an auxiliary to the classical and preparatory.

Part of two days in each week is more especially devoted to military

drill and instruction, when the flag is raised on the flag-staff on the

parade ground with the roll of the drum, and the sunrise gun is fired.

At sunset it is lowered with the same ceremony by a file of boys, in

charge of an officer, or non-commissioned officer. On other days of the

week a drill of about an hour is held, in command of the company

officers,--always in presence of the Principal. The utmost strictness is

required in all the military features. The “Assembly,” when beaten for

drill or parade, occupies one minute--_immediately_ after, “_fall in_”

is given by the orderly, when _entire_ silence is required. Boys being

naturally playful, much more care in these particulars is necessary than

in grown persons. _Tattoo_ begins at 9 o’clock precisely, when the

minute of its duration expires every cadet is required to be in line for

“roll call,” and the three squads, each in charge of an officer, are

marched by flank to their quarters, (the whole not occupying more than

two minutes.) They halt opposite their beds, and salute their officer as

he passes out;--in five minutes the lights are extinguished. Their

clothing is uniformly arranged, and in such way that if called up at

night they can dress without lights and without loss of time. The

officer in command of each, being held responsible for the condition of

his squad. The military instructor inspects at unexpected times, and

directs the chiefs of squads to report the result to the officer of the

day, through whom all reports to the Principal must be made at 9 o’clock

A.M. each day. _Reveille_ at day break, and they march by squads to wash

room, where twenty minutes is allowed for necessary ablutions, blacking

boots, &c., and then the march to the Assembly-room for “_roll call_.”

Inspection of boots twice a week, at unknown times.

The squads for the _mess-room_ march in order, filing each side of the

tables, face inward, and “_sit down_” by command; _rise_, march out and

_break ranks_, observing the same military precision. These various

duties are performed with pleasure and pride by the cadets, and the same

promptness and regularity is apparent in every movement.

The _armory_ and arms are in charge of a detail of four, and are

inspected in turn on the roll, each week, and reports are made of

disabled pieces, and the general condition of the arms and armory, to

the officer of the day, and through him to the Principal. The various

reports are embodied into one, by this officer, so that the Principal is

not burdened with the details unless he calls for them.

Orders are issued from time to time, by the Military Instructor, and

engrossed in a book, which is open for inspection of visitors,

announcing promotions, results of inspection, and noting cases of

military merit and demerit, &c. This has a tendency to stimulate to

exertion, and to efforts to avoid unfavorable notice.

Military classes 1st, 2d and 3d, graduated according to military merit

are established, and promotions to them made after strict examinations.

All company officers are selected from the 1st class.

A class of Honor, consisting of members of the First class who have

escaped being reported for disobedience and improper conduct, is also

formed. A given number of military demerits reduces a cadet, and the

badge which is worn on the left breast is taken from him. He may,

however, be reinstated.

Military demerits are punished by military penalties.

Cadets are taught to observe the position of the soldier when off duty

also; the benefit of this is very marked. When the machinery is properly

set in motion, the labor generally attending the minutiæ of school

duties is greatly reduced, and much more pleasantly and thoroughly

performed.

I have not entered into all the details, (and have given the military

only) but enough to give a general idea of the plan adopted by this

school. There are different modes in use in other schools. Some

partaking more of the military, and some less. I think there is danger,

often, of _too much_ military being engrafted so as to make it

burdensome; great care should be taken in this particular, as the cadet

wearies of it when the novelty is past.”

Mr. N. W. Taylor Root, in his admirable book on School Amusements,

furnishes practical testimony “that it fosters habits of promptness,

exactness, and unanimity of action; teaches implicit obedience to

commands, erectness of carriage, a neat and clean appearance, and a

gentlemanly and respectful behavior.”

It will thus be seen that a system of military drill has been tested

morally and physically, in private schools, and found of decided

advantage.

Why should these benefits be denied to the pupils of Public Day Schools?

Why should this vast defensive power be lost to the Government?

As a national military necessity; as a protection to the health and

constitutional vigor of American youth; and as a powerful agent upon

their moral behavior, their energy, self-reliance and spirit of

enterprise, let PHYSICAL TRAINING BE ENGRAFTED ON THE COURSE OF STUDIES

FOR ALL THE PUPILS EDUCATED AT THE EXPENSE OF THE STATE. Let us not

hesitate at the magnitude of the undertaking, for it is a _necessity_,

and under proper regulations and restrictions can be successfully and

economically accomplished.

The greatest difficulty to be surmounted is the successful working of a

system at once applicable to the requirements of a small district

school, with a limited number of scholars, attending only at certain

seasons of the year, and of those of the larger cities, with numerous

schools, in which a great number are under instruction.

