The youths in Zurich as well as in other cantons, have no reason to

complain that their physical development is neglected in favor of the

mental; nay, we might rather fear that the first is at times too much

exaggerated, considering the tender age of the majority of the boys. The

pupils of the canton Gymnasium and Industrial School, many of whom are

foreigners, Germans especially, practice gymnastic exercises throughout

the whole year; the military drill is limited to the summer course only.

In the month of August, from time immemorial, the boys, all and every

one, practice target-shooting. The smaller boys only are allowed to rest

the gun on the stand; the older must shoot without any support whatever.

The cities and individuals furnish prizes for those who hit the centre

of the target. In September the cadets--the infantry as well as

artillery--hold their target-shooting; in October they drill in the

field, (“Vorkämpfli,”) and then comes off the annual School Festival

with its gymnastic exercises and the combined manœuvre in field.

At the sham fight on the 1st of October, 1860, the enemy as usual

existed in fancy only; they fired, however, as if he were flesh and

blood. They had the task of pursuing the imaginary foe from Windicon to

the Höckler. The division marched over the covered bridge at Aussersihl,

detached then a column to the woody heights in order to outflank the

enemy, while the principal body marched along the Sihl and drove the

enemy from the clearings into the thick woods. Both divisions re-united

at the Höckler Bridge and marched to the great “Wollishofer Allmend,”

where they practiced firing. This is a beautiful spot for the deployment

of troops; the sound of every shot is returned in manifold echoes from

the surrounding heights. The Zurich and federal troops also encamp,

practice, and shoot on this “Allmend.”

The annual festival of one canton school came off on the day for

gymnastic and military exercises. The printed programme distributed

among the pupils contains the order of exercises, the plan of the

manœuvre, and some useful hints in large type, as, “Clear the

road”--“Smoking is prohibited to the pupils during the festival”--“Not

too fast”--“Do not forget the ramrod”--“Always 120 paces distance.” At 6

o’clock, A.M., the drummers beat the reveille, proceeding from the

guard-house in three different directions. If the weather is

unfavorable, the reveille is not beaten, the school begins at the usual

hour, and the next fair day is chosen for the feast. The beaming sun

dispersed, however, on this occasion, the autumnal morning mists, and

universal joy beamed from all faces. On the first day the public

gymnastic exercises came off, and after supper the decisions of the

umpires were proclaimed and prizes distributed.

The second day the whole corps, numbering about five hundred, hastens at

7 o’clock, armed and equipped, to the barracks, and marches from there

to the open space near the railroad station, where from 8 to 10, Colonel

Ziegler, the Secretary of War, accompanied by members of the Board of

Supervisors, is occupied with the general inspection of “his young

comrades.” At 12½ the corps assembles again near the barracks, where

they receive their ammunition, and at 1 o’clock they turn out to the

manœuvre. The corps is divided into two small armies, each of which

consists of a centre, right and left wings, and a reserve. The enemy

under the command of Lieutenant-colonel Von Escher, marches over

Riesbach and Zollicon into his position. The federal troops under

Commandant Nadler, take their way over Hirslanden and the Balgrist. The

left wing of the enemy, meanwhile, had taken possession of the heights

above the Zollicon, and his main body is marching on the right bank of

the lake upon Zurich. The enemy makes a halt, and receives the report of

his scouts, that the “Burghölzli” and the heights of the Balgrist have

been taken possession of by the federal army for the purpose of impeding

the further advance of the hostile troops over Hirslanden. The federals

at 3 o’clock attack the enemy in his position on the mountain, but they

are beaten back, notwithstanding their heroic endeavors, and are

compelled to retreat since the enemy changes his defensive position into

a general charge. The federals retire in good order, and the enemy

purchases every inch of ground at a great sacrifice. Though he succeeds

in cutting off a side column, his losses must be great until he can

silence the murderous fire of the federal battery which has taken a very

favorable position on the “Oberrieder Heights,” and after having done so

he advances to the lowlands.

The fight offers many a picturesque scene. Nowhere such a diversified,

broken battle-ground can be found as in the Swiss fore-lands. Especially

in the neighborhood of Zurich one is at a loss which to choose. There

are every where covers and ambuscades for riflemen; the infantry find

numerous advantageous positions, and many heights easily accessible

which command vales and plains are at the command of the artillery. The

leaders have hard work to restrain the ardor of the boy-soldiers,

especially of those in the broken chain of the sharp-shooters. Finally

the signal shot is fired, followed immediately by many others. It is a

real feast to observe how the skirmishers, while running from one cover

to the other, crouch together as much as possible; how skillfully they

take advantage of every little mound, and how they endeavor in their

attack to avail themselves of every protection. This or that one seems a

perfect little Zouave; some even show the disposition of a Turcos. One

loads his rifle lying flat on his back, another springs forward like a

tiger. To be commanded to the chain of the skirmishers is considered

special good fortune, for there the individual is something by himself,

can move at will, and is supplied with plenty of ammunition. Yet, the

main body also of the army, which is obliged to fight in closed lines

and strict order, is allowed to vent its fury in firing by single files

and by battalions in thundering vollies. At the command to fire a

hundred muskets at once, but a single peal as of thunder is heard, and

the smoke of the powder fills the air with the sweetest of savors. For a

change we turn to the artillery. Though they do not possess any rifled

cannon, they are nevertheless intent upon aiming their guns accurately,

and the little self-possessed gunners who serve the pieces would prove

dangerous adversaries to any foe. They mount and dismount a piece as

quickly as any trained artillery-man, and where the ground offers great

impediments, one can see the stronger boys carrying their own pieces.

The “Father of the Cadets,” Colonel Ziegler, is present at the sham

fights as an impartial umpire, walking continually on the battle-field,

and smiling as one or the other section makes a good hit. As soon as the

retreating federal troops have gained a favorable position, they stop

short, concentrate their forces, and brave any further advance of the

enemy who, after he has made some further unsuccessful attempts, is

convinced that the federals are a match for him, and even stronger than

himself, makes a halt, and the battle ends. The white cross in the red

field (the federal banner) remains, of course always master of the

field.

Many a manœuvre has ended without any accident, yet sometimes a

hot-blooded cadet forgets the ramrod, and wounds a soldier from the

hostile lines or a spectator, for the people mingle without fear among

the combatants. Every Swiss is a soldier, and the crack of the guns is a

congenial sound to him. The European diplomatists who met in Zurich in

the Fall of 1860 for the settlement of the peace of Villafranca, were

all present at the manœuvres, and undoubtedly depicted the cadet system

to their respective governments in glowing colors, recommending the

general adoption of the system. We now ask our governors and our people

in general--“Shall we be the last?” A noble ardor may accomplish a good

deal, yet _strength_ combined with will can accomplish far more--almost

every thing.

After the parties have fought an hour and a half in the sight of the

Alps and the glittering lake, and rested a little while, they march in

brotherly union with glowing faces, to the sound of the drum, or singing

patriotic songs, from the heights down to the shore road, enter

Tiefbrunnen, and stack their arms in pyramids on the green sward of its

hospitable pleasure-grounds. Then after the labor and heat of the day,

the young soldiers hasten at double-quick step, and with Goliath-like

appetite, to the garden of the neighboring inn, which stands on the

shore of the beautiful lake, and give fearful battle to a second enemy

in the form of loaves, sausages, etc.; the blood of the grape runs like

water, and so indefatigable are they in continually repeated onslaughts,

that in a short time the forces of the enemy have wholly disappeared.

The state bears the expenses, in order that the poorest boy may be that

day as rich as his upper-ten comrade. Shouts and hurras spice the good

things still more. Meanwhile it has grown dark, the cadets take to their

arms again, and by the light of numerous torches, Colonel Ziegler

proclaims and distributes the prizes. The name of every victor is

received with the beat of the drum and thousands of hurras. The results

of the target shooting in 1860 were not so satisfactory as in former

years. The artillery gained 65 prizes in one hundred shots, the foot 28;

while in 1859 the former received 86, and the latter 33, in the average

of all distances. The first two prizes were again taken by Glarus boys.

This little people, renowned through its marksmen, has for the last

seven years monopolized the first prizes.

Finally the warlike band marches home and the officers and instructors

meet again at a social supper, which lasts until after midnight. Thus

ends the manœuvre of Swiss boys.

The Swiss militia system may be our model. It will insure our internal

peace and national independence. It will unite the citizens of all

states into one band of brothers. Every people rears troublesome

individuals. Switzerland had to contend with internal difficulties,

factions, etc., as we have now, but the majesty of the law was upheld by

the masses, and while the rebels were beaten in the field, the people of

the different sections met again in friendship. And so, we trust, it

will be with us. The day may not be distant when we shall want the

strength of our whole beloved Union to maintain our position among the

great nations of the earth. United we need not fear the world in arms.

The Swiss are the most peaceable and industrious people, and at the same

time the most warlike and ever-ready. In the idea of the Swiss, the

citizen is inseparable from the soldier, lest the free man should become

the slave of a domestic or foreign tyrant. The first advantage of this

idea is, that Switzerland has not a standing army, and yet it can call

into the field at any moment 200,000 well trained men in the flower of

their age; a like number could be raised of younger men under twenty-one

and above forty-five. 200,000 men is eight per cent of its population,

according to which we could have about 2,200,000 citizen soldiers, not

on paper only, but real soldiers. If we institute the cadet system the

next generation will be a warlike one, and no American will even think

of making a law, exempting the citizen from his first duty to appear in

person for the defense of his liberties and independence. The whole

amount of the Swiss military _Budget_[3] is between four and five

millions of francs, equal to ten millions of dollars for our 2,200,000

men--a trifle indeed.

[Footnote 3: Federal and cantonal.]

From time to time the governors of neighboring states could unite the

cadet-corps of different sections and invite the corps from distant

states to send a contingent for a grand manœuvre. Such a proceeding

would tend more to cement the band of brotherhood among the states than

many artificial means. It would at the same time promote the good morals

of the boys, if the governors were to select the best delegates from

their states. Every obdurate, mischievous individual should be expelled

from the ranks, since the state must not suffer a bad subject to enjoy

the honor of serving his country. What a wonderful change will take

place in the disposition of our youth; when accustomed to the discipline

of a soldier, many a bad habit will disappear entirely. They will become

punctual and orderly in the execution of their duties in general, their

step elastic, their carriage erect, their bodies strong, their chests

large, their cheeks rosy, a joy to their parents and a pride to our

people. The lad who leaves his city or his state, if furnished with a

regular certificate from his drill-master, can enter a company in the

place of his future residence, and be no longer a stranger but a

brother-soldier--the member of a mighty association. He enters the

circle of well educated boys at once, and is thus saved from the danger

of associating with such as might corrupt his good habits. There are

thousands of advantages to him and the country, and not a single

disadvantage. Why shall we not seize upon the subject at once? Let our

small state have the honor to be the first, as we already have the best

regulated system of schools--primary, secondary, and higher

institutions. Forward! forward!

In a subsequent article we shall give a description of a “Swiss Shooting

Festival.” It is an ancient custom with the Alpine people, but since the

system of cadet corps has become perfected, these festivals have come

off with a splendor that had never before been dreamed of. They unite

the men of all sections and have gained quite a fame in Europe.

We implore all statesmen and teachers to take the system of military

drill and organization in schools into due consideration; not as a mere

experiment, but as something that has proved an excellent success in a

sister republic.

3. TARGET SHOOTING.

Having made military exercises a part of the regular routine of schools

and the education of youths, and identified the vocation of the soldier

with the privileges of citizenship and the safety of the state, the

policy of the Swiss government, both cantonal and federal, has been

directed so as to make the pastimes of neighborhoods and the national

festivals minister to the general culture of a military spirit, and of

the highest individual skill in the use of arms. To these ends target

shooting is encouraged in various ways, and the festivals of the

sharp-shooters are more generally and enthusiastically attended than any

other national anniversary. We give below an account of a festival of

this kind, which was held in Zurich in July, 1859.

_A Festival of the Swiss Sharp-shooters._

The Frenchman has his rose festivals; the Italian his barcaroli; the

Spaniard his bull-fights; the Englishman, since his cock-fights and

boxing in the street are prohibited, has nothing left to him, for

horse-racing as well as the Parliament belongs to the aristocracy

only.[4] Germany has its popular festivals, though the potentates have

suppressed even these harmless popular gatherings in several parts of

the country.