Let us commence at the foundation, in the Primary Schools.

The moment the child enters the school care should be taken that the

mental exercises which are given should be relieved by frequent

intermissions for running and playing, under the supervision of the

teacher. This we are glad to say is the case in very many of our best

primary schools; but it is when the child becomes more advanced, when

there are lessons to commit to memory at home, that some simple physical

_exercises_ should be taught him every day; exercises calculated to

develop the growth and expand the muscles. The calisthenics recommended

in Miss Beecher’s work are excellent, simple, and easily fitted to the

limits of the school house. The report of Mr. W. H. Wells,

Superintendent of Public Schools for Chicago, for 1860, gives some

interesting particulars of simple exercises which have been attempted in

that city.

There would be but little difficulty experienced in selecting movements

and gymnastics suitable for the strength and ability of the classes of

younger boys, and girls under instruction, provided the method was

established as an imperative duty which _must_ be regularly put in

practice, and that no lack of interest on the part of teachers, or

laziness of the pupils would be accepted as an excuse for non-compliance

with the regulation. We trust if Physical Training is carried out in our

system of education, that a carefully prepared Manual of all kinds of

exercises, embracing the military drill, will be compiled for the use of

schools; in a word, a text-book to which our teachers can turn with

confidence to find exercises suitable for all classes of pupils.[26]

[Footnote 26: Such a Manual will soon be published by J. B.

Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia.]

From the Girls and Primary, we pass to the Boys Grammar departments, for

which we propose military exercises, as being the most economical and

advantageous for public schools; for _tactics_ manœuvre large bodies in

a small space, in an orderly manner, whereas gymnasiums are too

expensive, and can not be made large enough to accommodate many scholars

at once. This opens to us our most difficult, but at the same time most

useful, field for prompt and energetic action.

Suppose we take for an example one of our large cities. The lower and

female departments having simple physical exercises in use, it is wished

to introduce military exercises into the grammar schools. Let us see how

simply it can be organized, and how far it is possible to extend these

studies if desired.

The following interesting letter from the Mayor of Bangor, will show the

movement in that city, an example well worthy of being imitated.

CITY OF BANGOR, }

Mayor’s Office, Dec. 21st, 1861. }

DEAR SIR:--In reply to yours of the 19th inst., I would say that, upon

my recommendation, through a communication I made to our City Council,

on the first Monday of the present month, an Order was passed directing

the military drill to be introduced into a portion of the Public Schools

of this city.

I had given the subject some thought and investigation, and was prepared

to recommend the adoption of the drill for the physical training, no

less than for the military instruction it might impart. The prevalent

idea that education consists in training the intellect only, is

gradually becoming superseded by the more rational theory that true

education consists in training the moral and physical, no less than the

intellectual faculties.

For the physical training of boys, I think the military drill has much

to recommend it besides the military instruction it imparts. It will

tend to give them a better command of their muscles, and impart a manly

gait and bearing. It will also, if properly conducted, teach them

self-control, and give them true ideas of order, discipline, and

subordination, and whilst it will relieve them from the monotony of

their ordinary studies will, by a grateful change, enable them to return

to them with renewed interest.

We are entering upon the new experiment with caution, and have commenced

by devoting an hour, twice a week, to the drill. We began in the school

rooms, but found, after a few lessons, that the space these afforded was

too small, and for the present shall use the large Gymnasium Hall. In

summer, the grounds in connection with our school houses may be found

well adapted for the purpose.

The boys, with scarcely an exception, manifest much interest in their

drills, and receive the instruction much more readily than men. Two or

three of our public spirited citizens, well qualified for instructors,

have generously consented to devote the necessary time for drilling the

boys, for the present winter, without compensation.

Some of our teachers are also disposed to qualify themselves for drill

masters, and we are thus enabled to try the experiment without much

expense.

I have had no communication with Gov. Washburn in relation to this

subject, and was quite unaware of your interest in the matter. I however

noticed the article in regard to it in the Evening Post of Nov. 8th, and

was gratified with the important facts which it contained. I shall be

glad to receive any further communication you may make to the public on

this important subject, and should you wish, will be pleased to

communicate to you the further progress of our experiments.

Yours respectfully,

ISAIAH STETSON, Mayor

EDWARD L. MOLINEUX, Esq., New York.

To establish thoroughly and economically this military culture, the

Board of Education should appoint some competent person as Chief of the

Staff to organize and carry out a system of instruction and drill; he to

have under him two or three assistant instructors of experience, under

whose guidance _a teacher, or teachers from each school_, should be

fully instructed in the tactics, so as to be able to superintend the

drill of the boys, which should always take place during school hours,

and thereby form a recreation from mental study, and not encroach upon

their play time. These are the only persons connected with the

department beyond the scholars themselves, as it should be managed on

the principle of obtaining _the whole working force_ of the military

organization from among the pupils.

The grammar department of each school should be formed into a company,

or where the size of the school rendered it necessary, two companies:

the officers to be selected from the most deserving and competent boys.

The officers thus selected to be instructed theoretically and

practically by extra drills, in their respective duties. This would not

occupy much time, and any boy objecting to devote this time would not be

worthy of holding his position, and should be replaced by some one more

deserving. Every school should possess within its limits space for a

parade ground and for a few simple fixtures for gymnastic exercises. In

stormy weather the exercises could be carried on indoors; for the drill

possesses the advantage of affording exercise to a great number in a

_small_ space without disturbance and noise.

No uniform would be required, and the only expense would be the loan or

purchase of 500 or 1000 short muskets, which could be used in turn at

the different schools for drill or parade. A simple musket can be

manufactured very cheaply, which will answer for all purposes.

The care and cleaning of the arms, the escorting and carrying them from

school to school, or point to point, as required, should be the military

duty of the pupils; thus expense will be saved, and the duty of prudent

soldiers to take care of their equipments and do their own work

inculcated.

These different school drills, always in charge of the teachers, should

be visited in turn by the instructors, who would exercise a close and

careful supervision over them.

Every ten companies or schools should be formed into a regiment,

officered by those selected as the most capable, and who had passed the

necessary examination.

Occasionally on Saturdays the regiments, in rotation, should be

exercised by the instructors, in battalion movements, field manœuvres,

skirmish drills, camp duties, &c. These Saturday exercises should not be

compulsory, but would be eagerly looked for by the boys as an amusement.

In the proper seasons they could be marched to the suburbs for their

exercises, and thus a pleasant holiday, with healthy amusements, be

given them under proper guidance. Any father will appreciate the

advantages of such exercises and enjoyment to his boys.

In the summer season it should be found out which of the boys could not

swim, and had no parents able to teach them. All such should be classed

together, and means taken to instruct them in this most requisite art.

If found desirable to teach them to move together in _large masses_,

(in which our militia are certainly deficient,) it can be accomplished

by organizing two, three, or more regiments, into a brigade, to be

commanded by the chief instructor, he selecting for his _staff_ the most

intelligent of the scholars who could relieve him of much of the labor

which the systematic working of this large military department would

render necessary. Thus those assigned to the staff would be learning the

technicalities of the department and the duties of aids, secretaries,

&c.

These staff officers, and any other of the pupils who showed a decided

talent, should be assisted in acquiring knowledge in the military

science by means of lectures, &c., from the chief instructor. An orderly

system once organized, with the incentive to improvement by promotion

for correct deportment, and of military disgrace for ungentlemanly and

unsoldierly conduct, would soon render this military instruction of

great assistance to _teachers in the schools_. Let the boys understand

that disobedience or improper behavior debarred them from military

honors and the whole tone of their conduct would be improved.

Of the exigencies of this war, if complicated by foreign interference,

it is impossible to foresee, but every one is aware of the importance of

early training upon the destinies of nations, and but few will deny the

value of a well-trained battalion of selected elder boys, in case of

INVASION or trouble, by their relieving the fatigue of regular troops in

mounting guard at the least exposed positions, at the camps, on baggage,

or for convoys; likewise to act as drill-masters for the recruits.

The above plan, which was submitted to several Boards of Education last

fall, was offered as being the best adapted for _immediate use_, and is

therefore provided for the instruction of the _teachers_. If, however,

the _Normal Schools and Colleges_ would provide systematically for this

instruction, it would be far better as they are the proper fields for

_permanent benefit_, as each graduate would there become fully prepared

to instruct in these exercises in the public schools.

The views of the Hon. Joseph White, of Massachusetts, respecting

military studies in colleges, are well worth noting. He says, “let the

drill be regular and compulsory, taking the place of the very irregular

and insufficient physical exercises now taken, and our colleges would be

vastly improved in their educational power, and the commonwealth would

in a short time have a numerous body of educated men well skilled in the

military science and art, who will become teachers in our lower grades

of schools and in our military companies and associations, and be

competent when the alarm is sounded, to lead our citizen soldiers to the

field.” New Jersey has just offered a noble example by making an

appropriation for military instruction in her State Normal School.