[Footnote 4: The rifle shooting, cricket matches, and other

popular sports of England seems to be overlooked by Professor

Simonson.]

In southern Germany and in the north-west you may still find the

old-fashioned popular festivals. But Switzerland is their field; there

in the land of freedom they flourish in the utmost freshness. They

arouse and foster in the people the consciousness that they are a

people--a nation; they awaken and strengthen the national spirit; they

unite all citizens, whether they sit as legislators in the Diet, or till

the ground in some unknown corner of the republic.

The festival begins at 6 o’clock, A.M., with the firing of cannon--one

shot for each of the twenty-two cantons into which Switzerland is

divided. The sharp-shooter festivals are the oldest of the Swiss popular

festivals--the original fruits of a free warlike people. They are

customary in every canton, in every community. But the _Swiss_

sharp-shooter festival means that in which the whole country unites, and

it has existed now for many, many years, always fresher and more

beautiful, representing not only the united citizens of the Swiss

cantons, but of Switzerland as a political power.

Such a festival takes place every second year. Then, thirty thousand

free, warlike men, the best marksmen from all parts of the land, the

“élite” of Switzerland’s defenders, assemble with their rifles, which

they handle with more skill than any other nation. They represent in

fact the best men of their nation, the bodyguard of law and order, the

rampart against hostile aggressions, and the stay of popular commotions.

In such a noble assembly many a wise word is spoken, many an idea

exchanged and corrected. The actions of the administration are subjected

to a sharp but judicious and just criticism; you will not hear there

ostentatious speeches, nor see noisy demonstrations. They do not pass

resolutions such as we are wont to see in our country--a small clique of

petty politicians announcing to the people that: _The People of the

State, . . . . resolved, etc._; but calmly they reason and reflect on

what would be beneficial to all sections of the country, and after

having reconciled the opposing interests of all, they go home and work

each in his circle for the realization of their ideas. There is a

principle--not of blind opposition to actions, whether good or bad,

simply because they proceed from another party--but the principle of

doing justice to all, of upholding the rights of all, and of reconciling

opposing interests. A people that has been educated in such principles

and acts in accordance with them has reached the perfection of

republicanism, and need not fear either internal or external foes. Every

American patriot may take example from this little Alpine race; and

since every one, man or woman, is by nature an educator, whether as

director of a household, or as a teacher of other men’s children, let us

all unite in educating the growing generation in the right way, and our

beloved country shall never again see brothers in arms against brothers.

Many a corrupt official has feared the criticism of the assembly of the

Swiss sharp-shooters, and whatever “the men have resolved at the

festival,” is usually adopted by the people and carried through in a

judicious, constitutional way.

At the above-mentioned day Zurich was all in a glee; the city adorned

with flags, triumphal arches and evergreens, the streets thronging with

people in Sunday dress who had come from far and wide to participate in

the popular feast. The shrill sound of an engine is heard, and soon

after the first company of guests from abroad forms in line at the

railroad station. It is the delegation from the Bremen sharp-shooters,

who have come from the far north of Germany to meet their brethren of

the south. They are enthusiastically received by the crowd, the mayor

addresses them and gives them a cordial welcome to the land of freedom.

After one of their number has replied to the speech, the mayor leads the

guests to a tent and invites them to partake of some refreshments; the

best of native wines from the “Rathskeller” are offered, and many a

toast spices the nectar.

An hour later the flag of the Swiss sharp-shooters is received and

unfolded, while shouts and the roar of cannon rend the air. As we stated

before, the festival of the United Sharp-shooters comes off once in two

years, city and canton taking their turns. Two years before, in July,

1857, it had been celebrated in Berne, and the flag had remained there

until now, when a deputation from Berne delivers it to the

sharp-shooters of Zurich, to be kept by them for the next two years; and

so on.

As soon as the banner is unfurled the procession is formed, and the

banner and guests are escorted to the City Hall, preceded by bands of

music playing national airs. What a glorious sight! Man and nature seem

to revel together in joy. The bright morning sunshine gleams from the

polished rifles and a thousand flags wave in the light breeze, while the

procession is accompanied by crowds of men and women, boys and

rosy-cheeked girls who, dressed in white and decked with red ribbons, in

the national costume and colors, add an element of bewitching beauty to

the scene.

Meanwhile other companies of riflemen have arrived, and the lake is

still covered with festively-adorned gondolas that are continually

adding to the crowd of guests. At 10 o’clock the procession is again

formed. It leaves the city and moves toward the “Seefeld,” a large

meadow on the shore of the lake, a short distance from the city. Here an

immense hall has been erected. Behind it are arranged the targets and

shooting-stands, and opposite we see a neat structure in the form of a

temple, with many large windows, in which are exhibited the prizes,

disposed in the most attractive manner. These prizes are of the value of

104,407 francs, and are the contributions of all parts of the

world--every corner where a few Swiss are to be found, having furnished

some small gift in honor of the national festival.

The procession halts in front of the temple. The Bernese deliver into

the hands of the Zurich delegation the flag of the Swiss Rifle Corps,

and Colonel Kurtz, of Berne, thus briefly addresses them: “When two

years ago this flag was delivered into our safe keeping, peace reigned

all around us; and but just now our country has come forth victoriously

from a crisis in which we have shown, as, we had never done before, that

we are _one_ band of brethren.[5] What we have hoped for is now

realized, and we can carry this flag--the banner of the largest

association in Switzerland--to the beautiful lake whose blue waters play

around our sister town. We of Berne have held this flag in peace. Who

knows whether you will be as fortunate, or whether you will be forced to

plant it on the highest pinnacle of your good city, as a sign that the

fatherland is in danger and calls upon her sons to defend her.

Relentless war rages now on our borders;[6] we know not whether the

storm will pass over, or the thunderbolt strike in our midst.”

[Footnote 5: He alludes here to the Neufchatel difficulty. This

canton had been heretofore under the sovereignty of Prussia, and a

handful of royalists made the attempt to sever it from all

connection with the confederacy. The people defeated them and

voted themselves independent. Switzerland assisted them and

Prussia gave up whatever rights she might have had.]

[Footnote 6: The Italian.]

Dr. Dubs replies in a brilliant speech: “We receive this banner and

shall defend it. We are ready now for a joyous feast, and as ready at

any time for the war-dance. Let the trumpet sound and Zurich’s men will

be the first in the field to lead you on to victory or death!” etc.

Thus was the festival opened. A dinner had been prepared in the hall, to

which all marksmen, whether from home or abroad, were invited. This hall

is a wooden structure of large dimensions, open at the sides, with a

wide passage running through the middle, intersected by several narrow

ones. In the middle of the building is a magnificent fountain. The whole

remaining space is filled with tables and benches of unvarnished pine,

at which 6,000 persons may be conveniently seated and served, A platform

hung with Swiss banners is so placed that the speakers can be heard

through the whole hall, and many a wise word has been thence spoken that

met a ready response from both present and distant brethren. Behind this

platform is raised a lofty gallery for the music. Here the bands play

soul-stirring chorals and national tunes, and when the “Marseillaise,”

or other similar air is heard, a chorus of thousands of voices

accompanies enthusiastically the instruments. It is in fact a feast of

the people; unity, peace and joy reign everywhere. There may be seen men

of different religious and political creeds, embracing each other in

brotherly concord. Men whose language is Italian from the southern

cantons, and men who speak French from the west, and German from the

northern, eastern, and middle cantons, form _one_ family, though their

localities, institutions, and interests may differ widely. The words

which Schiller, in his well-known historical drama, “Tell,” causes

Rösselmann to express--

“By this fair light, which greeteth us before

Those other nations that, beneath us far,

In noisome cities pent, draw painful breath,

Swear we the oath of our confederacy!

We swear to be a nation of _true brothers_,

Never to part, in danger or in death!

These words have become true in our age.

At 1 o’clock the firing of a cannon announces the commencement of the

target shooting. The marksmen press to the stands, and their shooting

continues from morning till evening, with only an intermission of an

hour for dinner, for an entire week. As we have before said, the

shooting-stands are erected at the end of the hall, but in a separate

building. Ninety-six stands are arranged in one line, each with its own

target, so that nearly a hundred shots may be fired at once. Behind each

stand there is sufficient space for loading the rifles, and all the

necessary apparatus. There are smaller buildings near by for the

repairing of arms, and a regular field-hospital, completely furnished,

to supply medical or surgical aid to such as may fall suddenly sick or

be wounded. The medical fraternity of Zurich have offered their services

in turn, and two physicians of their number are always present day and

night. The shooting is directed towards the lake and large quantities of

firewood are piled up like a rampart around the grounds, so that an

accident is almost impossible. Navigation on the lake within a certain

distance is also prohibited. The safety of the people is thus secured,

and an accident can happen only at the stands or to a careless

target-man. Only two injuries in all have been reported--a finger-wound

received by a marksman, and the loss of an eye to a target-man by a

splinter from the target.

More than thirty thousand tried their skill during the ten days of the

festival. On the 7th of July 74,000 shots were fired, and about 61,000

on the 11th, though many of the people had already gone home. The rifles

and targets are of various kinds. The Swiss have rifles for field

service, and also target rifles--the latter being much the heavier. No

support whatever is used with either. The distance of the target is

proportioned to the calibre of the rifles, the “field targets” being

over a thousand, and the “stand targets” about six hundred feet distant.

Both the stand and field targets are sub-divided into “Stich” and

“Kehrscheiben;” the former a single fixed target, the latter made double

and turned around after each shot, so as to be immediately ready for

another marksman. The “Kehrscheiben” are designated by the letters in

the order of the alphabet; the “Stichscheiben” have names attached to

each, such as “the Stand,” “Fatherland,” “Industry,” “Titlis,”

“Pilatus,” “Rigi,” “Gotthard,” “Jungfrau,” “Splügen,” “the Field,” &c.

No more than one shot may be fired by the same marksman at any of the

“Stichscheiben,” with the exception of the “Fatherland,” at which two

are allowed. The number of shots at the “Kehrscheiben” is not limited,

but all must be paid for--the “Kehrscheiben” at the rate of about thirty

centimes, (six cents;) the “Stichscheiben” a little more. Commutation

tickets, however, may be obtained.

The prizes are very various, but the most valuable are appropriated to

the “Stichscheiben.” The first prize this year was a large silver basin,

of exquisite workmanship, together with 2,500 francs ($500) in money,

given by the Swiss in Paris, to be won at the target “Fatherland.” The

lowest prize is five francs, and this can be won only by those who

succeed in hitting the bull’s eye, the size of which varies in the

different targets. In the “Stichscheiben” for the target rifle it

measures ten inches in diameter, but in the “Kehrscheiben” only two and

a half, while in the “Kehrscheiben” for the field rifle it measures six

inches. Every six hits in the centre of the “Kehrscheiben” gains a prize

of five francs, to which is added on the twenty-fifth successful shot, a

silver cup or watch. He who hits the bull’s eye fifty times receives

another prize of one hundred francs. Special prizes are also given to

the best marksman _of the day_, for the first and last hits _of the

day_, and for the greatest number of hits during _the whole festival_,

etc. The prizes of the day may be obtained immediately; the others are

distributed publicly at the close of the festival.

Let us now give a glance at the “Gift Temple.” This neat structure is

made wholly of glass, save the roof, in order that the rich prizes may

be more conspicuously exhibited. Here are gifts and prizes for the

successful shooters, consisting either in articles of value or in money,

that have been contributed by the cantonal governments and communities,

and by individuals at home or abroad. The government has also had new

Swiss five-franc pieces coined for this purpose, bearing on their face

the figure of a rifleman instead of Helvetia. There is many a piece of

fine workmanship among the gifts, of which we can here only mention the

silver basin with the 2,500 francs, the first prize of the “Fatherland,”

and a beautiful drinking horn of massive silver, richly embossed,

presented by some friends in Leipsic. The Bremen sharp-shooters also

brought with them twelve “Römer,” large cups of massive silver, gilt

within, which were admired and coveted by all the disciples of Bacchus.

This was not, however, the only present from the old Hanse-town. The

senate had opened the celebrated “Rathskeller” and sent some of their

Hock of the vintage of 1684, the Nestor of German wines, to their

brothers in Bacchus. The greater part of these gifts consisted in silver

cups, and pitchers, and gold and silver watches.

During the festival the houses of Zurich continued adorned with flags,

transparencies, and evergreens, which were every day entwined with fresh

flowers. Near the festive hall a triumphal arch had been erected, on

which stood a colossal figure of William Tell in the act of menacing

Gesler with the arrow, after having shot the apple from the head of his

boy. Some of the critics would have us believe that Tell is not Tell,

that no such person ever existed, but that he is a purely mythical

character--the creation of Schiller’s imagination. Yet it matters little

to the Swiss whether the hero was, or was not; all these thousands of

marksmen who daily pass that triumphal arch are possessed by one

thought, and many can not refrain from shouting, “Hurrah for Tell,

father of the marksman! The Swiss of to-day is as skillful an archer, as

daring and as free as thou wast!” Myth or not, Tell is the man of the

people, the Washington of Switzerland--or, rather, Washington is the

Tell of America; and these words of the dying Attinghausen--

“Hold fast together, then--for ever fast.

Let freedom’s haunts be one in heart, in mind!

Set watches on your mountain tops, that league

May answer league, when comes the hour to strike.

Be _one_--be _one_--be _one_”--

are never forgotten in these days by the inhabitants of Switzerland.

Around the hall there has sprung up a village of wood and canvas, and

while the men are engaged with their rifles, the women and children

crowd to see the circus, the menageries, rope-dancers, puppet-shows,

“the giant Kentuckian,” “General Tom Thumb,” &c., and while every one

amuses himself, there is no rioting, no impropriety, no beggary, no

placards bidding us to “Beware of Pickpockets;” the people are as sound

as their institutions.

At 8 o’clock in the morning the target shooting commences, closing at 8

in the evening. The target and signal men are promptly at their

stations, and the members of the different committees for keeping order,

arrive one by one. The marksmen are impatiently awaiting the signal

shot. Spectators gather in from all sides. The signal is given, and in a

moment the sharp crack of ninety-six rifles is heard. The firing is kept

up incessantly till noon, when the sound of the cannon again calls to

dinner. At about 10 o’clock the first steamers have landed their

passengers from “beyond the water,” and the first trains have come in,

bringing new guests to supply the place of those who leave, so that new

faces and new acquaintances greet us every day. Here a fresh company of

sharp-shooters from distant Ticino approaches, marching to the sound of

music and preceded by their flag, and receive their welcome--there

another company from Neufchâtel is escorted to the station and takes its

departure homeward.

One of the most joyous occurrences of the festival--a silvery gleam in

the general sunshine--was the reception of the marksmen from the four

forest towns, Lucerne, Switz, Uri, and Unterwalden. They numbered full

seven hundred men, noble specimens of the native Swiss, all picked

men--“Kernmannen.” They were preceded by four of their number attired in

the ancient national costume, who carried the very same bugles that for

the last five centuries had called their forefathers to arms. The

ancient banners followed. As they passed under the triumphal arch and

beheld their father, Tell, their shouts, hurrahs, and vivas, knew no

bounds. Their ranks were broken and each threw himself upon the breast

of the nearest stranger--nay, brother. The very men that perhaps were

adversaries in public life, or opposed to each other in political

principles, were here united; the love of fatherland was a common bond

of union. Thus, also, Schiller speaks through the mouth of Meier:

“I know him well. There is a suit between us,

About a piece of ancient heritage;

Herr Reding, _we are enemies in court;

Here we are one_.”

Thus is it in Switzerland. Will it ever be so with us? Come, ye

educators of the people and of the young, preach this principle from the

pulpit, and make it the corner stone of your instructions in the school

and at the firesides of your homes!

At the signal for the noon intermission the firing immediately ceases,

and in a few minutes 6,000 hungry and thirsty people are seated at the

one hundred and fifty tables in the hall; the rest disperse to the

eating-houses in the neighborhood and in the city. The dinner is

enlivened by toasts which, however, are never of a personal character.

No homage is done to the individual; to the country, to the fatherland

alone, is homage due in a republic. Toasts are heard in German, in

French, in Italian--yet all tongues unite in the glorification of a

common country. Separate tables are set for the different cantons, but

so arranged that the more distant cantons are usually the nearest

together--Ticino near Berne, Geneva near Basle, Zurich near Vaud. In the

middle of the hall are the tables for the committees and the honorary

guests.

On the second day of the festival the delegations of marksmen hold a

general conference, and though they enter the hall with opposing

opinions and feelings, yet before they part all differences are settled,

all contradictions are reconciled, and their resolutions are usually

endorsed by the whole people. There is no tendency to disunion, no

necessity for secession, for each one endeavors to satisfy the wishes of

the other; the public weal is considered, not the interest or

aggrandizement of the individual or of the canton.

On Sunday, the 10th of July, a public service was held on the meadow. It

was a solemn ceremony, attended by all the different creeds that hold

fellowship together. On the next day the members of the Diet, which was

then in session at Berne, visited Zurich. The banished duchess of Parma,

who lives in the neighboring Swiss town, Pappenschwyl, was also the

guest of the citizens. She and her children sat with them at the rough

pine board and partook of the same viands. After the dinner she said,

with tears in her eyes, “The Swiss do not know how happy they indeed

are.”

On Tuesday, July 12th, the last shot was fired, and on the following day

the prizes were distributed. This ceremony took place on the grounds

before the gift temple. President Dubs opened with a speech, in which he

said: “We are distributing now the prizes to those who have proved

themselves the best marksmen. An equal chance is given to all; let all

practice with their weapons and emulate their lucky companions. I am

convinced that all who have hit the centre of the target will be able to

pierce the breast of the enemy, should war be unavoidable.” The first

prize, the silver basin from Paris, with the 2,500 francs, was won by a

manufacturer, Durrer, of Unterwalden; the second, the silver horn from

Leipzig, by a farmer named Glogg, of Obermeilen; the third, the twelve

silver cups from Bremen, jointly by Professor Dr. Hug, of the University

of Zurich, and Mr. Baer, of Männedorf, the best shot in Switzerland, who

had hit the target four hundred and eighty-seven times during the

festival.

The whole was closed with a serenade, given by the marksmen to President

Dubs, the chief magistrate of the confederacy, as well as president of

the festival. The next day the remaining guests departed, the garlands

and banners disappeared, the people returned to their business, all

external show had vanished; but the feeling that Switzerland’s sons have

again renewed the bonds of their brotherhood still survives in the

breasts of that simple, quiet people--our republican brethren of the

Alps.

SCHOOLS OF INSTRUCTION FOR OFFICERS.

The Federal system of Military Instruction for officers, in 1871,

embraced--

I. A Central Military School at Thun, to which all officers appointed to

the General Staff repair to be instructed in their duties.

II. A School of Officers at Thun, in which all officers appointed to

their respective regiments are instructed in their duties.

III. A School of Cantonal Instruction, held in Basle, to which the

infantry instructors resort from every canton to learn their duties,

undergo inspection, and preserve a common rule.

IV. A School of Young Officers, held at Solothurn and at St. Gallen,

turn by turn, to which the several Cantons send their young officers who

have just received their commissions, and to which all candidates for

commissions repair for examinations.

V. Comissariat School, to which is joined a Medical and Ambulance School

generally, at Thun.

VI. A Shooting School, for officers who give instruction to the Cadet

Corps and other organizations in the several Cantons.

To these school organizations with their practical exercises must be

added the opportunities afforded by the Cantonal reviews and field

manœuvres, to which the young Swiss officer brings much valuable

experience in his previous school and cadet drill.

The events of the late French-Prussian war tested the efficiency of the

Swiss military organization and instruction. The French declaration was

announced in Paris in the afternoon of Friday, July 15, 1870, and

responded to by a counter declaration from Berlin on Tuesday, the 19th.

But the Federal Council of Switzerland (which lay between the

combatants, and might become the first theatre of belligerent

operations), was summoned by President Dubs to consider the situation;

and within an hour, the Cantons had been regularly summoned to complete

their regiments with men, arms, horses, guns, and all stores and tools

required for actual service, and five divisions of the Elite (the first,

second, sixth, seventh, and ninth), were ordered to assemble in their

several Cantons. The first division, under Colonel Egtoff, was to secure

the bridge at Basle and occupy the two banks of the Rhine. The first

news which the men of Aargau had of the impending war was late on Friday

night. By noon on Saturday squads of men were falling into the ranks in

front of the town-hall of the cantonal capital--companies were

formed--guns were got out--sappers, engineers, and guards were in

readiness--officers were at their posts. In the afternoon the first

Swiss troops were in march for Basle, and by midnight the first regiment

of Aargau were on the bridge; and by Sunday night the first division,

under Col, Egtoff, with 8,296 men, and 692 horses, besides the staff and

guides; and the second division, under Colonel Salis, with 8,319 men,

and 632 men at the same hour had assembled at Basle and held the roads

and streams which led to Bonn. By Tuesday night, before the Prussian

manifest was known in Bonn, the five divisions of the first Swiss army,

with their eleven batteries of artillery mounting 96 field pieces, and a

total force of 37,423 men, and 3,541 horses and 104 staff and guides,

were under arms and at their respective rendezvous; and the President

was authorized by the Council to announce to all concerned, “that any

troops belonging to belligerent states, whether regulars or volunteers,

who violate the territory of the Swiss nation, will be repelled by

force.”

Out of the officers whose men were first in the field, the Federal

Council placed Colonel Herzog, of the Aargau detachment of the Federal

army, in chief command, and by Saturday night the General’s

head-quarters were established at Alton (the center of the Swiss

railways), where he organized his staff, issued his instructions to

organize two hospitals, one for wounded men, and the other for horses,

and at the same time ordered magazines of stores and clothes to be

established in his rear, and the forces to be moved up to the front. All

railway companies were ordered to report their stock of engines,

carriages, and open wagons, and telegraphic communication was

established for night as well as day service, and engineers were sent

out to study every pass and point by which an enemy in any strength was

likely to enter the territory of Switzerland. When all danger to the

Cantons had passed away in the victories of the German arms, Gen. Herzog

was directed to raise his camps, and send to their several Cantons their

respective troops. Later in the war, when it was authentically known

that Bourbaki was moving an army of 150,000 strong, to sweep across the

Rhine; and still later, that the Germans meant to push the French, in

either whole or part, across the Swiss frontier, and put them out of

service for the rest of the war--General Herzog satisfied the President

and the Council, and the Minister of War, of the impending danger, and

on Thursday, Jan. 19th, the third, fourth, and fifth divisions, with two

batteries of mountain guns, well prepared for winter service in a

district lying under snow, were ordered out; and in one week from that

date, these forces were distributed through the various passes in the

Jura, from Basle to Geneva, with orders to repel, or receive--to fight,

or feed and lodge, according to the spirit in which the broken

detachments of the French army should present themselves. For the

enormous number (83,301), who laid down their arms, food and beds were

distributed in the Swiss Cantons, by less than 20,000 citizen troops,

without the forfeit of a single life. And when their work was done,

these citizen soldiers laid aside their arms and uniforms and returned

to their shops and industries of various kinds, to earn their daily

bread, without forgetting for a moment their civic rights and household

duties.

If the occasion had required it, as it did in the war of Secession in

1856, each Canton would have contributed 30 men from every 1,000

inhabitants, to the Elite, and 15 men to every 1,000 to the Reserve; and

in case of danger to the Union, every male Switzer, from the age of

nineteen to forty-five, not included in either of the above forces,

would have obeyed the summons of the national authority for the

Landwehr, adding 97,934 to the ranks, besides volunteering above and

below the military age, to the number of 100,000 men, who, in case of a

defensive war, could have been relied on,--all familiar with military

tactics, and accustomed to obey as soldiers, as well as to the use of

arms.

According to recent official statistics the strength of the several

armies of Switzerland is as follows:

Elite. Reserve. Landwehr.

1. Engineers, 900 630 ......

2. Artillery, 6,513 4,254 ......

3. Cavalry, 1,937 932 ......

4. Carabineers, 4,600 2,460 ......

5. Infantry, 55,994 26,448 ......

6. Sanitary Service, 144 78 ......

Armorers, 30 ......

------ ------ ------

Total, 70,088 34,832 97,934

The system of recruiting, drilling and brigading, is local--which brings

neighbors and friends into camp and field companionship, and inspires a

sense of trust and coöperation.

The cost of the reliable military force is as follows:

Cantonal expense, 4,508,901 _frs._

Federal expense, 5,486,396

---------

9,995,297

Contrasted with the cost of education the figures stand thus:

Communal expenses, 5,000,000 _frs._

Cantonal expenses, 5,157,756

Federal Polytechnic, 287,611

----------

10,445,367

And for this sum Switzerland makes a near approach to universal

education in schools of different grades, adapted to all classes.