But we must look at the practical working of physical and military

training in small district schools. Of necessity they are far behind, in

intellectual culture, those in the cities, and owing to the small and

uncertain attendance, physical and military drill would also have to be

simplified. The duties of a country life are such as not to render these

exercises so necessary on the score of health, nor are the pupils

wearied by such constant application to study. But how beneficial it

would be in smoothing the rough, clownish manners of the country pupil

by teaching him the _position of a soldier_, and correct _walking_. In

respect to this, it should be the duty of the trustees to see that the

drill was taught as far as practicable to the boys (calisthenics to the

girls) by the teacher himself, who, if he were not already instructed

from a Normal School, would find but little difficulty in mastering the

details of tactics sufficiently for his purposes. With as small a number

as twelve boys, company and skirmish drills could be taught; the latter

is admirably suited for country schools, and would be a delight to the

boys. If near the water they should be taught to swim.

It is thus we would teach our public school boys when they reach a

certain age, to act together as citizen soldiers and be prepared when

called upon, to do yeomen service in the country; to make it their pride

as well as their duty, to defend the Country and State which so

liberally educates them, let us cultivate in them a lofty and noble

patriotism, which shall have its effect upon future generations, for it

is upon these qualities, their intelligence and enterprise, aided by

_physical strength and health_, that the FUTURE of our country depends.

Although a course of military training in the public schools would soon

furnish our State with an intelligent class of soldiers and line

officers, yet the _art_ of war in many of its branches, such as

artillery, engineering, &c., requires a scientific education, which can

not be given in a private institution. Our colleges undoubtedly could,

to a certain degree, supply this want. New York city possesses in its

Free Academy a college which needs but the addition of two or three

professorships to carry out in part this requirement, yet a _State

Military and Scientific_ College seems a necessity to which early

attention should be given, but to prevent its becoming a tax upon the

State, it should be managed somewhat upon the plan of the Polytechnic of

France, namely, that pupils at large may be admitted upon passing an

examination and paying the annual fee.

Offer inducements in the way of superior education and careful training,

and sufficient income would be received from the _paying_ scholars to

cover the expense to the State. Thus, from this college, might annually

graduate men educated for the most scientific and skillful pursuits of

life, and who, in time of war, would richly repay the State for the care

devoted to their culture.

As an incentive to the public-school boys, several of the most deserving

should annually be sent to this college by the State, and to the

National Military and Naval Academies.

There is yet another important matter to be considered in physical

exercises for public education, more particularly in sea ports, viz.,

_Naval Training_.

A late report of the Shipmaster’s Association has shown us that the

reputation of our American vessels is deteriorating so rapidly, that

unless something is done, quickly and effectually, to provide a remedy,

foreign vessels will supersede ours in freighting. The necessities of

our navy are too well known to need notice here, and surely these evils

which assail the country at this trying moment of peril, should arrest

attention.

In large seaboard cities the naval training school, which has worked so

advantageously in England and Belgium, could be established very

economically by the fitting up of some hall, at a slight expense, with

spars, sails, &c. Here of an _evening_, lectures and classes for

instruction in navigation and seamanship could be formed. This would be

the means of improving our sailors and of forming useful citizens from

those who now idle away their time around the streets and docks. The

expense would be but light, and the advantages obvious to our merchant

marine and navy. This would soon improve our class of sailors and

officers, reduce the rate of insurance upon American vessels, and

relieve us from the stain which is being cast upon us as a commercial

and naval power.

The evening schools of New York city cost $73,000 per annum; a small per

centage of this sum would place in successful operation an _evening

nautical_ school, which would enable, in less than three months,

American sailor boys to acquire sufficient knowledge of navigation to

aspire to the quarter deck. The handling of heavy guns and the

principles of naval gunnery could also be taught. If a war with Great

Britain breaks out, are we to be found slumbering in this respect, and

must we wait for the _first gun_ before taking active measures!

We are a peace-loving and domestic people, and we have indulged in the

delusive fancy that peace was to shine over us forever, until rudely

awakened from our dreams by a formidable attack at the very foundation

of our nationality. Every family circle is represented in that mighty

army which is battling for the Union, and we know that much of the

suffering caused to our brothers by this new and unexpected calling, is

due to the defects of their physical education, and to the want of a

sufficient number of well trained officers. But the war is upon us and

we must meet it as may best become a free nation and be better prepared

for the future.

It is the proud boast of England that in time of war she is “Ready, aye

Ready,” but a much prouder and nobler cry for us would be, the prompt

“Here” at the roll-call of our militia when summoned, like the minute

men of the Revolution, to the defense of the country. We want no large

standing army. In times of peace let our merchants, artisans, farmers,

and mechanics, enrich and develop the resources of the country. It needs

their industry and will amply repay their toil. But let them be trained

and educated from school-days to their military duties, and at the first

note of war let that response of “Here” come cheerfully from our rich

prairie lands, from our counting-houses, from our machine shops, from

the decks of far off vessels and from our public schools,--one mighty

cry of POWER and SELF-RELIANCE from a noble militia, possessing a

thorough _knowledge of its duties_; intelligent and earnest in the

right; patriotic and strong in its devotion to freedom.