[Errata for Part IX (Switzerland):

200,000 men well provided with artillery.

_final . invisible_

The drill lasts four days for the “cadre”

_closing ” missing_

to take the system of military drill and organization

_text has “mili-/itary” at line break_

Never to part, in danger or in death!

_expected close quote missing_

“Gotthard,” “Jungfrau,” “Splügen,”

“Gotthard,” Jungfrau,” “Splügen,”]

* * * * *

PART X.

MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES.

* * * * *

MILITARY SYSTEM AND EDUCATION OF THE UNITED STATES.

I. MILITARY SYSTEM.

The Constitution of the United States grants to Congress the power “to

raise and support armies,” “to provide and maintain a navy,” “to make

rules for the government of the land and naval forces; and to provide

for calling forth the militia,” as well as “for organizing, arming and

disciplining” the same, and for governing such parts of them as may be

employed in the service of the United States--reserving to the States,

respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of

training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.

By the same instrument the President is made commander-in-chief of the

army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several

States when called into actual service of the United States “to execute

the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions.”

By law of August, 1789, a department of war, and in 1798, a secretary of

the navy is provided to aid the President in the administration of

military and naval affairs; and the original rules and articles of war

enacted by the Congress of 1776, were continued in force, and in 1806

made the basis of the military code which has since governed all troops

mustered into the service of the United States.

In 1790 the rank and file of the regular army was fixed at 1,216 men. In

1796 this force was organized into one corps of artillerists and

engineers, whose head-quarters was at West Point, two companies of light

dragoons, and four regiments of infantry of eight companies each. This

force was increased by additional regiments in the war of 1812, the

Indian war in Florida, and the war with Mexico, till in 1861, the army

consisted of 14,000 men, stationed in the different forts and garrisons,

and mainly on the Indian frontier. In the war of the Rebellion the

regular army was increased to 50,000 men.

By act of July 15,1870, the number of enlisted men was reduced to 30,000

by or before July 1, 1871. On the 20th of October, 1871, the army was

composed as follows:

Two regiments of Cavalry, 8,800 enlisted men.

Five regiments of Artillery, 3,105 “ “

Twenty-five regiments of Infantry, 23,742 “ “

One battalion of Engineers, 314 “ “

Ordnance Department, 444 “ “

West Point Detachment, 202 “ “

Signal Department, 199 “ “

Hospital stewards, 310 “ “

Ordnance Surgeons, 114 “ “

Available Recruits, _en route_, 349 “ “

Permanent Recruiting Parties, 904 “ “

General Service Men, 420 “ “

------

Total, 29,003

Commissioned Officers, 2,105

Retired Officers, 295

When the insurrectionary movements and combinations of the Southern

States in 1861, proved too powerful to be suppressed by ordinary civil

powers, the President, April 15, called for 75,000 volunteers for three

months, to defend the capital, and May 3, 42,000 to serve for three

years or during the war. On the 22d of July he was authorized to accept

the services of 500,000, which, within six months afterwards was

increased to 1,000,000. This force proving inadequate, a levy of 300,000

men was ordered in 1863, and in 1864, another call for 500,000

men--making an aggregate of 2,653,062 mustered into the service of the

United States, or nearly one fourth of the entire male population of the

Northern States. This entire force was disbanded within one year from

the close of the war.

The development of the naval resources of the country was quite as

marvelous. In 1861 the entire navy consisted of 94 war vessels of all

classes and in all conditions, capable when in service of carrying 2,415

guns. Only 43 of these ships were in commission, and the seamen and

mariners numbered 7,000. In less than three years 200 war vessels were

constructed and 418 merchant vessels were converted to military service,

and over 50,000 men enlisted in the naval service.

The Southern States in rebellion put into the field over 500,000 men,

and exhausted their pecuniary resources, with the loss of 300,000

soldiers on the field or in hospital.

The debt of the United States contracted in the prosecution of the war,

stood in 1866 at the enormous sum of $2,783,425,879.

These extraordinary efforts were made under circumstances which are not

likely to exist again, and such expenditures could not be repeated

without national bankruptcy.

The Militia of the United States, by act of Congress of 1792, consists

of all white male citizens between the ages of 18 and 45, who must be

enrolled and arranged into brigades, regiments, and companies, as the

legislature of each State may direct. Of the militia, as organized by

state legislation, the governor is commander-in-chief, except when

called into the service of the United States. To provide arms and

equipments for the whole body of militia, arsenals and armories are

provided by Congress, in different parts of the country, at an annual

charge of $200,000 (since 1808).

In the absence of any official information respecting the number and

condition of the Militia of the several States,[1] we gather the

following statistics from a pamphlet by General J. W. Hoffman, of

Philadelphia, on the subject of the National Guard.

[Footnote 1: The Militia System was broken up by the Volunteer

System introduced by the United States and encouraged by State

Legislation, and now (1872) even formal returns as to enrollment

are not complied with by a majority of the States.]

_State. Population. Military Organization._

_Alabama_--996,902.

_Arkansas_--484,167,--78 companies of State Guard, with a total of

5,484 men.

_California_--560,247,--30 companies of infantry, 2 of artillery, 5 of

cavalry; organized into 2 battalions, 2 regiments, 6 brigades, 1

division--aggregate, 2,686. Term of service one year. The State

furnishes uniforms, and pays $50 per month to each company of infantry

and cavalry, and $25 per gun per month to companies of artillery.

_Connecticut_--537,454,--40 companies of infantry, 2 sections of

artillery organized into 4 regiments, 1 brigade; aggregate 2,906. Term

of service 5 years; parade annually, by company or regiment, in the

month of May; attend camp for six successive days once in every two

years. In addition, companies parade once in August or September, and

drill not less than one hour in the evenings, not exceeding two evenings

in each month, from October to April, inclusive. Compensation to all

officers and men $2 per day for each day’s duty performed, and 5 cents

mileage to and from place of parade. Members of bands $2,50 per day and

mileage; $2 per day for every horse used; rent of armories are paid by

the State, and all citizens between 21 and 45 years liable to military

duty, but may commute by annual payment of $2,00. Total moneys collected

from this commutation tax, $62,000 per annum.

_Colorado_--39,864.

_Delaware_--125,015.

_Florida_--187,748,--96 volunteer companies organized with 3,360 men,

out of a total of 21,854 enrolled (116,112 white, and 10,242 colored).

_Georgia_--1,184,109. No organization.

_Illinois_--2,539,891. No state organization: a few volunteer

companies who provide their own uniforms and are furnished with arms and

accoutrements by the State.

_Indiana_--1,680,637. No organization.

_Iowa_--1,191,792. No State organization.

_Kansas_--364,399. No state organization beyond the 2 companies to

operate against the Indians.

_Kentucky_--1,321,011. No organization.

_Louisiana_--726,915,--37 companies of uniformed infantry, 3 of

cavalry, 1 of artillery; organized with 6 regiments, 2 divisions--one of

which has 2 brigade organizations; aggregate strength, 3,469 out of

107,821 enrolled militia. Term of service 2 years.

_Maine_--626,915,--10 companies, with an aggregate of 937; State

furnishes arms, equipments, and uniforms.

_Maryland_--780,894,--the State provides arms, uniforms, and rent of

armories, and exempts members from jury duty.

_Massachusetts_--1,457,351,--92 companies of uniformed infantry, 5

batteries of artillery, 5 companies of cavalry; organized into 10

regiments, 3 brigades, and 1 division; aggregate, 6,277; State pays

nearly $200,000 per annum; at the annual inspection in 1870, 5,221

present.

_Michigan_--1,184,059.

_Minnesota_--439,706,--30 companies of infantry and 4 sections of

field artillery.

_Mississippi_--27,922.

_Missouri_--1,721,295.

_Nebraska_--2,993.

_Nevada_--2,491.

_New Hampshire_--318,300.

_New Jersey_--906,096,--51 companies of infantry, and 2 batteries of

artillery; organized into 4 battalions, 6 regiments, 2 brigades;

aggregate, 3,146 out of 127,000 enrolled; every company parade at least

12 times in the year, one of which is by brigade; State appropriated in

1870 $26,126. Term of service 6 years, with exemptions from poll tax and

jury duty.

_New York_--4,382,759,--398 companies of infantry, 12 of artillery, 28

of cavalry; organized into 41 regiments, 21 brigades, 8 divisions;

aggregate, 24,585; the State furnishes arms and allows rent for armory

and $5 per day for any enlisted man who has paraded 7 days in the year,

which sum goes into a uniform fund. The State allows for head-quarter

expenses, and appropriates annually over $200,000 for its National

Guard. Term of service is 7 years, with exemptions from jury duty, and a

deduction of $1,000 on the assessed valuation of taxable property.

_North Carolina_--1,071,361.

_Ohio_--2,665,260,--2 companies of uniform infantry and 2 sections of

cavalry.

_Oregon_--90,923.

_Pennsylvania_--3,521,791,--311 companies, with an aggregate of

14,800; no general organization into regiments out of the county of

Philadelphia.

_Rhode Island_--217,353,--State provides armories, or rent for same

and pay of armorer, and $2,50 per day for two days’ parade, and $3 per

horse.

_South Carolina_--725,606.

_Tennessee_--1,258,520.

_Texas_--818,579.

_Vermont_--330,551,--4 regiments of infantry, 1 battery of artillery;

the State provides arms, uniforms, armories, and $2 per day for each

days’ drill, not exceeding 4 days, and tents for a three days’ muster in

the autumn.

_Virginia_--1,225,163.

_West Virginia_--442,014.

_Wisconsin_--1,054,670,--8 companies, organized as First Regiment.

The above statement of the legal condition of the militia of the several

States, which together constitute the army of Reserve of the United

States, is not very creditable to all concerned--to the cities and local

communities, whose exemption from riots and illegal combinations of bad

men may depend on the fact of an organized force, which the voice of

authority could in an hour summon to the protection of the threatened

houses and workshops of the citizens;--to the States, whose quota to any

national call can not now be depended upon except at the cost of

extravagant bounties, and whose raw recruits thus furnished would be

worthless till after months of drill and field manœuvres;--to the

nation, whose strength should be its weakness for purposes of foreign

aggression, and its ability to summon millions of willing men, familiar

with military organization and duties, to the defense of their hearths

and free institutions.

The Volunteer Soldiery in time of peace, does not hold the same distinct

recognition in the armed forces of the United States, apart from the

Militia of the several States, as in Great Britain; and yet the most

efficient military organizations of the several States, and especially

in our larger cities, are of this character; and in most of the States

where uniform companies exist, they constitute a permanent and important

force, whose services have proved highly valuable in quelling riots and

protecting public property. Of the number of regiments or

companies--their officers and men, distinct from the enrolled and

organized State Militia, we have no official statistics.

MODE OF OFFICERING THE ARMY.

The commissioned officers of the United States army are drawn from three

sources:--_First_, from the cadets of the Military Academy at West

Point; _Second_, from civil life; _Third_, from the rank and file.

1. The appointment to the grade of lieutenant in either corps, follows

regularly to any cadet on graduation, after having completed the course

of instruction at West Point. From 1815 to 1832, the army was officered

almost exclusively from the Military Academy.

2. The expansion of the military force consequent on the Indian war in

Florida, from 1832 to 1837, and the Mexican war from 1845 to 1848, and

of the Civil war from 1861 to 1865, was followed by the appointment of

many persons from civil life, who had received no military training, and

without any special qualifications beyond personal and political

considerations.

As a stimulus and reward to special service, promotions are occasionally

made from the rank and file, after a mere formal examination in the

elementary branches of a common school education, and without the

provision for professional training except such as can be got from

observation and private reading.

PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION AND TRAINING OF OFFICERS.

In the organization and movements of the armed forces of the Colonies,

the officers were trained in the military service of the mother country.

In the War of Independence, the general spirit of the people supplied

for a time the want of trained soldiers and officers, beyond the small

force which had been schooled in the French and Indian Wars; but the

necessities of the service compelled Congress to authorize its

accredited agents abroad to offer commissions, especially to engineer

and artillery officers; and at the close of the war we find nearly all

the prominent officers in the artillery and engineer departments had

been trained abroad. Nearly all the fortifications were planned by them

and erected under their supervision. The names of Steuben, Kosciusko, Du

Portail, Radière, Romans, Vincent, Rochefontaine, Toussard, Revardi,

L’Enfant, Villefranche, and others of later date, will suggest to any

reader of the military history of the country, the extent of our

obligations to foreign military schools.