A few words to those who fear the tendency of these exercises to instil

a warlike and blood-thirsty spirit, and we will close. To them we say,

we would emulate the ancients only so far as we can obtain from them

some of their earlier and nobler traits of patriotism, courage,

strength, endurance, and health. Let us picture what effect this

training would have upon individual character.

Let us take the example of a young lad, entering the public school in

the primary department, with perhaps a sickly, indolent disposition, and

somewhat careless and slovenly in his appearance.

We know very well from the present system of studies, that his mind will

be well cared for, and therefore pass to the effect of the physical

training upon him.

The first lesson then is to stand in an erect and commanding attitude,

with his chest well expanded, then his careless, slouching steps, with

hanging head, are soon changed to the brisk, smart _walk_ of a young

gentleman, Calisthenics and exercises proportionate to his strength, and

tending to develop his limbs very soon improve his health and impart a

youthful vigor and energetic purpose to his motions, which are so much

to be admired in young lads and give such rich promise of the future

manhood. He soon learns exact and unhesitating obedience, and is taught

by precept and example, that no small advantage in appearance is to be

derived from a clean face and well brushed clothes. Is it to be denied

that he thus learns habits of order, activity and cleanliness which will

be invaluable to him in after years?

But his greatest ambition, the goal of all his hopes,--the reward for

which he studies diligently, is active and neat in his deportment,

docile and obedient to his teachers,--is to be promoted to the grammar

department or higher classes, where the boys have military exercises. He

looks with longing eyes at their neat, orderly ranks, as they form for

drill or parade; their brightly polished shoes, neatly brushed clothes

and well kept arms. All this is something to look forward to, and when

he has accomplished it, has he not to strive by activity to win his

_grade_ and by self-control and obedience prove himself deserving to

command others? Manhood, when it arrives, finds him bright, active,

self-reliant and ready to become a public spirited member of society.

Let the necessity of military exercises be placed before the boy in a

patriotic light and it will induce him not only to take greater care in

the execution, but likewise implant a still greater love of country from

the very knowledge that some day he may be of use to her,--of use to her

in the pulpit, in the legislative forum, in the busy pursuits of

industry and the various walks of life. And if the necessity again calls

for action, or if the present war is of long duration and tests the

strength and perseverance of our national character, let us not shrink

from the ordeal, but with a firm reliance upon an Almighty God and a

righteous cause, let us go forth in this good fight, we of this

generation and our children, and faithfully discharge the duties of

Christian soldiers in defense of truth, justice, and our country.

U.S. MILITARY AND COMMERCIAL MARINE SCHOOLS.

NAVY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS.

By the Constitution of 1789, Congress is empowered “to regulate

commerce, to provide and maintain a navy, and make rules for the

government and regulation of the land and naval forces.” The initiatory

steps for establishing and regulating a navy were taken by the

Continental Congress in November and December, 1775. The management of

naval affairs was first assigned to a Marine Committee of Congress,

appointed Dec. 11, 1775, which in 1779 (June 9), was converted into

Commissioners, and before the close of that year, into a Board of

Admiralty, which consisted of five members, two of whom were members of

Congress, with a secretary, who was appointed by Congress. In 1781

(Feb. 7), a Secretary of Marine was created to execute all the duties

and powers of the Board of Admiralty. In the condition of the public

treasury, and “in the dilatory and parsimonious action of the several

States in forwarding funds for the construction of ships, docks, and

naval arsenals, and for the support of the naval service,” Congress

voted in August, 1783, “that it was not advisable to purchase ships for

the present.”

The necessities of a disordered commerce, and of a sufficient naval

force to protect the navigation of the country, and repel the first

approach of a hostile army from abroad, were among the motives for

establishing a more efficient federal government. But until the danger

of war with England became imminent, a large party in the country, in

and out of Congress, opposed the necessary appropriations for putting

the Navy of the United States on a respectable footing.

In constituting the executive departments of the national government

under the Constitution, the administration of the navy and naval affairs

were committed to the War Department, where it remained till 1798, when

(April 30) an Act was passed “to establish an executive department to be

denominated the Department of the Navy.”

The Act of March 27, 1794, by which the construction and manning of four

ships of 44 guns each, and two of 36 were ordered, was called for by the

depredations on our commerce, and particularly in the Mediterranean Sea.