The sources of systematic professional instruction and training for

officers of the armed forces of the United States, are--

I. The National Military Academy at West Point, for the general

scientific instruction of officers of all arms.

II. The Practical School of Artillery at Fortress Monroe.

III. The Engineer Battalion School of Practice at Hunter’s Point.

IV. The Company and Regimental Drill of various Volunteer Corps in the

larger cities of the country.

V. The Cadet Corps in various Military and Scientific Schools in

different States.

The gradual development of the military Academy at West Point, and the

present condition of Military Education will now be given.

THE MILITARY ACADEMY AT WEST POINT

I. ORIGIN AND HISTORY. PERIOD I.--1802-1812.

The influence of the United States Military Academy upon education, as

well as its wide reputation as a school of science, render an inquiry

into its rise and progress, a subject both of interest and profit. Since

it is mind, rather than any system of forms and studies, which gives

power to such institutions, a mere statement of dates and facts is

insufficient to give us a just view of its character. We must, if

possible, trace the spirit of the men who guided, and the principles

impressed upon it. To do this, we shall resort, not merely to the record

of events, but to our memory of men and acts, with which we were for

years familiar.

It was not to be expected, that schools of refined, scientific art

should be founded by small colonies in the wilderness of the new world.

When even their clergymen must resort to Europe for education, and their

lawyers for license, it was in vain to expect their soldiers to be

accomplished engineers. When the revolutionary war came on, this fact

became a painful experience. No man felt it more than Washington. With a

people, whose patriotism was unquenchable; with soldiers, who rivaled

the warriors of Leonidas, he found the best and truest of men, with the

smallest possible share of military science. He was obliged to depend on

European engineers for a skill which his countrymen did not possess;

while their European ideas, and artificial habits were displeasing to

his American principles.[2] He felt military instruction to be a primary

want in the country. Accordingly, he was the real founder of the

Military Academy; that is, he put forth the _germinal idea_. What the

plan of it was to be, and what shape it should ultimately take, he did

not state, and probably had not thought of; for Washington in the office

of president, seldom meddled with the details of public affairs. What he

meant to obtain, however, he distinctly stated, in his message, dated

December 3rd, 1793; in referring to measures of national defense, he

says an inquiry may be made: “whether your own experience, in the

several states has not detected some imperfection in the scheme; and

whether a material feature in the improvement of it ought not to be to

afford an opportunity for the _study of those branches of the military

art which can scarcely ever be obtained by practice alone_.”

[Footnote 2: Prepared by Major E. D. Mansfield, a graduate of West

Point in 1819, for Barnard’s American Journal of Education, March,

1862.]

In his message of December 7th, 1796, he said: “Whatever, argument may

be drawn, from particular examples, superficially viewed, a thorough

examination of the subject will evince that the art of war is at once

comprehensive and complicated; that it demands much previous study, and

that the profession of it in its most improved and perfect state, is

always of great moment to the security of a nation. This, therefore,

ought to be a serious care of every government; _and for this purpose an

academy, where a regular course of instruction is given_, is an obvious

expedient, which different nations have employed.”[3]

[Footnote 3: It is not meant to say that this subject was not

mentioned before. It was by Col. Pickering, in 1783. But whoever

reads the letters and memoirs of Washington, will see, that all

the early ideas on the subject of military education and military

science were derived from the experience of Washington.]

The views, always entertained, and repeatedly expressed by General

Washington, were adopted by Mr. Adams, and Mr. McHenry, secretary of

war, in his administration, made an elaborate report on this subject,

which was transmitted to congress, on 10th of December, 1800. It is due

to Mr. McHenry, to say that his ideas of what ought to be a course of

military instruction, were far in advance of what were actually

provided, till after the war of 1812-’15 proved his ideas to be correct.

In 1794, prior to the last message of Washington, congress attempted to

supply the want of a military academy, by attaching cadets to the corps

of artillerists, and engineers. This corps consisted of four battalions,

to each of which eight cadets were to be attached. This made the whole

number of cadets thirty-two; and for this corps of artillerists,

engineers and cadets, the secretary of war was directed to procure

books, instruments and apparatus. The term _cadet_ signifying in French,

the youngest brother of a family, and in Spanish, a young volunteer

officer, became naturally applied to young men, who were junior,

volunteer officers. In England, the _cadet_ of a family was a young son,

who volunteered for the India service; and in the United States has been

properly applied to the youth, who enter the military academy.

It seems from the message of Washington, in 1796, that the attempt at

military instruction, was a failure. No place, no teachers, no studies,

were appointed. It was on the 16th of March, 1802, in the early

administration of Mr. Jefferson, that congress established, by that

name, the _Military Academy_. It was still made part of an army corps;

the idea of making a separate institution for scientific studies not

being yet matured. The artillerists and engineers were made two distinct

corps, of which there were forty cadets of artillery and ten of

engineers. The corps of engineers consisted of a major, two captains,

four lieutenants, and ten cadets, making seventeen in all. _The corps

constituted the military academy_, established at West Point, in the

State of New York. So little idea was then entertained of the true

objects and mode of scientific instruction, that the law required the

cadet, as well as officer, to do duty in any part of the United States.

In other words, the only idea of the military academy, at that time, was

_a place appointed where the officers of engineers might give or receive

instruction, when not on other duty_. The actual academy, such as it

was, conformed to that idea. The major of engineers was the commander,

or superintendent. The two captains were instructors, and the cadets

were pupils. It was, as a school, an inchoate existence, without regular

teachers, or limited studies, or proper discipline. Yet, even in this

imperfect condition, it did, as we shall see, some service which ought

to be gratefully remembered.

In the meanwhile, let us turn for a moment, to the _place_ which is so

memorable in the annals of this country, and is now so intimately

associated with science. If Dr. Beattie is correct in saying that the

character of the mind is much associated with natural scenery, no place

in America could have been more wisely selected, as the site of a

national institution. World renowned, as West Point justly is, there is

that in its scenery and associations, more interesting to a poetic or a

patriotic mind, than its famed Academy. Its green plain, hidden amidst

its mountains; its craggy summits; its rocky barriers; its dark

evergreens; its darker waters, flowing on forever; that beautiful view

of town and country, seen through the frowning brows of Crow Nest and

the Beacon; that quiet vale, where Washington oft bent his steps; those

lonely little mounds, where the soldiers of the Revolution repose; these

forts and ramparts now indistinctly seen, which once guarded these

mountain passes; yon ledge of rocks, where Kosciusko once made his

little garden; all these and other memorable things, call up whatever is

sublime in nature, or noble in history. It is impossible to forget them.

It is impossible for the dullest mind, not to have its sensibilities

excited, or its character elevated by the contemplation of such sublime

scenes, or such interesting events. When such a spot becomes the place

of our education, its memories become poetic; its associations mingle

with the flow of life, and the structure of our minds.

To return. The law having authorized this ideal Academy, it was

immediately instituted, by the appointment of officers. The Academy, it

is seen, was on quite a small scale. In fact, so far as teaching was

concerned, the Academy consisted of two captains of engineers and ten

cadets. The two captains were WILLIAM H. BARRON and JARED MANSFIELD. Mr.

Mansfield had been a teacher of mathematics, navigation, and the

classics, first at New Haven, (Conn.,) and then at Philadelphia. He had

written a volume of “Essays” on mathematics and physics, quite original,

and distinguishing him at that time, as the first mathematician of his

country. This was brought to the notice of Mr. Jefferson, who with no

great love of military affairs, was a warm friend of science. When the

act was passed authorizing the Military Academy, Mr. Jefferson wrote to

Mr. Mansfield, that he would appoint him a captain of engineers, for the

_very purpose of becoming a teacher at West Point_. Accordingly he was

appointed, on May 3rd, 1802; Captain Barron had been appointed in April.

Then, in May 1802, the actual Military Academy was constituted, Captains

Barron and Mansfield being teachers of mathematics and philosophy, to

some half dozen or more cadets and lieutenants. No professor of

engineering or of any other department was appointed before 1812. In

pursuing the course and growth of instruction at West Point, during this

period of ten years, we can only refer to the services of the

instructors and graduates. In fact, there were no graduates prior to

1815; but there were _appointments_ made from the cadets of the Military

Academy, after more or less study at West Point. To understand what was

done, we must refer to the actions of teachers and cadets, rather than

to history. Its teachers were few and its annals brief. Captain

Mansfield, after a year’s teaching at West Point, was in 1808, appointed

by Mr. Jefferson, to a more responsible position. It was necessary to

the correctness of our public surveys, that the meridian lines and the

base lines (which are co-ordinates,) should be established with

astronomical accuracy. For this purpose, Captain Mansfield was appointed

surveyor general of the north-western territory; furnished with

astronomical instruments, and taking his residence in Ohio, proceeded to

establish and perfect that beautiful system of surveys, by which the

north-western states are distinguished. Retaining his military bent,

with a view to his original destination at West Point, he actually

returned there in 1814, to recommence, as we shall see hereafter, his

career as an instructor in the national institution. Of Captain Barron,

his co-teacher, we only know that he was relieved in February, 1807. At

the same time, his successor, FERDINAND R. HASSLER, was appointed, and

remained till he resigned in 1810. Mr. Hassler was, we believe, a Swiss

by birth. He wrote a small treatise on mathematics, and had quite an

extensive reputation, as a mathematician, but was said to be too

analytical and refined in the character of his mind, for American

practical habits. He was intended for the coast survey, and, we believe,

actually commenced it.

In November, 1806, ALDEN PARTRIDGE, superintendent of engineers, was

appointed _acting assistant_ professor of mathematics, and retained that

position till April, 1812.

The “Teacherships” of French and drawing were created, by the act of

February, 1803, being a very important addition to the original scheme

of the Academy. To the teachership of French, FRANCIS DE MASSON was

appointed, March, 1804, and resigned in March, 1812. To the teachership

of drawing, CHRISTIAN E. ZOELLER was appointed, September, 1808, and

resigned in April, 1810. Mr. Masson was a Frenchman by birth; Mr.

Zoeller, a Swiss. Mr. Masson was highly spoken of by Colonel Williams, a

good judge of what constitutes a scholar. Mr. Zoeller was an amiable

man, of no high attainments, whose instruction in drawing was wholly

confined to the military part, fortifications and bridges.

From this brief history, it appears, that there were but six teachers at

West Point, between 1802 and 1812. Of these, no more than four were ever

present at one time, and that only between 1808 and 1810. The teachers

present, each year, were as follows:

1802-1803, Captain Barron, Mathematics.

Captain Mansfield, Philosophy.

1804-1806, Captain Barron, “

Francis Masson, French.

1806-1807, Captain Barron, Mathematics.

Francis Masson, French.

Alden Partridge, Mathematics.

1808-1810, Ferdinand Hassler, “

Alden Partridge, “

Francis Masson, French.

Christian Zoeller, Drawing.

1810-1812, Alden Partridge, Mathematics.

Francis Masson, French.

This glance at the actual teachers of West Point enables us to see at a

glance, what was done. No continuous study was pursued at all, except

mathematics. For the eight years, between 1804 and 1812, French was

taught by an able professor, Mr. Masson, and from 1808 to 1810, drawing.

In 1812, this inchoate existence of the Academy was ended by the act of

congress, reorganizing the institution, and placing it on a permanent

and extensive foundation. The next period of five years, from 1812 to

1817, was the _forming_ period of the Academy. In some respects, its

elements were chaotic. In others, its _personnel_ was inefficient and

inharmonious. In others, again, its materials of instruction were

inadequate. From this condition it finally emerged, and attained its

present high character and usefulness. The history of this change is

important, if not interesting to those who would understand what are the

true foundations of a great school of education. In the meanwhile, let

us return to what the CADETS of the Academy had done. If they were few,

and with small means of instruction, they may nevertheless have shown

that the Academy was not altogether fruitless. How many cadets were

appointed between 1802 and 1812, we do not exactly know, but we have the

number appointed _from the Academy_. The number of cadets promoted from

the Academy during that period were for each year, thus:

In 1802, 2.

In 1803, 3.

In 1804, 2.

In 1805, 3.

In 1806, 15.

In 1807, 5.

In 1808, 15.

In 1809, 7.

In 1811, 19.

In 1812, 18.

This makes eighty-nine in ten years. Let us look at their career, as

stated in the brief annals of the army; or, as they are retained in

memory. Of this number, comprising ten cadets of more than half a

century ago, this is the result:

Killed in battle, 10.

Died in service, 21.

In service, 7.

Resigned, 33.

Disbanded, 10.

Dropped, 3.

Dismissed, 4.

Declined, 1.

This is no bad roll. If we were to search our college rolls for those

who had been really useful, those who died in battle, or served to the

end, or entered other fields of usefulness, or now live in the

performance of duty, we should find a less grateful exhibition than

this. The number of those who had been “dropped,” or “dismissed,” for

incompetence, or vice, would be far greater. Alas! if we could read the

secret history of the college roll, how sad would be that account! We

know, that in times past, many of the officers of the army were addicted

to dissipation. Happily, we can say, many less now. But since we would

estimate the value of the Military Academy, even in its most imperfect

condition, let us see _who_ some of these men were.

The first cadet appointed was General JOSEPH G. SWIFT,[4] who having

risen to the rank of general of engineers and inspector of the Military

Academy, resigned, became surveyor of the port of New York, and is now a

venerable and respected citizen of Geneva. Of those who were killed in

battle, _Eleazer D. Wood_, (whose monument stands at West Point,) was

killed while loading a cannon, in the sortie from Fort Erie. Five others

were killed on the Canada frontier, and four in battle with the Indians.

Of those who died in service, _two_ reached the rank of general, and

_eight_ that of field officers. Of those who are now in service, (7,)

one is General JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, chief of the corps of engineers, who

served on the Canada frontier in the war of 1812, and at the siege of

Vera Cruz. One is Col. SYLVANUS THAYER, who served in the war of

1812-’15; who was superintendent of the Military Academy from 1817 to

1833, and to whom it is indebted for a large part of its usefulness. Of

these gentlemen, we shall have more to say, when we refer to the forming

period of the institution. Another is Colonel RENE DE RUSSY, who was

distinguished in the battle of Plattsburg, and became superintendent of

the Academy on the retirement of Col. Thayer. Of those who resigned or

were disbanded, many died young; one became a member of congress and

politician; and another, Col. WILLIAM MCREE, was a remarkable man,

distinguished for gallant conduct in the battle of Niagara and Fort

Erie, a member of the board of engineers, and of cultivated mind; he

resigned from the army and became surveyor general for Missouri and

Arkansas, and finally died of cholera at St. Louis. Of the whole

eighty-nine, who were commissioned prior to 1813, but twenty-one were

alive in 1850, and several others have died since. The few who now

remain have seen more than half a century’s service in useful

employments. Perhaps it should be mentioned to the advantage of the

Military Academy, as a school of physical education, that at the end of

half a century, twenty of its pupils out of eighty-nine, should be yet

alive. In twenty years of civil life, as appears from the United States

census of 1830 and 1850, more than the same proportion of youth between

ten and twenty years of age perished. The general strength and health of

the pupils of West Point are beyond a doubt greater than that of the

same number of young men brought up in the ordinary methods of

education. This is not wholly due to physical exercises, but also to

moral education, and to the care and comforts of their mode of life.

Will any one deny that _discipline_ is a part of moral education? Is not

self-restraint, the regularity of habits, and the art of using the mind

in intellectual pursuits, the most important elements of a moral

education? It is to all these, and not merely the training and exercise

of arms, that the eléves of the Academy owe so large a share of the

health and strength of life.

[Footnote 4: The _first_ diploma, which we suppose was a

manuscript certificate, was the one given to the then Cadet SWIFT,

and signed by Captains Barron and Mansfield.]

In the period of its history which we have now examined, the Military

Academy was really only in the germ of its existence. Like most other

useful or remarkable enterprises, it was first thought of as a thing

needed; then began without any clear idea of what it would become, and

was then improved upon, till it grew to be of magnitude and importance.

PERIOD II.--1812-1825.

The Academy, in its germinal existence, whose history we have briefly

traced, was obviously inadequate to supply the army and country with

young men instructed in the art of war. Congress authorized the

appointment of a large number of cadets. But the President did not act

upon it, because there were neither professors, nor books, nor quarters,

nor material at West Point for their training. In 1808, Mr. Jefferson

recommended an enlargement of the Academy. In 1810, Mr. Madison did the

same. In vain, however, were these recommendations, till the nation was

roused from its indolent repose by the sudden shock of war. In 1811, the

battle of Tippecanoe electrified the people. The war-whoop sounded on

the north-western frontier, and the aggressive conduct of Great Britain

became insufferable. War was an imperious necessity. Then it was that

the use if not necessity of an institution for military training became

obvious to all reflecting minds. In April, 1812, the act was passed

which erected the frame-work of the present Military Academy. As this

legal outline has been little changed since, it is necessary that we

should look to its provisions, for correct ideas of what the law

intended, and what has been substantially carried out in its growth and

development.

1st. It was provided, that the number of cadets might be increased to

two hundred and fifty, and attached at the discretion of the President

as students to the Military Academy at West Point, and be subject to the

regulations thereof.

2d. That these cadets should be between the ages of fourteen and

twenty-one, and previous to his appointment should be well versed in

reading, writing, and arithmetic.

3d. That the Military Academy should consist of the Corps of Engineers,

the Professors of Philosophy, of Mathematics, of Engineering, with their

assistants, and the teachers of French and Drawing.

4th. That when any cadet shall receive a regular degree from the

Academical Staff, he shall be considered a candidate for a commission in

any corps for which he shall be deemed competent.

In addition to these provisions for education, money was appropriated

for buildings and books, and for a band of music. The expenditure

provided for was very small, compared with the need of the Academy; but

it was enough for a beginning. It was far easier, as we shall see, to

provide for all its material wants, than to bring it into that state of

moral and intellectual discipline, which was essential to the attainment

of great results. The institution, in its former period, was in an

inchoate condition. A few young officers, raised up partly as teachers,

and partly as pupils, without a course of studies, without regulations,

and without discipline, could furnish no just ideas, from experience, of

what a highly intellectual, well-ordered school of science should be;

and accordingly the want of just ideas of education was precisely what

first stood in the way of making West Point what it subsequently became.

For more than five years there was a wrestling between old and new

ideas. There was a positive ignorance of what high education should be.

In fact, the country had no models for it. Then there were old habits to

overcome. Lastly, there was a willfulness on the part of some in

authority, opposed as long as opposition was possible, to any new idea

of things. For people are aware, in this day of change and novelty, how

strongly the _vis inertiæ_ of intellectual habits opposes intellectual

improvement. This very _vis inertiæ_, at first, almost nullified the

power of law itself to improve and enlarge the studies at West Point.

How it acted we shall see. The first difficulty at West Point was,

(after preparing the accommodations and material) in complying with the

spirit of the law, and placing the _academic instruction on the high

ground really intended_. To understand this we must here advert to some

provisions of the law which were either overlooked or neglected. First,

the law expressly recognized an _Academic Staff_, who should confer

_degrees_. Secondly, that the cadets of West Point should be _students_,

subject to the _regulations of the Academy_. All this evidently meant

that these two hundred and fifty young men should be placed, like

students in college, under regular academic instruction, and that the

professors and teachers should constitute an academic faculty, with

power to regulate the education of the cadets, and confer degrees

according to merit. Ultimately this was accomplished; but it took much

effort on the part of the Professors to bring the military authorities

into a just conception of this scheme. During the years 1812 and 1813,

little was done except in commencing buildings, buying apparatus,

appointing the cadets, and getting ready for the real business of the

institution. Here we must record the first academic faculty organized at

West Point. The professorship of Natural and Experimental Philosophy,

which was higher in rank and emoluments than the others, was instituted

expressly for Col. JARED MANSFIELD, who, having retained his commission

in the corps of engineers, while he was surveyor-general in the

north-western states, was now (October, 1812,) appointed to the same

professorship which he held ten years before. ANDREW ELLICOTT, who had

been astronomer of the United States, and had a wide reputation for

mathematical knowledge, was appointed professor of Mathematics, in

September, 1813, at which time, also, ALDEN PARTRIDGE was appointed

professor of Engineering. The teacher of drawing was CHRISTIAN E.

ZOELLER, reappointed; and of French, FLORIMOND DE MASSON. This was the

first academic faculty. Subsequently, the principal professors were

allowed assistants, and other teachers were at still later periods

provided in the departments of Ethics, Tactics, Artillery, Chemistry,

&c., as the institution was enlarged, and its wants were better known.

The gentlemen above named were, however, the first professors and the

first faculty. They had the real _labor_ and responsibility of taking

the initial steps, and to a large extent, of forming the Military

Academy. At the very first step a difficulty occurred, which could not

have been anticipated. Captain ALDEN PARTRIDGE, (who was professor of

Engineering) was superintendent of West Point, from January, 1815, to

November, 1816--nearly two years. He was a man of strong will; of

independent and rather eccentric ideas, who quite naturally as a

military man, long resident at the Point, wished to forget that the law

required the education of the institution to be decided by an academic

faculty, and governed by regulations. He chose rather to remember that

it was a military post, governed by a military commandant, and sought to

gratify his own ambition by grasping its sole direction. Professors

Mansfield and Ellicott, who held no command in the army, took a

different view of the subject. They justly thought, that the object of

the institution was to give a thorough _scientific education_,

especially adapted to the art of war; that this required discipline, and

a course of studies systematic and complete; and that all this was

evidently contemplated by the law, which said that the Academy should be

governed by regulations, and hence an academic faculty. This difference

of opinion was vital. It led to a controversy of two years, which

belongs to the private rather than the public history of the Academy.

Little of it was known to the public, and we are now concerned only in

the issue. Had the views of Captain Partridge prevailed, the institution

never could have become what it is.[5] Fortunately, the Professors had

the law on their side, and also the good opinion of the administration,

and eventually gave to the scientific college the cast and features

which it now has. For three years, between 1814 and 1817, this internal

controversy continued, gradually tending to give the Academy a

systematic organization. General JOSEPH G. SWIFT, (head of the corps of

engineers,) who was officially inspector of the Academy, took up his

residence at West Point, in November, 1816, but remained only two

months. While there, there could be no controversy, as to the government

of the Academy, since the commander of engineers was legally its chief.

After the removal of General Swift, Captain Partridge, as senior

officer, again took command. It was determined, however, to remove him;

and the Government most fortunately hit upon an officer, whose

character, education, and accomplishments, most eminently fitted him for

the post of governing, and disciplining the young men, who were in turn

to become the _savans_ as well as the ornaments of their country. This

officer was SYLVANUS THAYER, a native of Massachusetts, commissioner in

1808 from West Point to the engineer corps, and who had recently

traveled in Europe, examining the military schools of France and

Germany. The arrival of Colonel Thayer constitutes the most important

epoch in the history of West Point. Why it is so will appear evident

when we trace out the _scientific culture_ of the Academy, and the

discipline which it furnishes. Up to 1813, we have seen that the

Military Academy was merely a small company of officers and cadets, who,

being stationed at one post, were required while there to pursue certain

mathematical and military studies. It had no one element of

organization. From 1814 to 1817, professors Mansfield and Ellicott were

struggling with no more than partial success, to give it organization

and systematic instruction. But, in 1817, Colonel Thayer, who had seen

in France what such institutions required, and whose enlightened mind

realized the necessity of adopting better methods, at once coöperated

with the Professors, in making a permanent and successful reform.

[Footnote 5: Captain Partridge, who was a useful and energetic

man, had subsequently full opportunity of carrying out his popular

views in the military schools of Norwich and Middletown, which he

founded by his own efforts.]

At this point we should notice the additions made to the academic staff,

between 1816 and 1819, and the steps taken by the war department toward

carrying out the views of the Professors, and Colonel Thayer. CLAUDE

CROZET was appointed professor of Engineering, in March, 1817; DAVID B.