In this Act the appointment of eight midshipmen, to rank with the

warrant and petty officers, was authorized, and the Navy Register bears

the names of only eight officers holding that rank prior to 1800. In

1801 the naval force of the United States consisted of 13 ships, viz.: 4

of 44 guns each (_United States_, _President_, _Constitution_, and

_Philadelphia_); 4 of 36 guns each (_Chesapeake_, _Constellation_,

_Congress_, and _New York_); 5 of 32 guns each (_Benton_, _Essex_,

_Adams_, and _John Adams_); and by an Act of that year all others were

ordered to be sold, and the completion of any more in the yards, was

suspended. But the insults to our flag and destruction of our commerce

by the Barbary powers, and the privateers of England and France, aroused

such a feeling in the country that Congress ordered a squadron to be

fitted out for the Mediterranean in 1803, which proved to be the school

in which the seamanship of the Navy was trained, and the gallantry of

its officers signally displayed. In the legislation of this period

originated the “gun-boat” policy as an auxiliary means of harbor

defense. In 1805 the first vessel of this class was added to the

Mediterranean squadron, and in 1806 the President announced that 50 more

could be relied on for the naval service. Gun-boats, properly

constructed and armed, are now part of the system of harbor defense in

all countries.

By an Act of Congress approved April 21, 1806, the whole number of able

seamen, ordinary seamen and boys, for the United States Navy was not to

exceed 925. March 3, 1807, the President was authorized to employ 500

additionals, increasing the authorized number to 1,425. January 31,

1809, the President was authorized to employ 3,600 able seamen, ordinary

seamen and boys, in addition to the number of petty officers, seamen,

etc., previously authorized, which increased the number of enlisted men

allowed to 5,125.

In 1810 an appropriation was made to test the value of torpedo or

submarine explosives, as engines of war, and in 1842 to test the

submarine battery ignited by a submerged electric wire, devised by

Samuel Colt. The introduction, of these “engines of war” into the

defense of Southern harbors, in 1861-65, demonstrated their efficiency

and inaugurated a new system of not only harbor defense, but of attack.

March 30, 1812, the President was further authorized to increase the

seamen, etc., and as far as necessary to equip the frigates

_Chesapeake_, _Constellation_, and _Adams_, any law to the contrary

notwithstanding. In this Act provision was made for the appointment of a

schoolmaster to each ship having a complement of 12 midshipmen.

March 3, 1813, he was authorized to have built six sloops-of-war, and to

have them manned and equipped, and to employ the number of seamen which

were necessary for such vessels as were authorized by law to be put in

commission.

In 1816, in the appropriation annually of $1,000,000 for eight years to

the gradual increase of the Navy by nine 74 gun-ships, and twelve 44

gun-frigates, provision was made to procure the steam-engines and build

and equip three steam-batteries for the defense of ports and

harbors--the introduction of a new element into the naval service. In

1839 the Secretary was authorized to construct three steam-vessels of

war, “according to the best advices that could be obtained.”

In 1837, after strenuous efforts to enlist Congress in some systematic

plan for supplying the navy with well instructed and thoroughly

disciplined seamen, the Secretary was authorized to enlist under certain

conditions, boys between the ages of 13 and 18, who should receive

special opportunities for school and professional training.

In 1844, $100,000 was appropriated to build at Pittsburg an iron steamer

(the _Alleghany_); and the appearance and exploits of the _Merrimac_ and

the _Monitor_, in the waters of the Chesapeake, in 1863, introduced a

new system of naval construction and armament, not only into our navy,

but in less than ten years revolutionized the ship-yards and ordnance

foundries of the world.

By Act of March 3, 1845, it was provided “that the whole number of petty

officers, seamen, ordinary seamen, landsmen and boys, in the naval

service, shall not exceed 7,500 at any one time during the fiscal year,”

for which appropriation was then made.

By Act of March 3, 1857, the Secretary of the Navy was authorized to

enlist 8,500 men for the Navy, instead of 7,500. During the late civil

war the limitation of enlisted men was suspended; and in his annual

report, December, 1862, the Secretary states the number of persons

employed on board our naval vessels, including receiving ships and

recruits, as about 28,000; and in his report of December, 1865, he says

the number was increased to 51,500 at the close of the war, which in

1867 had been reduced to 11,900.

In 1864 the Secretary of the Navy revived the system of naval

apprenticeship, which was inaugurated under the Act of March 2, 1837,

but suspended because the favorable results anticipated from a fair

trial were not realized at once, under various disadvantages of a new

enterprise, and because Congress, in 1845, by limiting the whole number

of persons employed in the naval service, compelled the Department to

discharge boys instead of men.