DOUGLAS was appointed assistant professor of Natural Philosophy, in

January, 1815; CHARLES DAVIES was appointed assistant professor of

Mathematics in December, 1816. Rev. THOMAS PICTON was appointed

Chaplain, and professor of Ethics, in July, 1818. THOMAS GIMBREDE was

appointed teacher of Drawing, in January, 1819. Major JOHN BLISS,

instructor of Tactics, in April, 1818; Lieut. GEORGE W. GARDINER,

instructor of Artillery, in September, 1817. CLAUDIUS BERARD succeeded

Francis Masson, as teacher of French, in January, 1815; JOSEPH DU COMMUN

was appointed second teacher of French, in March, 1818. Of the old

professors, Captain Partridge and Francis Masson were gone; all the

others remain. Thus, in 1817, when Colonel Thayer took charge of the

Academy, the corps of teachers was composed of professors Mansfield,

Ellicott, and Crozet; teachers Zoeller and Berard; and assistant

professors Douglas and Davies, exclusive of the military teachers and of

those appointed in 1818 and 1819. This was properly the Academic Staff,

and Colonel Thayer was willing and pleased to have them take their

proper part in organizing the institution, and raising it to that high

standard of discipline and excellence to which it has since attained. In

the meanwhile, the war department, under the enlightened administration

of Mr. Crawford, had endeavored to supply some of the obvious defects of

the Academy, by new regulations.

So far we have pursued the history of the Academy, as it progressed from

a germinal idea to actual being and life. It is now necessary to trace

that system of _scientific culture_ which is its essential element and

peculiar character. In this the student of education may be more

interested, and as we trace it still further, in its _fruits_, the

education and services of more than two thousand young men, who have

held the most important positions in all the departments of life, we

shall be better able to pronounce a just judgment upon its merits and

services.

Mr. CRAWFORD, one of the most enlightened men who have appeared in

public affairs, was, we believe, the first to understand and attempt to

remedy the defects and irregularities which Professors Mansfield and

Ellicott had pointed out.[6] In March, 1816, “Rules and Regulations”

were drawn up by Mr. Crawford. The main points in them were--

1. There shall be a Board of Visitors, to consist of five suitable

gentlemen, who shall attend each annual examination.

2. There shall be a General Examination twice in each year; in July and

December, and an annual vacation in July and August.

3. Cadets shall be admitted in September, and examined in spelling,

reading, writing, and arithmetic.

4. A course of studies, embracing definitely all branches of science and

instruction to be procured, and rules for classification shall be drawn

up, and comprise a complete course of education at the institution.

[Footnote 6: These defects and irregularities arose from not

obeying the law, and not pursuing the ideas it pointed out. The

great effort of Professors Mansfield and Ellicott, was to get the

spirit of the law followed practically.]

According to the last regulation, a course of studies was drawn up by

the Academic Faculty, and approved by Mr. Crawford, in July, 1816. This

course comprised four years, and was substantially the same (although

largely increased,) which has been pursued since.

The _first year_ studies were English Grammar, French, Algebra,

Geometry, and Logarithms.

The _second year_ comprised French, Geometrical Construction,

Application of Algebra, Mensuration, Plain and Spheric Trigonometry, the

Conic Sections, and Drawing.

The _third year_, Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Astronomy, and

Drawing.

The _fourth year_, Engineering, Geography, History, and Ethics.

In the first draft, Engineering was put in the third year; but since

1817, has been placed in the fourth. In a year or two afterwards was

added the Calculus; and in a few years, Chemistry, Mineralogy, and

Natural Law. This course of studies is exclusive of the purely military

part, which under the heads of Tactics, Practical Artillery and Gunnery,

occupied several hours each day.

Thus, in July, 1816, the Academy had for the first time arrived at a

course of studies, and a preparation for discipline. In the fall and

winter of 1816, began an attempt to carry this course of studies into

practical effect. We do not say there had been no studies and no attempt

at classification before that, for there were, but that nothing had

really been perfected in either, till after the “regulations” of 1816.

If we could carry the reader back to the year 1815, and see the

difficulties under which the professor of that day labored, the small

material provided, and the undisciplined condition of the young men

under their charge, we should give better views of the merits and

services of its pioneer teachers. One or two reminiscences may possibly

throw some light on the subject. Colonel Mansfield arrived at West Point

in 1814, and immediately sought for his pupils. He was not like the

professors of whom Gibbon speaks, remembering that he had a salary to

receive, but forgetting he had duties to perform. On the contrary, he

immediately asked for pupils to teach. What was he to teach? Philosophy

and Astronomy. But these required prior training, and it was not till

the winter of 1814-’15, that he could find any pupils. Then he found

_five_ young men who thought that they could go on in such studies. For

want of any recitation rooms at the Point, he taught them in the parlor

of his own house. As we shall refer specifically to the subject of

text-books, we merely add, that the only work to be found at all

suitable, was _Enfield’s Philosophy_. There was no classification, and

in a few months these five cadets were commissioned. They made the first

class in Philosophy, taught at West Point.

Again, there are some who will recollect Professor Ellicott, sitting at

his desk at the end of a long room, in the second story of what was

called the Mess Hall, teaching Geometry or Algebra, looking and acting

precisely like the old-fashioned schoolmaster, of whom it was written,

“And still they gazed, and still the wonder grew,

That one small head could carry all he knew.”

The cadets were all “boys” to him, and his kind face was long

remembered. In the other end of this room, or in the next, was seen his

acting assistant, Stephen H. Long, then a young lieutenant of engineers;

since distinguished as a traveler, an engineer, and a man of science.

The text-book used was “Hutton’s Mathematics,” and at that time the best

to be had. Mr. Hutton had been a professor at Woolwich, England, and his

treatises were plain, simple, easily understood, and therefore well

adapted to beginners. It was, however, very deficient both in extent and

analysis. It was a good text-book then, for there were no cadets trained

to pursue deeper or more analytical works. With Hutton’s Mathematics,

Enfield’s Philosophy, and plain right-lined drawing, and nothing which

could be called engineering, did the cadets of the Academy get along,

without roll, classification, or graduation, till the close of 1816.

In August, 1817, as we have said, Colonel Thayer became superintendent

at West Point; and in the course of the next four or five years the

Academy passed through the great changes which brought it from the

inchoate to the crystallized state in which it now appears. The most

important of these changes relate to scientific culture; and we shall

best describe them by narrating the _actual work_ the classes then

pursued, and the change of text-books. The first step was taken, as we

have seen, in March, 1816, by the regulations of Mr. Crawford, which

required classification, a course of studies, and annual examinations.

Some steps towards these were taken in 1816, but very imperfectly. In

1817 the system of classification was first systematically begun. CLAUDE

CROZET, a French officer under Napoleon, and a pupil of the Polytechnic

School, was appointed professor of engineering, in March, 1817. The

annual examination coming on in June, the course of studies in his

department did not regularly commence till September, and the second or

junior class[7] of 1817-’18 was the _first_ class which commenced

thoroughly the severe and complete course of studies at West Point. The

_labors_ of that class in the years 1818 and 1819 may have been equaled,

but certainly have not been surpassed. It was not a brilliant class, but

its labors were not the less on that account. It had not merely to pass

over the plain turnpike road of science which is now made so easy to

those who follow; but, like the pioneers of an army, had to cut down the

obstructions, make their own bridges, and to no small extent, furnish

their own munitions. Let us look into the class-room of 1817, as

Professor Crozet advances to instruct those young men in studies, which

were not only new to them, but entirely unheard of, and in which the

language to which they were born and bred _furnished not a single

text-book_. Professor Crozet was to teach engineering; but when he met

the class, he found not one of them fit to learn engineering. These were

branches of science, and its affiliations, essentially necessary to

engineering, which they had never been taught. What was he to do? All he

could do obviously was to supply these preliminary studies before he

could commence in his own department. In other words, he must begin by

becoming a teacher of mathematics, and drawing. The surprise of the

French engineer instructed in the Polytechnique may well be imagined

when he commenced giving his class certain problems and instructions,

which not one of them could comprehend or perform. Among these

preliminary studies was Descriptive Geometry, not an original and

distinct science, but which by _projecting_ geometrical figures and

problems on co-ordinate planes, gave a more facile and practical mode of

_representing_ (as its name implies,) as well as solving many

geometrical and practical problems. This, too, required an accurate

knowledge of mathematical and perspective drawing, and its various minor

but important arts. We doubt whether at that time more than a dozen or

two professors of science in this country knew there was such a thing;

_certainly_ they never taught it, and equally certain, there was not a

text-book in the English language. Perhaps this is not surprising, when

we reflect, that this new application of geometry was scarcely thirty

years old. Monge, a French savans, was, we believe, the author of this

system, about the beginning of the French Revolution. Crozet meant to

begin with Descriptive Geometry, but fortunately, the class was not in

the last year of the course (in which engineering has recently been

taught,) and could spare some time for mere mathematics. But, a new

difficulty arose. There was no text-book in English, and none to be had

just then in French. Geometry is not a thing to be taught orally. What

is to be done? It was here at this precise time that Crozet, by aid of

the carpenter and painter, introduced the _blackboard_ and chalk. It is

a very simple thing, and so is every thing which is useful; but we know

of no mere adjunct of teaching, so useful as the blackboard. To

professor Crozet, so far as we know, is due the introduction of this

simple and useful machine. He found it, with many other things, far

superior to the English methods in the Polytechnic of France.

[Footnote 7: The Class here spoken of graduated in 1819. Of its

living members, are HENRY BREWERTON, late Superintendent at West

Point; EDWARD D. MANSFIELD, Commissioner of Statistics for the

State of Ohio; JUSTIN DIMMICK, late Commander of Fortress Monroe;

DANIEL TYLER, a distinguished Engineer and General in the Army of

the Potomac; WM. H. SWIFT, a distinguished Engineer, and President

of the Illinois Canal Company; JOSHUA BAKER, a Civil Engineer,

Judge, and Planter, in Louisiana; and Major TURNBULL,

distinguished as a Topographical Engineer in the War with Mexico.

Among the dead was GEORGE H. WHISTLER, the most distinguished

Civil Engineer our country has produced.]

We now see Crozet with his blackboard before him, chalk in hand, and

animated, intellectual face, about to teach his class a new science,

without a text-book. Again he meets a new difficulty. He does not more

than half understand the American language. This difficulty is only to

be overcome by practice. With extreme difficulty he makes himself

understood. With extreme difficulty his class comprehend that two planes

at right-angles with one another are to be understood on the same

surface of the blackboard on which are represented two different

projections of the same object. But, at last it is done. The Professor

labors with inexhaustible patience, and the pupils are pleased to

receive into their minds entirely new ideas. The first problems are

drawn and demonstrated on the blackboard, by the Professor; then drawn

and demonstrated by the pupils, and then accurately copied into

permanent drawings; and thus this class were taught in the most

important and valuable method of imparting true knowledge, which has

been given to mankind since the days of Socrates. Fortunately, professor

Crozet had brought with him the complete drawings of the French

Polytechnique, so that he was not, in this particular, obliged to depend

upon himself. The path of his instruction soon became easier, and then

this class completed their course in drawing, mathematics, and

Engineering.

In the study of Natural Philosophy and Mechanics, the way was scarcely

less difficult. We have already said, that Enfield’s Philosophy was the

first book on that subject. But this was not enough. Professor Mansfield

looked around in vain for any suitable book on Mechanics. At last,

_Gregory’s Mechanics_ was adopted. It was a book without any analysis,

and probably written only for scientific men. Yet, it was the best to be

had. For several years after, this work still remained the best book on

Mechanics. Whether the class who first studied its mysterious pages

acquired as clear and extensive ideas of the subject as those who have

since passed over smoother roads, may be doubtful. It is certain they

had more arduous labors. We have said there was _no_ text-book on

engineering, as a science. When the class which had commenced

Descriptive Geometry, with professor Crozet, (then the second or the

junior class,) had become the first class, they were instructed in

engineering by drawings from oral teaching, on the blackboard. The

various modes of laying out fortifications, of bridging, of defiling, of

materials, ordnance, &c., were taught by professor Crozet. For several

years no text-book in engineering was found. It was not till 1823 that a

French treatise, entitled the Science of War and Fortication, was

translated by Major O’Connor, and for several years used as a text-book.

It will be seen that the class which, in 1817, 1818, and 1819, commenced

the new culture and discipline of West Point, had an arduous and

difficult task. It is, notwithstanding, quite probable, that this severe

exercise of the mind, in making paths for itself, where there are no

guide-posts on the way, no regal road, is a better discipline than that

furnished by the more easy and systematic methods.