By Act of June 17, 1868, the number of persons enlisted into the Navy,

including apprentices and boys, was limited to 8,500--a limitation

actually below the maximum which existed prior to the war, and compelled

the department to reduce the number of naval apprentices, and finally to

again abandon that system.

The number of line officers is now (1871) limited by law to one admiral,

one vice-admiral, 10 rear admirals, 25 commodores, 50 captains, 90

commanders; total flag and commanding officers, 177. To these are added

80 lieutenant commanders, 280 lieutenants, 200 masters and

ensigns--making the total line officers of all grades, excepting

midshipmen (309 including those at Annapolis), 737.

The medical staff consists of 180, viz.: 15 medical directors

(captains); 15 inspectors (commanders); 50 surgeons (Lieut.-commanders),

and 100 passed assistant and assistant surgeons.

The engineers’ department (total 250) includes 10 chief engineers

(captains); 15 _do._ (commanders); 45 _do._ (lieut.-commanders); 100

assistants (masters and ensigns). There are 126 paymasters, 13 ranking

as captains; 13 as commanders; 50 as lieut.-commanders. The number of

chaplains is limited to 24, and of professors to 12.

Although, strangely enough, not under the administration of the Navy

Department, the inauguration of the Coast Survey in 1807, and its

thorough prosecution since 1844, when the employment of officers of the

army and navy in the work was authorized; the recognition of the Naval

Observatory at Washington city, and authorizing the making astronomical

and meteorological observations, in the Act of August 3, 1848; the

assignment of a competent officer of the navy to the preparation of the

Nautical Almanac; the institution of the bureau of Hydrography and

Ordnance, in 1842; the employment of three suitable vessels of the navy

to test and perfect the plans of Lieutenant Maury in his investigations

of the winds and the currents of the ocean, by Act of March 3, 1849; the

concentration of the teaching staff of the corps of midshipmen

preparatory for their examination at the Naval Asylum at Philadelphia,

and their removal to separate accommodations at the old military station

of Fort Severn, in Annapolis, by order of Secretary Bancroft in 1845,

and the formal recognition of the institution as the Naval School, in

the appropriations for the navy in 1847--these and other acts of

Congress, and the action of the Department under them, are important

data in the history of the Navy and Naval Education--especially of their

scientific character.

GROWTH IN SHIPS, OFFICERS AND MEN.

The following Tables, prepared by Capt. George H. Preble, U.S.N., which

are copied from the Army and Navy Journal for Nov. and Dec., 1871,

exhibit in a condensed view the expansion of the military and merchant

marine of the United States, from 1816 to 1871 inclusive, as well as its

condition in each year from 1816.

TABLE I.--_Naval Vessels, Tonnage, Officers, Seamen, and Cost. Tonnage._

[KEY]

NV Number of Vessels United States Navy.

NG Number of Guns.

TV Tonnage of Vessels belonging to the United States Navy.

TNO Total Number of Navy Officers, including Midshipmen and Mates.

TPO Total Number of Petty Officers, Seamen, etc.

Exp Total Expenditures for the Navy and Marine Corps.

TT Total Tonnage of U.S. Enrolled, Licensed and Registered.

-----+-----+------+--------+------+--------+------------+----------

Year | NV | NG | TV | TNO | TPO | Exp | TT

-----+-----+------+--------+------+--------+------------+----------

1816 | ... | ... | 40,032 | 838 |unknown.|$3,908,278 |1,372,219

1817 | 111 |1,267 | 39,642 | 954 | ... | 3,314,598 |1,399,911

1818 | 115 |1,383 | 39,682 | 948 | ... | 2,953,695 |1,225,184

1819 | 90 |1,243 | 36,512 | 926 | ... | 3,847,640 |1,260,752

1820 | 88 |1,384 | 38,057 | 895 | ... | 4,387,990 |1,280,166

1821 | 36 |1,017 | 33,851 | 876 | ... | 3,319,243 |1,290,959

1822 | 38 |1,047 | 34,413 | 848 | ... | 2,224,459 |1,324,670

1823 | 45 |1,085 | 36,039 | 812 | ... | 2,503,766 |1,336,566

1824 | 49 |1,122 | 36,338 | 843 | ... | 2,904,581 |1,389,163

1825 | 44 |1,107 | 36,174 | 856 | ... | 3,049,087 |1,423,111

1826 | 46 |1,104 | 39,577 | 859 | ... | 4,218,902 |1,534,190

1827 | 49 |1,163 | 42,708 | 877 | ... | 4,263,878 |1,620,608

1828 | 53 |1,243 | 44,149 | 898 | ... | 3,918,786 |1,741,392

1829 | 52 |1,315 | 40,865 | 996 | ... | 3,988,643 |1,260,798

1830 | 51 |1,287 | 40,865 |1,051 | ... | 3,239,429 |1,191,776

1831 | 50 |1,269 | 41,953 | 990 | ... | 3,856,183 |1,276,846

1832 | 52 |1,292 | 42,147 | 987 | ... | 4,947,718 |1,439,450

1833 | 53 |1,872 | 60,002 |1,022 | ... | 4,274,184 |1,606,149

1834 | 53 |1,872 | 67,804 |1,012 | ... | 4,613,657 |1,758,907

1835 | 53 |1,872 | 66,479 |1,035 | 3,627 | 4,209,836 |1,824,940

1836 | 51 |1,969 | 66,281 |1,044 | 3,804 | 6,252,145 |1,882,685

1837 | 55 |1,982 | 69,043 |1,048 | 5,201 | 6,646,915 |1,886,684

1838 | 55 |1,982 | 69,233 |1,104 | 5,650 | 6,131,581 |1,985,649

1839 | 56 |2,022 | 71,396 |1,157 | 6,932 | 6,182,294 |2,096,479

1840 | 62 |2,106 | 74,776 |1,171 | 7,072 | 6,113,896 |2,180,764

1841 | 67 |2,106 | 72,418 |1,222 | 7,419 | 6,001,077 |2,130,744

1842 | 69 |2,044 | 73,895 |1,482 | 9,784 | 8,397,243 |2,092,391

1843 | 71 |2,022 | 77,031 |1,493 | 10,321 | 3,727,712* |2,158,603

1844 | 74 |2,464 | 78,221 |1,448 | 10,000 | 6,498,199 |2,280,095

1845 | 76 |2,400 | 79,592 |1,434 | 7,500 | 6,297,178 |2,417,002

1846 | 76 |2,345 | 80,992 |1,398 | 7,500 | 6,455,014 |2,562,084

1847 | 81 |2,398 | 86,456 |1,391 | 7,500 | 7,900,636 |2,839,046

1848 | 92 |2,401 | 95,755 |1,425 | 7,500 | 9,408,477 |3,154,042

1849 | 78 |2,380 | 92,391 |1,465 | 7,500 | 9,786,706 |3,334,016

1850 | 77 |2,370 | 91,591 |1,423 | 7,500 | 7,904,725 |3,535,454

1851 | 74 |2,336 | 90,786 |1,416 | 7,500 | 8,880,582 |3,772,439

1852 | 75 |2,346 | 90,992 |1,432 | 7,500 | 8,918,842 |4,138,440

1853 | 75 |2,329 | 91,814 |1,417 | 7,500 |11,067,790 |4,407,010

1854 | 73 |2,115 | 91,787 |1,423 | 7,500 |10,790,096 |4,802,902

1855 | 78 |2,355 |112,715 |1,433 | 7,500 |13,327,095 |5,212,001

1856 | 76 |2,359 |111,803 |1,196 | 7,500 |14,074,835 |4,872,652

1857 | 73 |2,332 |109,224 |1,206 | 8,500 |12,651,695 |4,940,842

1858 | 78 |2,231 |113,765 |1,287 | 8,500 |14,053,265 |5,049,808

1859 | 86 |2,273 |132,489 |1,351 | 8,500 |14,690,927 |5,145,038

1860 | 91 |2,329 |133,832 |1,436 | 8,500 |11,514,650 |5,353,868

1861 | 90 |2,309 |133,842 |1,497 | 10,000 |12,387,157 |5,539,813

1862 |383 |2,876 |284,377 |3,493 | 28,000 |42,674,569 |5,112,165

1863 |449 |2,926 |333,841 |4,613 | |63,211,105 |5,155,055

1864 |617 |4,088 |463,107 |6,170 | 51,500 |85,733,293 |4,986,401

1865 |681 |4,662 |470,362 |7,296 | |116,781,676 |5,096,783

1866 |320 |2,688 |336,874 |2,847 | 13,600 |43,324,526 |4,310,778

1867 |273 |2,235 |313,056 |2,770 | 11,900 |31,034,011 |4,304,486

1868 |229 |1,704 |281,629 |2,420 | 8,500 |20,120,395 |4,351,758

1869 |203 |1,701 |255,217 |1,921 | 8,500 |18,985,165 |4,144,639

1870 |186 |1,443 |183,217 |1,853 | 8,500 |15,870,531 |4,246,507

1871 |177 |1,446 |181,738 |2,020†| 8,500 |19,431,027 |4,111,412

[* Change of the fiscal year.]

[† From this number should be deducted 130 mates not permanent officers

of the Navy.]

TABLE II. _Line Officers_--_1816 to 1871._