Perhaps no one step taken at West Point, has contributed so much to

intellectual culture as the Merit-Roll. The effect at the Military

Academy is totally different from what it would be at any civil

institution. For there it determines _rank_, which is the great object

of military men. Forty young men may be commissioned on the same day to

the same grade, but through all their after life, even when they return

to civil life, the distinctions of the merit-roll will follow them, and

be counted for or against them. In the very first day of their

commissioned service, the distinction is a practical one, for there are

great and practical advantages in certain _arms_ of the service over

others. Thus the engineer officer, without any actual care of men, or

responsibility for any movements, and almost always stationed at

comfortable posts, has great advantages over other arms. The Artillery

has advantages over the Infantry. Thus the cadet, commissioned from West

Point, has determined for himself, by his position on the merit-roll,

not only his rank in the army, but almost his position in human life.

The merit-roll, as it now exists, graduated in all departments, and

summed up at the close of the course, was not adopted at once, but was

the work of several years.

In February, 1818, the superintendent of the Academy was directed by the

Secretary at War to publish in the Army Register the “names of cadets

who are distinguished for attainments, and meritorious conduct, not

exceeding five in each class, specifying the studies in which they may

excel.”

We well recollect with what excitement and interest this communication

was received by the cadets of that day, especially by those who thought

themselves within the probabilities of that distinction. It

unquestionably stimulated most of the young men to much greater

exertions than they would otherwise have made. In a few months after,

the merit-roll was fully established in the classes, and the rank of the

graduating cadets determined by it.

There has been much discussion, and no small doubt, as to the real

effects of emulation. There is undoubtedly a bad sense, and a bad effect

attached to that term. But is that a necessary consequence of the

merit-roll? Is not the merit-roll adopted, so far as it can be

ascertained, in all departments of human life? Who would risk himself

with an ignorant engineer, if he could get a skilled one? Who would

employ a poor clerk if he could get a good one? The objection made to

emulation is that it excites wrong motives. However this may be, and

however casuists may regard it, it is quite certain that the merit-roll

is the strongest stimulant to intellectual exertion which can be

presented to young men. Nor can we perceive, after much observation on

its effect, that it has impaired the purely moral motives of action, or

excited evil passions, to be remembered in after life. At West Point all

the moral actions which are visible and tangible are brought within the

scale of the merit-roll, and often the fate of a young man is determined

far more by his standing in conduct, than in studies.

II. STUDY, DISCIPLINE, AND FRUITS.

Having thus sketched the historical progress of the Academy in the path

of scientific culture, it remains for us to state what it _is_; what it

has _done_; and what men have _conducted_ it.

Without entering into minute details, we shall very briefly state the

present methods of study and discipline. The leading studies in their

order are Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Mechanics, Astronomy,

Engineering, Chemistry, French, Tactics, Artillery Practice, Mineralogy,

Ethics, and History. This course is wholly scientific, the practical

part being adapted strictly to military purposes. In the early period of

the institution, some attempt was made to introduce the classics, but it

was found impracticable, with the limited time allowed the cadets.

Indeed, it may be doubted whether any institution can have more than one

_tone_. All branches of human learning may be embraced in the proper

schedule of university instruction; but has any university given equal

attention to all branches of education? What are called colleges in our

country, all aim at fitting young men for the civil professions--Law,

Medicine, and Theology. They therefore make the classics the principal

branch of study, and are right, since Law, Medicine, and Theology have

their foundation deep laid in the classic ages. Literature also is a

part of professional knowledge, necessary to adorn and illustrate the

history and theory of professional science. Hence, in these lines of

instruction specially have run the studies of the college, and from

these is derived the _tone_ of college education. The object of the

Military Academy was totally different. It was not civil, but martial

life, for which the young men were fitting. It was neither a

metaphysical discussion, nor a hair-splitting argument on the law, in

which they were expected to excel. They were to learn the sterner

arguments of the battle-field; to arrange squadrons for the hardy fight;

to acquire that profound knowledge of the science and materials of

nature, which should fit them for the complicated art of war; to defend

and attack cities; to bridge rivers; to make roads; to provide

armaments; to arrange munitions; to understand the topography of

countries; and to foresee and provide all the resources necessary to

national defense. This was the object of the Military Academy, and to

that one end it was adapted. The method of education may be happily

stated under the heads of Studies, Physical and Moral Discipline, and of

Military Exercises.

1. The subjects and method of study we have already mentioned;

Mathematical, Philosophical, Mechanical, Chemical, Military, and French,

the military language. These being the chief topics of study, the

students and the time were suitably divided into classes and hours.

There are four classes, occupying four years, as usual in colleges.

There are ten months of study, the intermission being in the hot months

of July and August, when only military studies and exercises are

pursued. The studies of a day are necessarily modified, by the

introduction of military exercises which consume much time. The regular

_study hours_ (which include also the recitations,) are from 8 A.M. to 1

P.M., and from 2 P.M. to 4 P.M., making _seven hours_ of study and

recitations. Generally _four hours_ more are consumed in military

exercise and discipline, being the hours before breakfast, and after 4

P.M. Thus _eleven_ hours are generally occupied either in study or

exercises. The evening also after dark, is devoted to study in so far

that with occasional exceptions, the cadets are required to be in the

rooms. In this division of time we find a _continual alternation of

study and exercise_; leaving the least possible time for idleness, or

mere amusement. Indeed, the problem of education is to find the _maximum

of development_, with the _minimum of idleness_. To this should be

added, that the development should be co-relatively, intellectual,

physical, and moral.[8] It is not merely ignorance, but _unequal_

development, which is the great misfortune of mankind. How many great

and glorious intellects have been lost, because there were no

counter-balances to the force which, inclined in only one direction,

carried them off into a wilderness of fruitless objects!

[Footnote 8: We use the word _moral_, in preference to spiritual,

because, in its comprehensive sense, including the latter; but by

no means intimating, that in this Christian country, we should

make any place of education a mere reproduction of Persian or

Greek models. Our servile imitation of the Ancients, often makes

us forget that we are neither Spartans nor Romans. The man who

attempts at this day to revive the institutions of Pagan Greece,

is as false to true Philosophy, as he is to true Christianity.]

In the course of studies pursued at West Point, the main feature is the

_method_ of study. We can give an idea of this in a few words. The very

first thing done at West Point is to _recognize_ the fact, that

_intellects are unequal_; in other words, that of a given number of

young men, commencing a severe and elaborate course of studies, there

will be some who can not endure it, and can not get through; and others,

who while they will come up to the requisites for graduation, can not

equal a third class, who are capable and ambitious of receiving the

highest style of education. This recognition is effected thus: a class

enters the Academy, we will say _eighty_ in number. This class enters on

the 1st of September; and on the 1st of January there is a semi-annual

examination. This four months of study by that class is regarded as a

period of _probation_, which will furnish some test of the abilities of

its several members. When the January examination is held, some are

found deficient, and they are at once discarded. Then the remaining

class are numbered, according to what is then their _apparent_ merit,

and they are divided into _sections_ of from fifteen to twenty each;

those highest on the roll being placed in the first section; those next

in the second, &c. Usually there are four of these sections. The

professor usually teaches the first section; his assistant the second,

and so on. It is obviously a decided advantage to be in the first

section, and there is usually a struggle to get there. But, a cadet may

change his position in his class, at any time, by his own efforts. This

he can only do, however, by more strenuous efforts. Then, if he be in

the second section, he may at the end of the year be found to have a

higher aggregate of good marks in study and conduct than some of those

in the first section. In that case he will be transferred. Thus the

ambition of the student has always placed before it the possibility of

higher class rank, and if his talents and industry are capable of it, he

will attain it.

The _method_ of study at West Point, which in all institutions is the

important point, is the _rigidly demonstrative_, in those studies which

admit of it, and the _positively practical_ in those which do not. The

course of studies requires this, if the subjects of study are to be

thoroughly understood. There is little of the purely metaphysical or

transcendental known or pursued at West Point. No abstract speculations

or merely theoretical inquiries occupy their minds. It is the actually

knowing, and doing, in which they are engaged. As far as can be made

practically useful, the _oral_ method is pursued. In mathematical and

mechanical, engineering and tactical studies, this is largely the case.

The blackboard, we have said, was first introduced into this country by

Professor Crozet, at West Point. How largely this is used in all

institutions of education now, our readers well know. It has proved one

of the most efficient means of instruction at West Point. The student of

the mathematical section, for example, begins with a text-book on

Algebra, in his hand; but, it is on the blackboard where the workings of

his mind are chiefly exhibited. He learns what he can from the book,

but, on the blackboard the professor makes him trace out what he has

done, not merely by telling what he knows, but what he don’t know;

detects his weak place, and forces his mind (so far as such force is

possible,) to _think_, and think rightly on the subject before him. This

_thinking_, we need not tell experienced teachers, is the great thing

which education is to teach. If a student can not, or will not think

studiously and industriously, he will not long remain at West Point.

There is not, as in civil colleges, the great fallow field of poetry,

history, and metaphysics, in which he may show his classical professor

that he has acquired rich things, although ignorant of mathematics. It

will not do to say that he has wandered with Greeks and Romans around

the ruins of Troy, or by the waters of Babel. There is no such

compensating principle in the system at West Point. The cadet must study

what is set before him; must study it hard; must think upon it, and

discipline his mind to systematic modes of thought.

2. This leads us to the Specific Discipline of the Academy. This is

partially included in what we have already said. The intellectual

discipline is mainly maintained by the method of study; but there is a

grand and perfect system of discipline, which we may briefly describe.

The term DISCIPLINE is derived from disciples, _discipulus_, and means

originally _teaching_ of knowledge; but this is not all, nor entirely

its modern sense. Discipline is _training_ in knowledge and virtue, in

order and diligence, in good conduct, and good habits. To do this

requires a control of the body as well as mind; of food and raiment; of

time and exercise; as well as the imparting of facts and ideas. It was

in the former sense rather than of the latter, that the word EDUCATION,

(to lead forth,) was understood among the ancients, and so far as they

went they were right. It was this _discipline_ in virtue, temperance,

courage, fortitude, and self-denial, which was taught in the days of

Persian Cyrus, and Greek Leonidas. It was adopted among the early

Christians; but, Cowper well said:--

“In colleges and halls in ancient days,

When learning, virtue, piety, and truth

Were precious, and inculcated with care,

There dwelt a sage called Discipline.

* * * * *

But Discipline, a faithful servant long,

Declin’d at length into the vale of years,”

Nothing can be more certain than the decline of “discipline” in modern

civil institutions. “Colleges and Halls” advertise a much enlarged

course of studies; they call to their aid the most learned professors;

and they proclaim “all the modern improvement,” and yet it is quite

certain, that a pupil can walk for years their learned halls, and at

last receive the honors of graduation with a very small share of either

learning, diligence, or virtue. Civil institutions may be most excellent

for all, who either by early care or natural inclination are willing to

use their opportunities for their intellectual or moral advancement.

Nay, more, all open irregularities will be corrected, and all possible

means afforded for spiritual improvement. But there are two things

impossible to overcome--the popular and almost universal license allowed

youth, (under the name of freedom) and the total want of any ultimate

power to restrain it. These stand directly in the way of thorough

discipline. At a Government Military Institution, this is directly

reversed. The very first thing taught is _positive obedience_. The cadet

can not be a week at West Point without knowing that he can not govern

himself, but must be governed by others. If he is either not fit or not

willing, the faculty meet the case in short and decisive language: “If

you are either unable or unwilling to pursue the course of study and

discipline, we direct you must instantly go. There are plenty more

worthy to fill your place.” There is, then, no alternative for the cadet

but to go forward, and exert himself to the utmost, or not to go at all.

There can be no loitering by the way, to slumber in idleness, or waste

in dissipation, or pursue the pleasures of literature. There is no doubt

that this stern and constant discipline is the great merit of West

Point. It acts on the whole conduct and character. We have already said,

that the class-standing determined by the merit-roll, determined their

position relatively, and their rank in the army, and by consequence,

great distinctions and differences in after life.

Let us see how this merit-roll is made up. The _first_ thing done is to

_mark_ each cadet with a _figure_ (having relation to an agreed scale of

numbers,) for every act done or undone, in study, conduct, drill,

attention, &c. The _second_ is to agree upon the _relative values_ of

each study, conduct, &c., in aggregating the whole positive or negative

performance of a cadet, in his whole course at West Point. The summation

of these for any one year gives his class-standing for that year, and

the summation for the whole course gives his standing at the time of

graduation, and his rank in the army.